The Barbegal mill, located on a steep slope in southern France, is considered the biggest ancient mill complex. Its capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of Arles.[1]Scheme of a water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[2]
The watermill is the earliest instance of a machine harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour (apart from the sail).[3] As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.[4]
The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[5] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.[6] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,[7] crushing ore,[8] sawing stones[9] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.[10]
An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought.[11] The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves.[12] Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained a typically rural phenomenon, it also rose in importance in the urban environment.[13]
The data below spans the period until ca. 500 AD. The vast majority dates to Roman times.
Earliest evidence
Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.
Undershot water wheel
Breastshot water wheel
Overshot water wheel
Written sources
In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.
Graphical representations
This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.
Archaeological finds
Watermill sites
Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.
Millstones
The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.[97]
Water wheels and other components
Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills.[102] Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels.[103]
References
^Greene 2000, p. 39
^ a bRitti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161
^Wilson 2002, p. 9
^Wikander 2000a, p. 371
^ a b cWikander 2000a, pp. 396f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11; Wilson 2002, pp. 7f.
^Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15
^ a bWikander 1985, p. 158; Wikander 2000b, p. 403; Wilson 2002, p. 16
^ a b cWikander 2000b, p. 407
^ a bRitti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
^Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f.
^Wikander 1985, pp. 151–154; Wikander 2000a, pp. 370–373; Wilson 2002, pp. 9–17; Brun 2006, pp. 7–9
^Wikander 2000a, pp. 397–400
^Wikander 2000a, p. 379
^Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 396
^Wikander 2000a, pp. 373f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 12
^ a bWikander 2000b, p. 402
^Wikander 2000a, p. 375; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
^ a bWikander 2000b, p. 406
^Wikander 1985, pp. 154–162; Wilson 2002, p. 11
^ a b c d e f gWikander 2000a, p. 375
^Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 154
^Wilson 1995, pp. 507f.; Wikander 2000a, p. 377; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
^ a b c dBrun & Leguilloux 2014, pp. 160–170; Wilson 2020, p. 171
^Wilson 2001
^Wikander 2000b, pp. 404f.
^ a b cWilson 2001, p. 235
^Wikander 1985, p. 163, fn. 109; Wikander 2000a, p. 400
^ a b cWikander 1985, p. 160
^Wikander 1985, p. 169, fn. 41
^ a b cWikander 2000a, p. 398
^Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 398
^ a bWikander 2000a, p. 400, fn. 123
^Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82; Brun 2006, p. 105
^ a bWikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82
^Wikander 2000b, p. 405
^Wikander 2000a, p. 399, fn. 121
^Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 69
^Wikander 2000a, p. 399
^Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 143–146
^Spain 2008, p. 82
^ a bWikander 1985, p. 158
^ a bWikander 2000b, p. 403
^Wikander 2000a, p. 396
^Wikander 1985, p. 161; Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 104
^Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 45
^ a bWikander 2000a, pp. 373f.
^Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 61; Wikander 2000a, p. 375
^Wikander 1985, p. 159
^Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 77; Wikander 2000a, pp. 384f.
^ a b c d e f gWilson 1995, pp. 507f.
^Spain 1984, pp. 111–112
^Spain 2008, pp. 35–36
^Spain 2008, pp. 25–27
^Spain 2008, pp. 43–46
^Spain 1984b, pp. 143–180
^Spain 2008, pp. 33–35
^Spain 2008, pp. 28–29
^Spain 1984, pp. 115–116
^Spain 2008, pp. 36–37
^Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 106
^Spain 2008, pp. 14–25
^Wilson 2002, p. 11
^Amouric et al. 2000
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l mWikander 1985, pp. 154–162
^Spain 2008, pp. 29–31
^Spain 2008, pp. 21–22
^ a b cBrun 2006, p. 113
^Brun 2006, pp. 107, 113
^Brun 2006, pp. 113
^ a bSpain 2008, pp. 46–48
^Brun & Borréani 1998, p. 315; Brun 2006, p. 112
^Brun 2006, pp. 113, 116
^Brun 2006, pp. 107, 116
^Spain 2008, pp. 51
^Wikander 2014, p. 207
^Spain 2008, pp. 40–41
^Geilenbrügge 2010, p. 4; Geilenbrügge & Schürmann 2010; Images: 1 and 2
^ a bSpain 2008, pp. 61–63
^Spain 2008, pp. 41f.; Wikander 2014, p. 207
^ a bSpain 2008, pp. 55–59
^Ad, Saʿid & Frankel 2005; Spain 2008, pp. 59–61
^Spain 2008, pp. 42f.
^Spain 2008, pp. 22–24
^Spain 2008, pp. 51–55
^Spain 2008, pp. 37–40
^Wikander 2000a, p. 393
^Wikander 2000a, p. 374
^Spain 2008, pp. 64–67
^Wikander 2000a, p. 385
^Wilson 2002, p. 16; Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149–151
^Spain 2008, pp. 24–25
^Spain 2008, pp. 31–32
^Brun 2006, pp. 111f.
^Spain 2008, pp. 59
^Wikander 2000a, p. 394, fn. 95
^Brun 2006, pp. 105, 107
^Wikander 2000a, p. 372
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y zWikander 1985, pp. 163–165
^ a b c d e fWilson 2002, pp. 10
^Czysz 1994, p. 152
^Brun 2006, pp. 107, 110
^Wikander 1985, p. 165
^Burnham 1997, pp. 332–336
^Champagne, Ferdière & Rialland 1997; Brun 2006, p. 112
^Spain 2008, pp. 49–50
Notes
^Character as watermill disputed (Wilson 1995, p. 375)
Sources
Watermill lists which summarize the rapidly developing state of research are provided by Wikander 1985 and Brun 2006, with additions by Wilson 1995 and 2002. Spain 2008 undertakes a technical analysis of around thirty known ancient mill sites.
Ad, Uzi; Saʿid, ʿAbd al-Salam; Frankel, Rafael (2005), "Water-mills with Pompeian-type Millstones at Nahal Tanninim", Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 156–171
Amouric, Henri; Thernot, Robert; Vacca-Goutouli, Mireille; Bruneton, Hélène (2000), "Un moulin à turbine de la fin de l'Antiquité. La Calade du Castellet (Fontvieille)", in Leveau, Philippe; Saquet, J. P. (eds.), Milieu et sociétés dans la Vallée des Baux. Études présentées au colloque de Mouriès, Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise (Supplement), vol. 31, Montpellier: Association de la Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise, pp. 261–274, ISBN 978-2-84269-369-5
Brun, Jean-Pierre (2006), "L'energie hydraulique durant l'Empire romain: quel impact sur l'economie agricole?", in Lo Cascio, Elio (ed.), Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano: atti degli Incontri capresi di storia dell'economia antica (Capri 13-16 Aprile 2003), Bari: Edipuglia, pp. 101–130, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6
Brun, Jean-Pierre; Borréani, Marc (1998), "Deux moulins hydrauliques du Haut-Empire romain en Narbonnaise: Villae des Mesclans à La Crau et de Saint-Pierre/Les Laurons aux Arcs (Var)", Gallia, vol. 55, pp. 279–326
Brun, Jean-Pierre; Leguilloux, Martine Leguilloux (2014), "Les installations artisanales romaines de Saepinum. Tannerie et moulin hydraulique", Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 43, Archéologie de l’artisanat antique 7, Naples: Centre Jean Bérard, ISSN 1590-3869
Burnham, Barry C. (1997), "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: The Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia, vol. 28, pp. 325–336, doi:10.2307/526771
Champagne, Frédéric; Ferdière, Alain; Rialland, Yannick (1997), "Re-découverte d'un moulin à eau augustéen sur l'Yèvre (Cher)", Revue archéologique du Centre de la France, vol. 36, pp. 157–160
Czysz, Wolfgang (1994), "Eine bajuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing", Antike Welt, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 152–154
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, vol. 52, pp. 1–17, doi:10.2307/3643076, JSTOR 3643076
Geilenbrügge, Udo (2010), Älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas entdeckt (PDF), Archäologie in Deutschland, vol. 2010/1, Stuttgart: Theiss, p. 4, ISSN 0176-8522
Geilenbrügge, Udo; Schürmann, Wilhelm (2010), "Die älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas im Indetal bei Altdorf?", in Kunow, Jürgen (ed.), Archäologie im Rheinland 2009, Archäologie im Rheinland, Stuttgart: Theiss, pp. 62–64, ISBN 978-3-8062-2383-5
Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
Spain, Robert (1984), "Romano-British Watermills", Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 100, Kent Archaeological Society, pp. 101–128
Spain, Robert (1984b), "The Second-Century Romano-British watermill at Ickham, Kent", History of Technology, vol. 9, pp. 143–180
Spain, Robert (2008), The Power and Performance of Roman Water-mills. Hydro-mechanical Analysis of Vertical-wheeled Water-mills, British Archaeological Reports. International Series, vol. 1786, Oxford: Archaeopress, ISBN 978-1-4073-0217-1
Wikander, Örjan (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", History of Technology, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
Wikander, Örjan (2000a), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
Wikander, Örjan (2000b), "Industrial Applications of Water-Power", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 401–410, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
Wikander, Örjan (2014), "Early Water-mills East of the Rhine", in Karlsson, Lars; Carlsson, Susanne; Kullberg, Jesper (eds.), ΛΑΒΡΥΣ. Studies presented to Pontus Hellström, Boreas. Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations, vol. 35, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet, pp. 205–219, ISBN 978-91-554-8831-4
Wilson, Andrew (1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
Wilson, Andrew (2001), "Water-Mills at Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus 18.8.11" (PDF), The Classical Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 231–236, doi:10.1093/cq/51.1.231
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32, doi:10.2307/3184857, JSTOR 3184857
Wilson, Andrew (2020), "Roman Water-Power. Chronological Trends and Geographical Spread", in Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (eds.), Capital, Investment, and Innovation in the Roman World, Oxford University Press, pp. 147–194, ISBN 978-0-19-884184-5
Further reading
Kessener, Paul (2010), "Stone Sawing Machines of Roman and Early Byzantine Times in the Anatolian Mediterranean", Adalya, vol. 13, pp. 283–303, ISSN 1301-2746
External links
Media related to Roman mills at Wikimedia Commons
Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works
The Oxford Roman Economy Project: The uptake of mechanical technology in the ancient world: the water-mill – Quantitative data on watermills up to 700 AD
Media related to Roman mills at Wikimedia Commons