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Семитские народы

Первое описание исторической этнологии мира, разделенного на библейских сыновей Ноя : семитов, хамитов и иафетитов . В работе Гаттерера Einleitung in die Synchronistische Universalhistorie (1771) объясняется его точка зрения, что современная история показала истинность библейского предсказания о превосходстве иафетитов (Бытие 9:25–27). [1] Щелкните по изображению для транскрипции текста.

Семиты или семиты — это термин для этнической, культурной или расовой группы [2] [3] [4] [5], связанной с народами Ближнего Востока , включая арабов , евреев , аккадцев и финикийцев . Терминология в настоящее время в значительной степени не используется за пределами группы « семитские языки » в лингвистике. [6] [7] [8] Впервые использованная в 1770-х годах членами Гёттингенской школы истории , эта библейская терминология для обозначения расы произошла от имени Шем ( иврит : שֵׁם ), одного из трёх сыновей Ноя в Книге Бытия , [9] вместе с параллельными терминами хамиты и иафетиты .

В археологии этот термин иногда неформально используется как «своего рода сокращение» для древних семитоязычных народов . [8] Использование этого термина в качестве расовой категории считается устаревшим.

Этническая принадлежность и раса

На этой карте T and O 1472 года из первой печатной версии «Этимологий» Исидора Севильского обозначены три известных континента, населенных потомками Сима ( Шема ), Иафета ( Иафета ) и Хама ( Хама ).

The term Semitic in a racial sense was coined by members of the Göttingen school of history in the early 1770s. Other members of the Göttingen school of history coined the separate term Caucasian in the 1780s. These terms were used and developed by numerous other scholars over the next century. In the early 20th century, the pseudo-scientific classifications of Carleton S. Coon included the Semitic peoples in the Caucasian race, as similar in appearance to the Indo-European, Northwest Caucasian, and Kartvelian-speaking peoples.[10] Due to the interweaving of language studies and cultural studies, the term also came to be applied to the religions (ancient Semitic and Abrahamic) and ethnicities of various cultures associated by geographic and linguistic distribution.[11]

Antisemitism

1879 statute of the Antisemitic League, the organization which first popularized the term

The terms "anti-Semite" or "antisemitism" came by a circuitous route to refer more narrowly to anyone who was hostile or discriminatory towards Jews in particular.[12]

Anthropologists of the 19th century such as Ernest Renan readily aligned linguistic groupings with ethnicity and culture, appealing to anecdote, science and folklore in their efforts to define racial character. Moritz Steinschneider, in his periodical of Jewish letters Hamaskir (3 (Berlin 1860), 16), discusses an article by Heymann Steinthal[13] criticising Renan's article "New Considerations on the General Character of the Semitic Peoples, In Particular Their Tendency to Monotheism".[14] Renan had acknowledged the importance of the ancient civilisations of Mesopotamia, Israel etc. but called the Semitic races inferior to the Aryan for their monotheism, which he held to arise from their supposed lustful, violent, unscrupulous and selfish racial instincts. Steinthal summed up these predispositions as "Semitism", and so Steinschneider characterised Renan's ideas as "anti-Semitic prejudice".[15]

In 1879, the German journalist Wilhelm Marr began the politicisation of the term by speaking of a struggle between Jews and Germans in a pamphlet called Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum ("The Way to Victory of Germanism over Judaism"). He accused the Jews of being liberals, a people without roots who had Judaized Germans beyond salvation. In 1879, Marr's adherents founded the "League for Anti-Semitism",[16] which concerned itself entirely with anti-Jewish political action.

Objections to the usage of the term, such as the obsolete nature of the term "Semitic" as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s.[17][18]

See also

References

  1. ^ Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie, Gatterer, 1771. Described first ethnic use of the term Semitic by: (1) A note on the history of 'Semitic', 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw, 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).
  2. ^ Liverani1995, p. 392: "A more critical look at this complex of problems should advise employing today the term and the concept "Semites" exclusively in its linguistic sense, and, on the other hand, tracing back every cultural fact to its concrete historical environment. The use of the term "Semitic" in culture, subject as it is to arbitrary simplifications, shows methodological risks which exceed by far the possibility of positive historical analysis. In any case the Semitic character of every cultural fact is a problem which in each situation must be ascenained in its limits and in its historical setting (both in time and in the social environment), and may not be assumed as obvious or traced back to a presumed "Proto-Semitic" culture, statically conceived."
  3. ^ On the use of the terms “(anti-)Semitic” and “(anti-) Zionist” in modern Middle Eastern discourse, Orientalia Suecana LXI Suppl. (2012) by Lutz Eberhard Edzard: "In linguistics context, the term "Semitic" is generally speaking non-controversial... As an ethnic term, "Semitic" should best be avoided these days, in spite of ongoing genetic research (which also is supported by the Israeli scholarly community itself) that tries to scientifically underpin such a concept."
  4. ^ Review of "The Canaanites" (1964) by Marvin Pope: "The term "Semitic," coined by Schlozer in 1781, should be strictly limited to linguistic matters since this is the only area in which a degree of objectivity is attainable. The Semitic languages comprise a fairly distinct linguistic family, a fact appreciated long before the relationship of the Indo-European languages was recognized. The ethnography and ethnology of the various peoples who spoke or still speak Semitic languages or dialects is a much more mixed and confused matter and one over which we have little scientific control."
  5. ^ Glöckner, Olaf; Fireberg, Haim (25 September 2015). Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany. De Gruyter. p. 200. ISBN 978-3-11-035015-9. ...there is no Semitic ethnicity, only Semitic languages
  6. ^ Anidjar 2008, p. (Foreword): "This collection of essays explores the now mostly extinct notion of Semites. Invented in the nineteenth century and essential to the making of modern conceptions of religion and race, the strange unity of Jew and Arab under one term, Semite (the opposing term was Aryan), and the circumstances that brought about its disappearance constitute the subject of this volume."
  7. ^ Anidjar 2008, p. 6: "To a large extent, or rather, to a quite complete extent, Semites were, like their ever so distant relatives – the Aryans – a concrete figment of the Western imagination, the peculiar imagination that concerns me in the chapters that follow. And just as the witches (the simultaneous efficacy and deep unreliability of "spectral evidence"), Semites were – I write in the past tense because Semites are a thing of the past, ephemeral beings long vanished as such – Semites were, then, something of a hypothesis (Chapter 1), contemporary with, and constitutive of, that other powerfully incarnate fiction named "secularism" (Chapter 2). Again, and as underscored by Edward Said, who raised anew the "Semitic question", the role of the imagination can hardly be downplayed."
  8. ^ a b Lewis, Bernard (1987). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0393304206. The confusion between race and language goes back a long way, and was compounded by the rapidly changing content of the word "race" in European and later in American usage. Serious scholars have pointed out–repeatedly and ineffectually-‑that "Semitic" is a linguistic and cultural classification, denoting certain languages and in some contexts the literatures and civilizations expressed in those languages. As a kind of shorthand, it was sometimes retained to designate the speakers of those languages. At one time it might thus have had a connotation of race, when that word itself was used to designate national and cultural entities. It has nothing whatever to do with race in the anthropological sense that is now common usage. A glance at the present‑day speakers of Arabic, from Khartoum to Aleppo and from Mauritania to Mosul, or even of Hebrew speakers in the modern state of Israel, will suffice to show the enormous diversity of racial types.
  9. ^ Baasten, Martin (2003). "A Note on the History of 'Semitic'". Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters Publishers. pp. 57–73. ISBN 9789042912151.
  10. ^ The Races of Europe by Carleton Stevens Coon. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World – Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."
  11. ^ "Semite". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.
  12. ^ "Anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.
  13. ^ Reprinted G. Karpeles (ed.), Steinthal H., Ueber Juden und Judentum, Berlin 1918, pp. 91 ff.
  14. ^ Published in the Journal Asiatique, 1859
  15. ^ Alex Bein, The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 594, ISBN 0-8386-3252-1 – quoting the Hebrew Encyclopaedia Ozar Ysrael, (edited Jehuda Eisenstadt, London 1924, 2: 130ff)
  16. ^ Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, Oxford University Press, USA, 1987
  17. ^ Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World. Brill Archive. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. Давно известно, что существуют возражения против термина «антисемитизм», и поэтому была предпринята попытка найти слово, которое лучше интерпретировало бы подразумеваемое значение. Например, уже в 1936 году Болкештейн написал статью о Het «antisemietisme» in de oudheid (Антисемитизм в древнем мире), в которой это слово было заключено в кавычки, и предпочтение было отдано термину «ненависть к евреям». В настоящее время термин «антииудаизм» часто предпочитают. Он, безусловно, лучше, чем «антисемитизм», выражает тот факт, что он касается отношения к евреям, и избегает любого намека на расовое различие, которое не было или едва ли было фактором, имеющим какое-либо значение в древние времена. По этой причине Лейпольдт предпочел говорить об антииудаизме, когда писал свой «Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt» (1933). Бонсирвен также предпочитал это слово антисемитизму: «mot Moderne qui Implique une theorie des Races».
  18. ↑ Циммерман, Моше (5 марта 1987 г.). Вильгельм Марр: Патриарх антисемитизма. Oxford University Press, США. стр. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. Термин «антисемитизм» изначально не подходил для истинной сущности ненависти к евреям, которая оставалась более или менее укорененной в христианской традиции, даже когда она через естественные науки перешла в расизм. Сомнительно, что термин, впервые опубликованный в институциональном контексте (Антисемитская лига), вообще появился бы, если бы «Антиканцлерская лига», боровшаяся с политикой Бисмарка, не существовала с 1875 года. Основатели новой организации переняли элементы «анти» и «лига» и искали правильный термин: Марр заменил термин «еврей» на «семит», который он уже предпочитал. Возможно, что сокращенная форма «Сем» используется Марром (и в его трудах) с такой частотой и легкостью из-за ее литературного преимущества и потому, что она напоминала Марру о Семе Бидермане, его еврейском работодателе из венского периода.

Библиография

Внешние ссылки

В Викиресурсе имеется текст статьи « Семиты » из Новой международной энциклопедии 1905 года .
На Викискладе есть медиафайлы по теме «Семитские народы» .