The Mexican Empire (Spanish: Imperio Mexicano, pronounced [imˈpeɾjo mexiˈkano] ) was a constitutional monarchy and the first independent government of Mexico. It was also the only former viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after gaining independence. The empire existed from 1821 to 1823, making it one of the few modern-era independent monarchies in the Americas, alongside the Empire of Brazil (1822–1889) and the First Empire of Haiti (1804–1806).
To distinguish it from the later Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867) under Emperor Maximilian, this period is commonly referred to as the First Mexican Empire. The empire was led by former military officer Agustín de Iturbide, who ruled as Agustín I, its only monarch. The establishment of a monarchy was the initial goal for independent Mexico,[3] as outlined in the Plan of Iguala, a political document drafted by Iturbide that unified the forces fighting for independence from Spain. Following the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba by the last Spanish viceroy in September 1821, the plan for a Mexican monarchy advanced. Iturbide's popularity reached its peak on May 18, 1822, when public demonstrations called for him to become emperor in the absence of a European royal willing to assume the throne. Congress approved the proposal, and Iturbide was crowned in a lavish ceremony in July 1822.
The empire's brief existence was marked by challenges, including disputes over its legitimacy, conflicts between Congress and the emperor, and a bankrupt treasury. In October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a junta composed of his supporters. However, by December of the same year, he began to lose the support of the army, which rebelled in favor of restoring Congress. Unable to suppress the revolt, Iturbide reconvened Congress in March 1823 and offered his abdication. Power was then transferred to a provisional government, which abolished the monarchy and established the Mexican Republic.
The Spanish Empire disintegrated in the wake of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808. Throughout Spain and its viceroyalties there was a widespread refusal to recognize Napoleon's brother Joseph I as the new French-backed king of Spain. In New Spain cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who had long been part of a circle of intellectuals who sought to reform the colonial system, triggered the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, a decade of warfare between insurgents for independence from Spain and royalists seeking to maintain the existing colonial order. The insurgency was initially led by Hidalgo, who was captured and executed in 1811, then succeeded by Father José María Morelos, who was likewise captured and executed in 1815. Remaining insurgents, including Vicente Guerrero, waged guerrilla warfare in the countryside of southern Mexico. Agustín de Iturbide was a Mexican officer in the Spanish army, a member of the Mexican elite loyal to Spain. When Liberals in Spain seized power in 1820, re-established the Spanish Constitution of 1812, forcing limits on the power of Ferdinand VII of Spain and curtailing privileges of established elites and institutions, Mexican elites saw their interests threatened. In view of this, Iturbide sought an alliance with Mexican insurgents, drawing up the Plan of Iguala and gaining the support of insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero and others. They created the Army of the Three Guarantees, which brought about Mexican independence from Spain in September 1821.
The newly constituted movement involved three principles, or "guarantees": that Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy governed by a Spanish prince; that Americanos, that is all Mexicans regardless of ethnic category and those born in Spain would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges; and that the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and position as the official and exclusive religion of the land. These Three Guarantees formed the core of the Plan of Iguala, the blueprint which, by combining the goal of independence and a constitution with the preservation of Catholic monarchy and Roman Catholicism, brought together all Mexican factions.[4] Under the 24 February 1821 Plan of Iguala, to which most of the provinces subscribed, the Mexican Congress established a regency council which was headed by Iturbide.
Viceroy Juan O'Donojú acceded to the Mexican insurgents' demands, having no other option because he lacked independent resources.[5] He signed the Treaty of Córdoba on 24 August 1821. The Mexican Congress intended to establish a personal union, whereby Ferdinand VII of Spain would also be king of Mexico, but both countries would be governed by separate laws and through separate legislative bodies. If the Spanish king refused the position, the plan provided for another member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne.[6] Commissioners from Mexico were sent to Spain to offer the Mexican throne to a Spanish royal, but the Spanish state refused to recognize Mexico's independence and would not allow any other Spanish prince to accept the throne.
With Ferdinand VII having rejected the Treaty of Cordoba, Iturbide's supporters saw an opportunity to place their candidate on the throne. On the night of 18 May, the 1st infantry regiment, stationed at the ex Convent of San Hipólito, and led by sergeant Pio Marcha began a public demonstration in favor of Iturbide being made emperor. The demonstration was joined by other barracks and many civilians as well. When the public demonstration reached his home, Iturbide himself was able to address the demonstrators from his balcony. He consulted with members of the regency on what course to follow, and eventually acquiesced to the demonstrators' demands, agreeing that he should be made emperor. The crowd celebrated the rest of the night with fireworks and celebratory gunfire.[7]
An extraordinary session of congress was held the following morning to deal with the subject of Iturbide's coronation. At the opening of the session, the military addressed a manifesto to congress, endorsing Iturbide to be emperor. The deliberations then started with a few deputies expressing concern that congress was not entirely free in the present circumstances to proceed on the matter. A pro-Iturbide crowd outside of the hall was making so much noise that it was interfering with the deliberations, and congress asked Iturbide to show up in an unsuccessful attempt to calm the crowds. The opposition brought up concerns that a popular demonstration in the capital was not enough of a basis upon which to elect Iturbide and that the provinces ought to be consulted first. A proposal was made to gain the consent of two thirds of the provinces, and this succeeding then to appoint a commission to write a provisional constitution in order to avoid constitutional crises.[8]
Deputy Valentín Gómez Farías, future president of Mexico, stood up for the legality of congress to elect an emperor. He praised Iturbide's services to the nation, and argued that as Spain had rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, Congress was now authorized by that very treaty to hold an election to decide who the emperor was to be.[9]The vote then proceeded. In the final results, sixty-seven deputies voted in favor of making Iturbide Emperor, while fifteen voted against. The vote however was short of a legal quorum of one hundred and two deputies.[10] Congress, nonetheless resigned itself to the situation, and a plan to establish a constitutional monarchy united both conservatives and liberals at a time when it was uncertain which form of government would be best for independent Mexico.[11]
Congress published an oath binding the emperor to obey the constitution, which Iturbide subsequently took, and Congress also declared the Mexican monarchy to be hereditary, granting titles of nobility to Iturbide's family. His son and heir became Prince Imperial of Mexico. The 19th of May was made a national holiday, and a royal household was organized. 21 July 1822 was set as the date of the official coronation.[12]
Iturbide's court was being set up to be more luxurious than that of the former Spanish Viceroy, a situation which provoked opposition in a new nation that was essentially bankrupt. To remedy the financial difficulties, the Mexican government prohibited the exportation of money, and exacted a forced loan of 600,000 pesos in Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, and Veracruz. During this time, a council of state was also formed, being made up of thirteen members selected by the Emperor from a list of thirty one nominees submitted by congress.[13]
The coronation took place on 21 July. The capital was decked out in floral arrangements, banners, streamers, and flags. The government could not afford to forge a crown, and therefore jewels and gems had to be borrowed, but ultimately a signet ring, a scepter and crowns were produced. Costumes were made based on drawings of Napoleon's coronation. Congress met on the morning of the coronation, and then divided itself into two deputations to escort the emperor and the empress to the National Cathedral. In the cathedral, the emperor and the empress were to be seated on thrones next to the newly ennobled Mexican princes and princesses. Upon reaching the cathedral, the emperor and empress were escorted to their thrones, and the imperial regalia was placed on the altar. The regalia was blessed and Iturbide was crowned by the president of the congress.[14]
Congress and the Emperor immediately began to clash, in large part because their respective legal powers had not at this point been clearly delineated. By mid 1822 the three major issues were whether Iturbide had a right to appoint members to a Supreme Court, whether he had the right to veto legislation as the Spanish King had under the Spanish Constitution of 1812, and his wish to establish rural military tribunals.[16] The latter measure was in response to the lapse in law and order that was spreading throughout the country. Iturbide wished to establish in provincial capitals special courts made up of two military officers assisted by a lawyer. They were to keep track of seditious plots, but also in cases of murder, robbery or injury, and with the permission of the district captain general, the courts would be allowed to disregard statutes that would interfere with quickly carrying out judicial processes. Congress however, was opposed to the project.[17] All the while, work on a constitution for the Empire was being neglected.[18] Iturbide's greatest enemy in congress was deputy Servando Teresa de Mier, a staunch republican, who would often ridicule the Emperor and his pageantry.[19]
In August 1822, a conspiracy to overthrow the Emperor was discovered. The conspirators, claiming that Iturbide's election was illegal, plotted to rise up in the capital, move the congress to Texcoco and declare the establishment of a Republic. On 26 and 27 August, fifteen deputies suspected of being involved with the plot, including Mier, Carlos Maria Bustamante, Francisco Tagle,