Spectrogram of ʊSagittal section of a vocal tract pronouncing the IPA sound ʊ. Note that a wavy glottis in this diagram indicates a voiced sound.
The near-close near-back rounded vowel, or near-high near-back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The IPA symbol that represents this sound is ⟨ʊ⟩. It is informally called "horseshoe u". Prior to 1989, there was an alternative IPA symbol for this sound, ⟨ɷ⟩, called "closed omega"; use of this symbol is no longer sanctioned by the IPA.[2] In Americanist phonetic notation, the symbol ⟨ᴜ⟩ (a small capital U) is used. Sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨u⟩, which technically represents the close back rounded vowel.
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines [ʊ] as a mid-centralized (lowered and centralized) close back rounded vowel (transcribed [u̽] or [ü̞]), and the current official IPA name of the vowel transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ is near-close near-back rounded vowel.[3] However, some languages have the close-mid near-back rounded vowel, a vowel that is somewhat lower than the canonical value of [ʊ], though it still fits the definition of a mid-centralized [u]. It occurs in some dialects of English (such as General American and Geordie)[4][5] as well as some other languages (such as Maastrichtian Limburgish).[6] It can be transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ̞⟩ (a lowered ⟨ʊ⟩) in narrow transcription. For the close-mid (near-)back rounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ (or ⟨u⟩), see close-mid back rounded vowel.
In some other languages (such as Bengali and Luxembourgish)[7][8] as well as some dialects of English (such as Scottish)[9][10] there is a fully back near-close rounded vowel (a sound between cardinal [u] and [o]), which can be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ʊ̠⟩, ⟨u̞⟩ or ⟨o̝⟩.
Near-close back protruded vowel
The near-close back protruded vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ʊ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in the IPA, symbol for the near-close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨ʊ̫⟩ for the near-close back protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is ⟨ʊʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯ̽ʷ⟩ (a near-close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.
The close-mid near-back protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨ʊ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨ʊ̫˕⟩, whereas the fully back near-close protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨u̞ʷ⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨u̫˕⟩.
Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. The prototypical [ʊ] is somewhat further front (near-back) than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak protruded rounding, more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
Occurrence
Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have compression. In the table below, vowels transcribed with ⟨o̝⟩ have a considerably stronger rounding than the prototypical value of ⟨ʊ⟩.
Near-close back compressed vowel
Some languages, such as Norwegian, are found with a near-close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.
There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ̽͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ̽] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯ̽ᵝ⟩ ([ɯ̽] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨ʊ͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically 'spread' means unrounded.
Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast this with the more typical protruded (endolabial) near-close back vowel, although the height of both of these vowels varies from close to close-mid.[16]
The fully back variant of the near-close compressed vowel can be transcribed ⟨ɯ̞͡β̞⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ᵝ⟩ or ⟨u͍˕⟩.
Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak rounding (though it is protruded, rather than compressed), more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.
^International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 169.
^International Phonetic Association (1999), pp. 13, 170, 180.
^ a b cWells (1982), p. 486.
^ a b cWatt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
^ a b cGussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159.
^ a b cKhan (2010), p. 222.
^ a b cGilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
^ a b cScobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
^ a b cLindsey (2012b).
^ a bLass (1987), p. 119.
^ a bMahanta (2012), p. 220.
^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 293–294.
^ a bWatkins (2001), p. 293.
^Lee & Zee (2003), p. 111.
^ a b c d eChen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
^ a bBasbøll (2005), p. 58.
^ a bCollins & Mees (2003), pp. 134, 200–201.
^ a bvan Oostendorp (2013), section 29.
^Wells (1982), pp. 421–422.
^Connolly (1990), p. 125.
^Tench (1990), p. 135.
^Collins & Mees (1990), pp. 92–93.
^ a bMott (2011), p. 75.
^ a bBauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
^ a bHay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), p. 24.
^Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98, 100–101.
^Lindsey (2012a).
^ a bCruttenden (2014), p. 91.
^Lodge (2009), p. 168.
^ a bAltendorf & Watt (2004), p. 188.
^ a bHillenbrand (2003), p. 122.
^Wells (1982), pp. 132, 196–199, 351–353.
^"Glossary". Retrieved 2021-04-23.
^ a bCox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
^ a bCox & Fletcher (2017), p. 65.
^ a bHay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), p. 21.
^Warren & Bauer (2004), p. 617.
^Hay, Maclagan & Gordon (2008), pp. 21–22.
^ a bWalker (1984), pp. 51–60.
^ a bKohler (1999), p. 87.
^Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 64.
^Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
^Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
^Ohala (1999), p. 102.
^Szende (1994), p. 92.
^ a bÓ Sé (2000), p. ?.
^ a bBertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 137.
^Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
^Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8–16.
^Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
^ a bLamuwal & Baker (2013), p. 245.
^Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
^ a bJones & Ward (1969), p. 69.
^ a bPeters (2017), p. ?.
^ a b cGregg (1953).
^Perera & Jones (1919), pp. 5, 10.
^Perera & Jones (1919), p. 10.
^ a bPavlík (2004), pp. 93, 95.
^Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 375.
^ a bDoke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
^ a bZamora Vicente (1967), p. ?.
^ a bGöksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 10.
^Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155.
^Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
^ a bBamgboṣe (1966), p. 166.
^ a bVanvik (1979), pp. 13, 18.
^While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
^Kvifte & Gude-Husken (2005), p. 2.
^ a bRosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
^ a bEngstrand (1999), p. 140.
^Dahlstedt (1967), p. 16.
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