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Четырехугольник озера Исмения

Изображение четырехугольника озера Исмений (MC-5). Северная часть содержит относительно гладкие равнины; центральная часть — столовые горы и холмы; а южная часть — многочисленные кратеры.

Четырехугольник озера Исмения — одна из серии из 30 четырехугольных карт Марса, используемых Геологической службой США (USGS) в рамках исследовательской программы Astrogeology . Четырехугольник расположен в северо-западной части восточного полушария Марса и охватывает от 0° до 60° восточной долготы (от 300° до 360° западной долготы) и от 30° до 65° северной широты. Четырехугольник использует коническую проекцию Ламберта в номинальном масштабе 1:5 000 000 (1:5M). Четырехугольник озера Исмения также называют MC-5 (Mars Chart-5). [1] Южная и северная границы четырехугольника озера Исмения составляют приблизительно 3065 км (1905 миль) и 1500 км (930 миль) в ширину соответственно. Расстояние с севера на юг составляет около 2050 км (1270 миль) (немного меньше длины Гренландии). [2] Четырехугольник охватывает приблизительную площадь в 4,9 миллиона квадратных километров, или чуть более 3% площади поверхности Марса. [3] Четырехугольник озера Исмения включает части Ацидалийской равнины , Аравийской земли , Северной равнины и Сабейской земли . [4]

Четырехугольник Ismenius Lacus содержит Deuteronilus Mensae и Protonilus Mensae , два места, которые представляют особый интерес для ученых. Они содержат свидетельства настоящей и прошлой ледниковой активности. Они также имеют уникальный для Марса ландшафт, называемый fretted land . Самый большой кратер в этом районе — кратер Lyot , который содержит каналы, вероятно, прорезанные жидкой водой. [5] [6]

Происхождение имен

Кадм убивает дракона Исменийского источника

Ismenius Lacus — название телескопической альбедо-структуры, расположенной на 40° с. ш. и 30° в. д. на Марсе. Термин происходит от латинского названия озера Исмениан и относится к источнику Исмениан около Фив в Греции, где Кадм убил дракона-хранителя. Кадм был легендарным основателем Фив и пришел к источнику, чтобы набрать воды. Название было одобрено Международным астрономическим союзом (МАС) в 1958 году. [7]

В этом регионе, по-видимому, был большой канал под названием Нилус. С 1881–1882 годов он был разделен на другие каналы, некоторые из которых назывались Нилосиртис, Протонилус (первый Нил) и Дейтеронилус (второй Нил). [8]

Физиография и геология

В восточной части озера Исмений находится долина Мамерса — гигантский сток.

Канал, показанный ниже, идет довольно далеко и имеет ответвления. Он заканчивается впадиной, которая, возможно, когда-то была озером. Первая фотография — широкоугольная, сделанная с помощью CTX; вторая — крупный план, сделанный с помощью HiRISE. [9]

Кратер Лиот

Северные равнины в целом плоские и гладкие, с небольшим количеством кратеров. Однако несколько крупных кратеров выделяются. Гигантский ударный кратер Лиот легко увидеть в северной части озера Исмений. [10] Кратер Лиот — самая глубокая точка в северном полушарии Марса. [11] На одном из изображений ниже дюн кратера Лиот показано множество интересных форм: темные дюны, светлые отложения и следы пылевых дьяволов . Пылевые дьяволы, которые напоминают миниатюрные торнадо, создают следы, удаляя тонкий, но яркий слой пыли, чтобы обнажить более темную подстилающую поверхность. Широко распространено мнение, что светлые отложения содержат минералы, образованные в воде. Исследование, опубликованное в июне 2010 года, описало доказательства наличия жидкой воды в кратере Лиот в прошлом. [5] [6]

Вблизи кратера Лиот обнаружено множество каналов. Исследование, опубликованное в 2017 году, пришло к выводу, что каналы были образованы водой, выделившейся, когда горячий выброс приземлился на слой льда толщиной от 20 до 300 метров. Расчеты показывают, что выброс имел температуру не менее 250 градусов по Фаренгейту. Долины, по-видимому, начинаются из-под выброса вблизи внешнего края выброса. Одним из доказательств этой идеи является то, что поблизости мало вторичных кратеров. Мало вторичных кратеров образовалось, потому что большинство из них приземлилось на лед и не повлияло на землю под ним. Лед накапливался в этом районе, когда климат был другим. Наклон или наклон оси часто меняется. В периоды большего наклона лед с полюсов перераспределяется в средние широты. Существование этих каналов необычно, поскольку, хотя на Марсе раньше была вода в реках, озерах и океане, эти особенности датируются Нойским и Гесперидским периодами — 4–3 миллиарда лет назад. [12] [13] [14]

Другие кратеры

Ударные кратеры обычно имеют ободок с выбросами вокруг них; в отличие от них, вулканические кратеры обычно не имеют ободок или отложений выброса. По мере того, как кратеры становятся больше (более 10 км в диаметре), у них обычно появляется центральный пик. [15] Пик вызван отскоком дна кратера после удара. [16] Иногда кратеры демонстрируют слои в своих стенках. Поскольку столкновение, которое создает кратер, похоже на мощный взрыв, камни из глубины земли выбрасываются на поверхность. Таким образом, кратеры полезны для того, чтобы показать нам, что лежит глубоко под поверхностью.

Изрезанная местность

Четырехугольник Ismenius Lacus содержит несколько интересных особенностей, таких как изрезанный рельеф , части которого обнаружены в Deuteronilus Mensae и Protonilus Mensae. Изрезанный рельеф включает гладкие, плоские низины вместе с крутыми скалами. Эскарпы или скалы обычно имеют высоту от 1 до 2 км. Каналы в этом районе имеют широкие, плоские дна и крутые стены. Присутствует множество холмов и столовых гор . В изрезанном рельефе земля, кажется, переходит от узких прямых долин к изолированным столовым горам. [19] Большинство столовых гор окружены формами, которые получили разные названия: циркуммесовые шлейфы, обломочные шлейфы, каменные ледники и дольчатые обломочные шлейфы . [20] Сначала они казались похожими на каменные ледники на Земле. Но ученые не могли быть в этом уверены. Даже после того, как Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) сделала множество снимков изрытой местности, эксперты не могли точно сказать, движется ли материал или течет, как это было бы в богатом льдом месторождении (леднике). В конце концов, доказательства их истинной природы были обнаружены с помощью радиолокационных исследований с Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, которые показали, что они содержат чистый водяной лед, покрытый тонким слоем камней, которые изолируют лед. [21] [22]

Ледники

Ледники сформировали большую часть наблюдаемой поверхности на больших территориях Марса. Большая часть области в высоких широтах, особенно четырехугольник Ismenius Lacus, как полагают, все еще содержит огромное количество водяного льда. [16] [21] [23] В марте 2010 года ученые опубликовали результаты радиолокационного исследования области под названием Deuteronilus Mensae , которое обнаружило широко распространенные свидетельства наличия льда, лежащего под несколькими метрами обломков горных пород. [24] Лед, вероятно, отложился в виде снегопада во время более раннего климата, когда полюса были наклонены больше. [25] Было бы трудно совершить поход по изрезанной местности, где ледники являются обычным явлением, потому что поверхность складчатая, изрытая и часто покрыта линейными полосами. [26] Борозды показывают направление движения. Большая часть этой грубой текстуры обусловлена ​​сублимацией погребенного льда. Лед сразу переходит в газ (этот процесс называется сублимацией) и оставляет после себя пустое пространство. Затем вышележащий материал разрушается в пустоту. [27] Ледники — это не чистый лед; они содержат грязь и камни. Иногда они сбрасывают свой груз материалов в хребты. Такие хребты называются моренами . В некоторых местах на Марсе есть группы хребтов, которые закручены; это могло быть связано с большим движением после того, как хребты были установлены. Иногда куски льда падают с ледника и погребаются в поверхности земли. Когда они тают, остается более или менее круглое отверстие. [28] На Земле мы называем эти образования котлами или котловыми ямами. В парке Мендон-Пондс в северной части штата Нью-Йорк сохранилось несколько таких котлов. На снимке с HiRISE ниже показаны возможные котлы в кратере Море.

Latitude dependent mantle

Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich, mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past.[29][30][31]

Climate change caused ice-rich features

Many features on Mars, especially ones found in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees[32][33] Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars.

Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current 25 degrees, ice is no longer stable at the poles.[34] Furthermore, at this high tilt, stores of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimate, thereby increasing the atmospheric pressure. This increased pressure allows more dust to be held in the atmosphere. Moisture in the atmosphere will fall as snow or as ice frozen onto dust grains. Calculations suggest this material will concentrate in the mid-latitudes.[35][36] General circulation models of the Martian atmosphere predict accumulations of ice-rich dust in the same areas where ice-rich features are found.[33] When the tilt begins to return to lower values, the ice sublimates (turns directly to a gas) and leaves behind a lag of dust.[37][38] The lag deposit caps the underlying material so with each cycle of high tilt levels, some ice-rich mantle remains behind.[39] Note that the smooth surface mantle layer probably represents only relative recent material.

Upper Plains Unit

Remnants of a 50–100 meter thick mantling, called the Upper Plains Unit, has been discovered in the mid-latitudes of Mars. First investigated in the Deuteronilus Mensae region, but it occurs in other places as well. The remnants consist of sets of dipping layers in craters and along mesas.[40][41] Sets of dipping layers may be of various sizes and shapes—some look like Aztec pyramids from Central America.

This unit also degrades into brain terrain. Brain terrain is a region of maze-like ridges 3–5 meters high. Some ridges may consist of an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.

Some regions of the upper plains unit display large fractures and troughs with raised rims; such regions are called ribbed upper plains. Fractures are believed to have started with small cracks from stresses. Stress is suggested to initiate the fracture process since ribbed upper plains are common when debris aprons come together or near the edge of debris aprons—such sites would generate compressional stresses. Cracks exposed more surfaces, and consequently more ice in the material sublimates into the planet's thin atmosphere. Eventually, small cracks become large canyons or troughs.

Small cracks often contain small pits and chains of pits; these are thought to be from sublimation of ice in the ground.[42][43] Large areas of the Martian surface are loaded with ice that is protected by a meters thick layer of dust and other material. However, if cracks appear, a fresh surface will expose ice to the thin atmosphere.[44][45] In a short time, the ice will disappear into the cold, thin atmosphere in a process called sublimation. Dry ice behaves in a similar fashion on the Earth. On Mars sublimation has been observed when the Phoenix lander uncovered chunks of ice that disappeared in a few days.[46][47] In addition, HiRISE has seen fresh craters with ice at the bottom. After a time, HiRISE saw the ice deposit disappear.[48]

The upper plains unit is thought to have fallen from the sky. It drapes various surfaces, as if it fell evenly. As is the case for other mantle deposits, the upper plains unit has layers, is fine-grained, and is ice-rich. It is widespread; it does not seem to have a point source. The surface appearance of some regions of Mars is due to how this unit has degraded. It is a major cause of the surface appearance of lobate debris aprons.[43] The layering of the upper plains mantling unit and other mantling units are believed to be caused by major changes in the planet's climate. Models predict that the obliquity or tilt of the rotational axis has varied from its present 25 degrees to maybe over 80 degrees over geological time. Periods of high tilt will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere.[50][51][52]

Dipping layers

In many locations around Mars are features that have been called "dipping layers" These features are groups of layers in protected place like inside of craters or against slopes. Although they once covered a wide area, today they exist only in certain spots because erosion has removed most of the material. Several ideas have been advanced for how they were formed.[53] The material that formed them may have dropped from the sky as ice-rich dust.[54] [55] [56] Another idea for their origin was presented at 55th LPSC (2024) by an international team of researchers. They suggest that the layers are from past ice sheets.[57]

Deltas

Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Deltas are major signs that Mars once had a lot of water because deltas usually require deep water over a long period of time to form. In addition, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, is a pictures of a one in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle.[58]

Pits and cracks

Some places in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle display large numbers of cracks and pits. It is widely believed that these are the result of ground ice sublimating (changing directly from a solid to a gas). After the ice leaves, the ground collapses in the shape of pits and cracks. The pits may come first. When enough pits form, they unite to form cracks.[59]

Mesas formed by ground collapse

Volcanoes under ice

There is evidence that volcanoes sometimes erupt under ice, as they do on Earth at times. What seems to happen it that much ice melts, the water escapes, and then the surface cracks and collapses.[60] These exhibit concentric fractures and large pieces of ground that seemed to have been pulled apart. Sites like this may have recently had held liquid water, hence they may be fruitful places to search for evidence of life.[61][62]

Exhumed craters

Some features on Mars seem to be in the process of being uncovered. So, the thought is that they formed, were covered over, and now are being exhumed as material is being eroded. These features are quite noticeable with craters. When a crater forms, it will destroy what is under it and leave a rim and ejecta. In the example below, only part of the crater is visible. if the crater came after the layered feature, it would have removed part of the feature.

Fractures forming blocks

In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.

Polygonal patterned ground

Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars.[63][64][65][66][67][68][69] It is commonly believed to be caused by the sublimation of ice from the ground. Sublimation is the direct change of solid ice to a gas. This is similar to what happens to dry ice on the Earth. Places on Mars that display polygonal ground may indicate where future colonists can find water ice. Patterned ground forms in a mantle layer, called latitude dependent mantle, that fell from the sky when the climate was different.[29][30][70][71]

Dunes

Sand dunes have been found in many places on Mars. The presence of dunes shows that the planet has an atmosphere with wind, for dunes require wind to pile up the sand. Most dunes on Mars are black because of the weathering of the volcanic rock basalt.[72][73] Black sand can be found on Earth on Hawaii and on some tropical South Pacific islands.[74]Sand is common on Mars due to the old age of the surface that has allowed rocks to erode into sand. Dunes on Mars have been observed to move many meters.[75][76]Some dunes move along. In this process, sand moves up the windward side and then falls down the leeward side of the dune, thus caused the dune to go toward the leeward side (or slip face).[77]When images are enlarged, some dunes on Mars display ripples on their surfaces.[78] These are caused by sand grains rolling and bouncing up the windward surface of a dune. The bouncing grains tend to land on the windward side of each ripple. The grains do not bounce very high so it does not take much to stop them.

Ocean

Many researchers have suggested that Mars once had a great ocean in the north.[79][80][81][82][83][84][85] Much evidence for this ocean has been gathered over several decades. New evidence was published in May 2016. A large team of scientists described how some of the surface in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle was altered by two tsunamis. The tsunamis were caused by asteroids striking the ocean. Both were thought to have been strong enough to create 30 km diameter craters. The first tsunami picked up and carried boulders the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two impact craters of the size of 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that a great northern ocean may have existed for millions of years. One argument against an ocean has been the lack of shoreline features. These features may have been washed away by these tsunami events. The parts of Mars studied in this research are Chryse Planitia and northwestern Arabia Terra. These tsunamis affected some surfaces in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle and in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle.[86][87][88][89]

Gullies

Gullies were thought for a time to have been caused by recent flows of liquid water. However, further study suggests they are formed today by chunks of dry ice moving down steep slopes.[90]

Layered features

Ring mold craters

Ring Mold Craters are a kind of crater on the planet Mars, that look like the ring molds used in baking. They are believed to be caused by an impact into ice. The ice is covered by a layer of debris. They are found in parts of Mars that have buried ice. Laboratory experiments confirm that impacts into ice result in a "ring mold shape." They are also bigger than other craters in which an asteroid impacted solid rock. Impacts into ice warm the ice and cause it to flow into the ring mold shape.

However, another idea for their formation has emerged.[91]The other idea for their formation revolves around the impacting body going through layers of different densities. Later erosion could have helped shape them. It was thought that ring-mold craters could only exist in areas with large amounts of ground ice. However, with more extensive analysis of larger areas, it was found the ring mold craters are sometimes formed where there is not as much ice underground.[92] [93]

Mounds

Channels

Landslide

Other images

Other Mars quadrangles

Interactive Mars map

Map of MarsAcheron FossaeAcidalia PlanitiaAlba MonsAmazonis PlanitiaAonia PlanitiaArabia TerraArcadia PlanitiaArgentea PlanumArgyre PlanitiaChryse PlanitiaClaritas FossaeCydonia MensaeDaedalia PlanumElysium MonsElysium PlanitiaGale craterHadriaca PateraHellas MontesHellas PlanitiaHesperia PlanumHolden craterIcaria PlanumIsidis PlanitiaJezero craterLomonosov craterLucus PlanumLycus SulciLyot craterLunae PlanumMalea PlanumMaraldi craterMareotis FossaeMareotis TempeMargaritifer TerraMie craterMilankovič craterNepenthes MensaeNereidum MontesNilosyrtis MensaeNoachis TerraOlympica FossaeOlympus MonsPlanum AustralePromethei TerraProtonilus MensaeSirenumSisyphi PlanumSolis PlanumSyria PlanumTantalus FossaeTempe TerraTerra CimmeriaTerra SabaeaTerra SirenumTharsis MontesTractus CatenaTyrrhena TerraUlysses PateraUranius PateraUtopia PlanitiaValles MarinerisVastitas BorealisXanthe Terra
The image above contains clickable linksInteractive image map of the global topography of Mars. Hover your mouse over the image to see the names of over 60 prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations, based on data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter on NASA's Mars Global Surveyor. Whites and browns indicate the highest elevations (+12 to +8 km); followed by pinks and reds (+8 to +3 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevations (down to −8 km). Axes are latitude and longitude; Polar regions are noted.
(See also: Mars Rovers map and Mars Memorial map) (view • discuss)


See also

References

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  2. ^ Distances calculated using NASA World Wind measuring tool. http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/ Archived 2018-01-06 at the Wayback Machine.
  3. ^ Approximated by integrating latitudinal strips with area of R^2 (L1-L2)(cos(A)dA) from 30° to 65° latitude; where R = 3889 km, A is latitude, and angles expressed in radians. See: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1340223/calculating-area-enclosed-by-arbitrary-polygon-on-earths-surface.
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  13. ^ Weiss, D.; et al. (2017). "Extensive Amazonian-aged fluvial channels on Mars: Evaluating the role of Lyot crater in their formation". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (11): 5336–5344. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.5336W. doi:10.1002/2017GL073821. S2CID 27711077.
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