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Юпик

Мужчина из Кубка острова Нунивак в 1929 году.

Юпики или юпиаки (sg & pl) и юпиит или юпиат (pl), также центральные юпики Аляски, центральные юпики, аляскинские юпики ( собственное имя Yup'ik sg Yupiik Dual Yupiit pl ; русский : юпики центральные Аляски), коренные жители западной части Аляски . и юго-запад Аляски , начиная от южной части пролива Нортон на юг вдоль побережья Берингова моря в дельте Юкон-Кускоквим (включая проживание на островах Нельсон и Нунивак ) и вдоль северного побережья Бристольского залива вплоть до залива Нушагак и северной части полуострова Аляска. на реке Накнек и в заливе Эгегик . Они также известны как Cup'ik среди говорящих на диалекте Chevak Cup'ik жителей Чевака и Cup'ig для говорящих на диалекте нунивак Cup'ig жителей острова Нунивак.

Юпииты — самая многочисленная из различных групп коренных жителей Аляски и говорят на языке юпиков Центральной Аляски , члене эскимосско-алеутской семьи языков. По данным переписи населения США 2010 года, население юпиитов в США насчитывало более 34 000 человек, из которых более 22 000 проживали на Аляске. Подавляющее большинство из них живут в семидесяти или около того общинах на традиционной территории юпиков на западе и юго-западе Аляски. [1] На этом языке говорят около 10 000 человек. [2] У юпиков было наибольшее количество людей, которые идентифицировали себя с одной племенной группой и ни с какой другой расой (29 000). [3] В ходе этой переписи почти половина американских индейцев и коренных жителей Аляски были идентифицированы как представители смешанной расы.

Носители юпика, купика и купика могут без труда разговаривать, а население региона часто описывается с использованием более широкого термина юпик . Это один из четырех народов юпиков Аляски и Сибири , тесно связанных с сугпиаками ~ алутийками (тихоокеанскими юпиками) на юге и центральной Аляске, сибирскими юпиками с острова Св. Лаврентия и Дальнего Востока России и науканами с Дальнего Востока России. .

Юпики сочетают современный и традиционный натуральный образ жизни в уникальной для Юго-Западной Аляски смеси . Сегодня юпики обычно работают и живут в западном стиле, но по-прежнему охотятся и ловят рыбу традиционными способами, а также собирают традиционные продукты. Большинство юпиков до сих пор говорят на родном языке, а двуязычное образование действует с 1970-х годов.

Соседями юпиков являются инупиаки на севере, алеутизированные алутик ~ сугпиак на юге и аляскинские атабаски , такие как юпикизированные холикачук и дег хитан , неюпизированные коюкон и денайна на востоке. [4]

Именование

Первоначально форма единственного числа Юпик использовалась в северной части (Нортон-Саунд, Юкон , некоторые острова Нельсон), тогда как форма Юпиак использовалась в южной части (Кускоквим, Канинек [вокруг Квигиллингока , Кипнука , Конгиганака и Чефорнака ], Бристольского залива). ). Некоторые места (Чевак, Нунивак, Эгегик ) имеют другие формы: Cup'ik , Cup'ig и Tarupiaq .

Форма Юпик теперь используется как общий термин (хотя и не заменяет Cup'ik и Cup'ig ). [5] Юпик происходит от юпикского слова yuk , означающего «человек», плюс постбазиса -pik (или -piaq ), означающего «настоящий» или «подлинный»; таким образом, Юпик буквально означает «настоящий человек». [6] В этнографической литературе народ юпиков или их язык иногда называют юк или юит . В диалектах Хупер-Бей-Чевак и Нунивак Юпика и язык, и народ носят название Cup'ik . [2]

Использование апострофа в имени Юпик по сравнению с сибирским Юпиком иллюстрирует орфографию Центрального Юпика: «Апостроф представляет собой усиление [или удлинение] звука «п». [7]

Ниже приведены имена, данные им соседями.

История

Происхождение

Общие предки юпиков и алеутов (а также различных палеосибирских групп), как полагают археологи , происходят из Восточной Сибири . Мигрируя на восток, они достигли района Берингова моря около 10 000 лет назад. [8] [9] Исследования групп крови и лингвистики показывают, что предки американских индейцев достигли Северной Америки в результате волн миграции раньше предков эскимосов и алеутов; было три основные волны миграции из Сибири в Америку через Берингов мост . [10] Эта дорога обнажилась между 20 000 и 8 000 лет назад в периоды оледенения.

Примерно 3000 лет назад прародители юпиит расселились вдоль прибрежных районов того, что впоследствии стало западной Аляской, и мигрировали вверх по прибрежным рекам, особенно Юкону и Кускоквиму , около 1400 г. н. э., в конечном итоге достигнув вплоть до Паймиута на Юконе. и Деревня Ворон ( Тулукаругмиут ) на Кускоквиме. [6]

До того, как в этом районе появилось российское колониальное присутствие, алеуты и юпики большую часть времени проводили в морской охоте на таких животных, как тюлени, моржи и морские львы. Они использовали в основном деревянное, каменное или костяное оружие и имели ограниченный опыт рыбной ловли. Зимой семьи жили большими группами, а летом разбивались на небольшие хижины. [11]

Русская колонизация

Русская колонизация Америки продолжалась с 1732 по 1867 год. Российская империя поддерживала корабли, следовавшие из Сибири в Америку для китобойного и рыболовного промысла. Постепенно экипажи основали охотничьи и торговые посты Компании Шелихова -Голикова на Алеутских островах и в поселениях коренных народов Северной Аляски. (Это были основы Российско-Американской компании ). Примерно половину торговцев мехом составляли русские , например, промышленники из различных европейских частей Российской империи или из Сибири.

После экспедиции Беринга в 1741 году русские устремились исследовать Алеутские острова и получить контроль над их ресурсами. Коренные народы были вынуждены платить налоги в виде меха бобра и тюленя, и предпочли делать это вместо того, чтобы бороться с постоянно растущим потоком русских охотников. [12]

Григорий Шелихов возглавил нападения на остров Кадьяк против коренного населения алутик (сугпиаки) в 1784 году, известные как резня в Авауке . По некоторым оценкам, российские сотрудники торговой компании убили более 2000 человек Alutiiq. Затем компания взяла на себя контроль над островом. К концу 1790-х годов ее торговые фактории стали центрами постоянных поселений Русской Америки (1799–1867). Примерно до 1819 года расселение и деятельность русских в основном ограничивались Алеутскими островами , островами Прибылова , островом Кадьяк и разрозненными прибрежными районами материка. [13] Русские православные миссионеры отправлялись на эти острова, где в 1800 году священники проводили службы на местном языке на острове Кадьяк, а в 1824 году — на Алеутских островах. Православный священник перевел Священное Писание и литургию на тлинкитский язык , которым пользовались другие коренные жители Аляски.

Российский период, продолжающийся примерно 120 лет, можно разделить на три 40-летних периода: 1745–1785, 1785–1825 и 1825–1865 годы. [14]

Первая фаза российского периода (1745–1785 гг.) глубоко затронула только алеутов (Унанган) и алутиков (Сугпиак). В этот период значительные участки побережья Берингова моря были нанесены на карту не русскими, а английским исследователем Джеймсом Куком . В 1778 году Кук открыл и назвал Бристольский залив , а затем поплыл на север вокруг мыса Ньюэнхем в залив Кускоквим . [14]

Во время второй фазы российского периода (1785–1825 гг.) Компания Шелихова-Голикова , а затем Русско-Американская компания была организована и продолжила исследование прибыльной торговли каланами в северной части Тихого океана . [14] За это время они обменяли массовые убийства на фактическое порабощение и эксплуатацию. Большая часть Аляски оставалась малоизвестной, и юпики дельты Юкон-Кускоквим не сильно пострадали. [14] Русско-американский договор 1824 года был подписан в Санкт-Петербурге между представителями Российской империи и США 17 апреля 1824 года и вступил в силу 12 января 1825 года.

На последнем этапе российского периода (1825–1865 гг.) коренные жители Аляски начали страдать от последствий занесенных инфекционных заболеваний, к которым у них не было приобретенного иммунитета. Кроме того, их общество было разрушено растущей зависимостью от европейских торговых товаров из постоянных российских торговых постов . Третьим фактором влияния были первые русские православные миссионеры, которые стремились обратить народы в свою форму христианства. [14] Миссионеры изучали родные языки и проводили службы на этих языках с первых десятилетий 19 века. Санкт-Петербургский договор 1825 года определил границы между претензиями и владениями Российской Америки и Британской империи на северо-западе Тихого океана .

Колонизация Соединенных Штатов

Соединенные Штаты приобрели Аляску у Российской империи 30 марта 1867 года. Первоначально организованная как Департамент Аляска (1867–1884 гг.), эта территория была переименована в Округ Аляски (1884–1912 гг.) и Территорию Аляски (1912–1912 гг.). 1959 г.) до того, как он был принят в состав Союза как штат Аляска (с 1959 г. по настоящее время). [15]

В ранний американский период (1867–1939) федеральное правительство обычно игнорировало территорию, за исключением использования должностей в территориальном правительстве для политического покровительства. В годы после покупки Аляски предпринимались попытки эксплуатировать природные ресурсы . Моравские протестантские (1885 г.) и иезуитско-католические миссии и школы (1888 г.) были открыты вдоль рек Кускоквим и нижний Юкон соответственно. Касгик , церемониальные постройки для мужчин-юпиков, исчезли из-за миссионерского принуждения. В ранний американский период родные языки были запрещены в миссионерских школах, где разрешался только английский. [16]

Экономика островов также пострадала из-за того, что они принадлежали американцам. Американская торговая компания Hutchinson, Cool & Co. воспользовалась своим положением единственного торговца в этом районе и взимала с туземцев как можно большую цену за свои товары. Сочетание высоких затрат и низкой продуктивности охоты и рыболовства сохранялось до тех пор, пока русско-японская война не прервала контакты с Россией. [11]

Закон об урегулировании претензий коренных жителей Аляски (ANCSA) был подписан 18 декабря 1971 года. ANCSA занимает центральное место как в истории Аляски, так и в нынешней экономике и политических структурах коренных жителей Аляски. [17]

Историография

До контактов с европейцами (до 1800-х годов) история юпиков, как и других коренных жителей Аляски , была устной традицией . В каждом обществе или деревне были рассказчики ( кулирарта ), известные своей памятью, и это были люди, которые рассказывали молодежи об истории группы. Их истории (традиционные легенды «кулират» и исторические повествования «канемчит» ) отражают важнейшие части древнейшей истории Аляски.

Постепенно складывается историография этноистории юпиков как часть эскимологии . Первые академические исследования юпиков имели тенденцию обобщать все «эскимосские» культуры как однородные и неизменные. [18]

Хотя личный опыт инородцев, посетивших коренные народы территории, которая сейчас называется Аляской, лег в основу ранних исследований, к середине 20-го века археологические раскопки на юго-западе Аляски позволили ученым изучить влияние внешнеторговых товаров на 19-е века. материальная культура эскимосов века. [18] Кроме того, переводы соответствующих журналов и документов российских исследователей и Российско-Американской компании расширили первоисточниковую базу. [18] Первые этнографические сведения о юпиках дельты Юкон-Кускоквим были зафиксированы русским исследователем лейтенантом Лаврентием Загоскиным во время его исследований для Российско-Американской компании в 1842–1844 годах. [19]

Первые академические культурные исследования коренных народов Юго-Западной Аляски были разработаны только в конце 1940-х годов. Частично это было связано с нехваткой англоязычной документации, а также конкуренцией в области других предметных областей. [18] Американский антрополог Маргарет Лантис (1906–2006) опубликовала «Социальную культуру эскимосов-нуниваков» в 1946 году; это было первое полное описание какой-либо коренной группы Аляски. Она начала работу над «Церемониализмом эскимосов Аляски» (1947) как широкое исследование коренных народов Аляски. [18] Джеймс В. ВанСтоун (1925–2001), американский культурный антрополог , и Венделл Х. Освальт были одними из первых ученых, которые провели значительные археологические исследования в регионе Юпик. [18] ВанСтоун демонстрирует этнографический подход к истории культуры у эскимосов реки Нушагак: Этнографическая история (1967). [18] Венделл Освальт опубликовал всеобъемлющую этнографическую историю региона дельты Юкон-Кускоквим, самую длинную и подробную работу по истории юпиков на сегодняшний день в книге «Больше не стыдно: этноистория эскимосов Аляски, 1778–1988» (1988). [18] Энн Фиенуп-Риордан (род. 1948) начала много писать о коренных народах Юкон-Кускоквим в 1980-х годах; она беспрецедентным образом объединила голоса юпиков с традиционной антропологией и историей. [18]

В историографии западной Аляски есть несколько ученых-юпиков, написавших свои труды. Гарольд Наполеон, старейшина Хупер -Бей , представляет интересную предпосылку в своей книге «Юуярак: Путь человека» (1988). [18] Более научную, но похожую трактовку культурных изменений можно найти в книге Ангаюкака Оскара Кавагли «Мировоззрение юпиаков : путь к экологии и духу» (2001), в которой основное внимание уделяется пересечению ценностей Запада и Юпика. [18]

Юярак

Юярак или Образ жизни ( юуярак сг юуярат пл на юпике, кууярак на языке Купик, кууярар на языке Купиг) — это термин, обозначающий образ жизни юпиков как человека. Это выражение включает в себя взаимодействие с другими, средства существования или традиционные знания , экологические или традиционные экологические знания , а также понимание , психологию коренных народов и духовное равновесие. [20]

Юярак определил правильный образ мышления и разговоров обо всех живых существах, особенно о великих морских и наземных млекопитающих, от которых юпики получали пищу, одежду , кров, инструменты, каяки и другие предметы первой необходимости. Эти великие существа были чувствительны; Считалось, что они способны понимать человеческие разговоры, требовали и получали уважение. Юярак предписывал правильный метод охоты и рыбалки, а также правильный способ обращения со всей пойманной охотником рыбой и дичью, чтобы почтить и умилостивить духов и поддерживать гармоничные отношения с рыбой и дичью. Хотя этот путь и не написан, его можно сравнить с законом Моисея, поскольку он регулировал все аспекты жизни человека. [21]

Старейшины

Старейшина коренных жителей Аляски ( tegganeq sg tegganrek Dual Tegganret pl в Юпике, teggneq sg teggnerek ~ teggenrek Dual teggneret ~ teggenret pl в Cup'ik, taqnelug в Cup'ig) является уважаемым старейшиной . Пожилой человек определяется как человек, который прожил долгую жизнь, ведет здоровый образ жизни и обладает богатым культурным опытом и знаниями. Старейшина обладает опытом, основанным на ноу-хау, и при необходимости дает консультации сообществу и семье. [22] Традиционно знания передавались от старших к молодежи посредством рассказывания историй . [23] Наукакун – это урок или напоминание , с помощью которого молодое поколение учится на опыте старших. [5]

Тегганек происходит от юпикского слова tegge, что означает «быть жестким; быть крутым». [5] Дисциплина юпиков отличается от западной дисциплины. Дисциплина и авторитет в практике воспитания детей юпиков основаны на уважении к детям. [22]

Совсем недавно старейшин стали приглашать присутствовать и выступать на национальных конференциях и семинарах. [22] Программа «Старейшины по месту жительства» — это программа, в которой старейшины участвуют в преподавании и разработке учебных программ в формальной образовательной среде (часто в университете) и призвана повлиять на содержание курсов и способ преподавания материала. [24]

Общество

Мальчик Аскинармиут из Хупер-Бэй позирует в круглой шапке ( уивкуррак ) и меховой парке, фотография Эдварда С. Кертиса (1930). [25]

Родство

Родство юпиков основано на том, что формально классифицируется в научных кругах как эскимосское родство или родство по прямой линии. Эта система родства является двусторонней и представляет собой базовую социальную единицу, состоящую из двух-четырех поколений, включая родителей, потомков и родителей родителей. Терминология родства в обществах юпиков демонстрирует юманский тип социальной организации с двусторонним происхождением и двоюродную терминологию ирокезов . Двустороннее происхождение дает каждому человеку свой собственный уникальный набор родственников или родственников: некоторые кровнородственные члены из родственной группы отца и некоторые из группы матери, причем все четыре дедушки и бабушки в равной степени связаны с человеком. Параллельные кузены обозначаются теми же терминами, что и братья и сестры, а кросс-кузены различаются. [26] Браки заключались родителями. Было показано, что общества юпиков (региональные или социально-территориальные группы) имеют групповую организацию, характеризующуюся обширным двусторонним родством с многосемейными группами, объединяющимися ежегодно. [26]

Сообщество

Зимой юпики создавали более крупные поселения , чтобы воспользоваться преимуществами группового натурального хозяйства. Деревни были организованы определенным образом. Культурные правила родства служили для определения отношений между людьми группы. [26] Размер деревень варьировался от двух до более дюжины дерновых домов ( эна ) для женщин и девочек, одного (или более в крупных деревнях) касгика для мужчин и мальчиков, а также складов .

Лидерство

Раньше социального статуса достигали успешные охотники, которые могли добыть еду и шкуры. Успешные охотники признавались лидерами членов социальной группы. [27] Хотя официально признанных лидеров не было, неформальное лидерство практиковалось людьми, носившими титул Нукальпиак («человек в расцвете сил; успешный охотник и хороший добытчик»). Нукалпиак , или хороший кормилец, был человеком, игравшим значительную роль в деревенской жизни . С этим человеком советовались по любому важному делу, затрагивающему деревню в целом, особенно при определении участия в церемониях Кевгик и Итрукаар . [26] Говорят, что он внес большой вклад в эти церемонии и обеспечил сиротам и вдовам. [26]

Однако положение нукальпиака нельзя было сравнить с положением умиалика (капитана китобойного промысла) инупиаков северной и северо-западной Аляски . Капитан имел право собирать излишки деревни и большую часть основной продукции отдельных членов семьи, а затем перераспределять их. [28]

Резиденция

Вход в Касгик в деревне Юпик Стеббинс ( Тапрак ), 1900 год.

Традиционно зимой юпики жили в полупостоянных подземных домах : одни для мужчин, другие для женщин (со своими детьми). Мужчины юпиков жили вместе в большом общинном доме ( касгик ), а женщины и дети жили в меньших по размеру разных дерновых домах ( ена ). Хотя мужчины и женщины жили отдельно, они много общались. В зависимости от села касгик и ена соединялись туннелем. И Касгик, и Эна также служили школами и мастерскими для мальчиков и девочек. У акулмиутов схема проживания в виде отдельных домов для женщин и детей и отдельного жилья для мужчин и мальчиков сохранялась примерно до 1930 года. [26]

Женский дом или Эна ( [e]na sg nek Dual net pl в Юпике, ena sgenet pl в Cup'ik, ena в Cup'ig) представлял собой небольшой индивидуальный или полуобщинный дом из дерна. По конструкции они были похожи на касгики, но были примерно вдвое меньше. Женщины и дети жили в домах, в которых проживали от двух до пяти женщин и их детей. Воспитание детей было обязанностью женщин до тех пор, пока мальчики не покинули дом, чтобы присоединиться к другим мужчинам в касгике, чтобы научиться дисциплине и тому, как зарабатывать на жизнь. [26] Эна также служила школой и мастерской для молодых девушек, где они могли научиться искусству шитья кожи , приготовлению пищи и другим важным навыкам выживания.

Деревянный касгируак ( модель касгыка ) с куклами из моржовой кости. Этнологический музей Берлина .

Мужской дом или Касгик (произносится как «каз-гик» и в старой литературе часто упоминается как кашиги, касги, кашим, кажим или казине ; qasgi ~ qasgiq sg qasgik Dual qasgit pl в юпике, qaygiq sg qaygit pl в Cup'ik кияр на языке Куп'иг; касгими «в касги») — большой общинный дом из дерна. Касгык использовался и был оккупирован с ноября по март. [26] В касгике размещались все взрослые мужчины общины и молодежь мужского пола в возрасте около семи лет и старше. Женщины готовили еду в своих домах, известную как ена. Их передавали мужчинам в Касгике молодые женщины и девушки. [26]

Касгик служил школой и мастерской для мальчиков, где они могли научиться искусству и ремеслу изготовления масок , изготовления инструментов и строительства каяков . Это также было место обучения навыкам охоты и рыболовства. Время от времени мужчины устраивали огненную баню , где горячий огонь и камни создавали тепло, способствующее очищению тела. Таким образом, касгик был жилищем, баней и мастерской для всех, кроме самых молодых членов общины мужского пола, которые все еще жили со своими матерями. [26] Хотя не было официально признанных лидеров или должностей, мужчинам и мальчикам были отведены определенные места в касгике, которые различали ранг мужчин по возрасту и месту жительства. [26] Касгик был церемониальным и духовным центром общины.

В первичных деревнях все церемонии (и танцы юпиков ) и собрания (внутри деревень и между ними среди социально-территориальных и соседних групп) проходили в касгике. [26] В начале 20-го века христианские церковные службы проводились в Касгике до того, как были построены церкви. [26] Практически все официальные дела внутри группы, между группами и деревнями, а также между сельскими жителями и неюпиками (например, ранними миссионерами) велись в касгике. [26]

Эскимосы-юпики не жили в иглу или снежных домах. Но инупиаки северной и северо-западной Аляски строили снежные домики в качестве временного убежища во время своих зимних охотничьих поездок. Слово иглу на инупиакском языке означает «дом». Это слово является инупиакским родственником юпикского слова ngel'uбобровая хатка , бобровый домик»), на которое оно напоминало по форме. [5]

Региональные группы

Среди юпиков юго-западной Аляски общества (региональные или социально-территориальные группы), как и у инупиатов северо-западной Аляски, различались по территории, образцам речи, деталям одежды, годовым циклам и церемониальной жизни. [26]

До и в середине XIX века, времени русских исследований и присутствия в этом районе, юпииты были организованы как минимум в двенадцать, а возможно, и в двадцать территориально обособленных региональных или социально-территориальных групп (их местные названия будут обычно заканчивается на -miut postbase , что означает «жители ...», связанные родством [29] [30] - отсюда и юпикское слово tungelquqellriit , означающее «те, у кого общие предки (родственны) [30] ». группы включали:

While Yupiit were nomadic, the abundant fish and game of the Y-K Delta and Bering Sea coastal areas permitted for a more settled life than for many of the more northerly Iñupiaq people. Under normal conditions, there was little need for interregional travel, as each regional group had access to enough resources within its own territory to be completely self-sufficient. However, fluctuations in animal populations or weather conditions sometimes necessitated travel and trade between regions.[29]

Economy

Hunting-gathering

Aerial view of Bethel on the Kuskokwim River. Bethel (Mamterilleq) is the regional hub of Yupʼik homeland.

The homeland of Yupʼik is the Dfc climate type subarctic tundra ecosystem. The land is generally flat tundra and wetlands. The area covers about 100,000 square miles which are roughly about 1/3 of Alaska.[39] Their lands are located in five of the 32 ecoregions of Alaska:[40]

Before European contact, the Yupʼik, like other neighboring Indigenous groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest sea and land mammals, fish, bird, berry and other renewable resources. The economy of Yupʼik is a mixed cash-subsistence system, like other modern foraging economies in Alaska. The primary use of wild resources is domestic. Commercial fishing in Alaska and trapping patterns are controlled primarily by external factors.

On the coast, in the past as in the present, to discuss hunting was to begin to define a man. In Yupʼik, the word anqun (man) comes from the root angu- (to catch after chasing; to catch something for food) and means, literally, a device for chasing.[14]

Northwest Alaska is one of the richest Pacific salmon areas in the world, with the world's largest commercial Alaska salmon fishery in Bristol Bay.

Trade

In the Nome Census Area, Brevig Mission, an Iñupiaq community, tended to trade with other Iñupiaq communities to the north: Shishmaref, Kotzebue, and Point Hope. The Yupʼik communities (Elim, Stebbins and St. Michael), tended to trade with Yupʼik communities to the south: Kotlik, Emmonak, Mountain Village, Pilot Station, St. Mary's of the Kusilvak Census Area.[42]

Transportation

Nunivak kayaks, August 1936

Traditionally, transportation was primarily by dog sleds (land) and kayaks (water). Sea mammal hunting and fishing in the Bering Sea region took place from both small narrow closed skin-covered boats called kayaks and larger broad open skin-covered boats called umiaks. Kayaks were used more frequently than umiaks. Traditionally, kayaking and umiaking served as water transportation and sea hunting. Dog sleds are ideal for land transportation. Pedestrian transportation is on foot in summer and snowshoes in winter. Only small local road systems exist in Southwest Alaska. Only a few closely adjacent villages are linked by roads. Today, snowmobile or snowmachine travel is a critical component of winter transport; an ice road for highway vehicles is used along portions of the Kuskokwim River.

This kayak appears to be built in the Nunivak Island style. Collection of the Arktikum Science Museum in Rovaniemi, Finland.
Nunivak Cupʼig kayak cockpit stanchions (ayaperviik). The smiling face of a man and the frowning face of a woman grace these pieces from a kayak frame. Collection of the University of Alaska Museum of the North

The kayak (qayaq sg qayak dual qayat pl in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, qayar ~ qay'ar sg qay'ag dual qay'at ~ qass'it pl in Cupʼig; from qai- "surface; top")[5]) is a small narrow closed skin-covered boat and was first used by the native speakers of the Eskimo–Aleut languages. The Yupʼik used kayaks for seal hunting, fishing, and general transportation. The Yupʼik people considered a kayak the owner's most prized possession. Traditionally, a kayak was a Yupʼik hunter's most prized possession and a symbol of manhood.[43] It is fast and maneuverable, seaworthy, light, and strong. Kayak is made of driftwood from the beach, covered with the skin of a sea mammal, and sewn with sinew from another animal. Yupʼik kayaks are known from the earliest ethnographic reports, but there are currently no surviving full-size Yupʼik kayaks from the pre-contact period.[44] The Yupʼik Norton Sound/Hooper Bay kayaks consisted of 5–6 young seal skins stretched for the covering. The Yupʼik style of seams contains a running stitch partially piercing the skin on top and an overlapping stitch on the inside with a grass insert.[45] Caninermiut style Yupʼik kayak used in the Kwigillingok and Kipnuk regions and there are teeth marks in the wood of the circular hatch opening, made by the builders as they bent and curved the driftwood into shape.[46]

Kayak stanchions or kayak cockpit stanchions (ayapervik sg ayaperviik dual ayaperviit pl or ayaperyaraq sg ayaperyarat pl in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, ayaperwig in Cupʼig) are top piece centered at the side of the coaming and used as support as one climbs out of a kayak. They prevented the person from falling while getting in and out of the kayak. All kayaks had ayaperviik on them. This one has a woman's frowning face with a down-turned mouth carved on it. Perhaps the other side would have a man's smiling face carved on it.[47]

The umiak or open skin boat, large skin boat (angyaq sg angyak dual angyat pl in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, angyar in Cupʼig) is larger broad open skin-covered boat.

The dog sleds (ikamraq sg ikamrak dual ikamrat pl in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, qamauk in Yukon and Unaliq-Pastuliq Yupʼik, ikamrag, qamaug in Cupʼig; often used in the dual for one sled)[48] are an ancient and widespread means of transportation for Northern Indigenous peoples, but when non-Native fur traders and explorers first traveled the Yukon River and other interior regions in the mid-19th century they observed that only Yupikized Athabaskan groups, including the Koyukon, Deg Hitʼan and Holikachuk, used dogs in this way. Both of these people had probably learned the technique from their Iñupiat or Yupʼik neighbors. Non-Yupikized Athabaskan groups, including the Gwichʼin, Tanana, Ahtna and other Alaskan Athabaskans pulled their sleds and toboggans by hand, using dogs solely for hunting and as pack animals.[49]

Culture

Yupʼik (as Yupʼik and Cupʼik) culture is one of five cultural groups of the Alaska Natives.[50]

The Yupiit Piciryarait Cultural Center is a non-profit cultural center of the Yupʼik culture centrally located in Bethel near the University of Alaska Fairbanks' Kuskokwim Campus and city offices. The mission of the center is to promote, preserve and develop the traditions of the Yupʼik through traditional and non-traditional art forms of the Alaska Native art, including arts and crafts, performance arts, education, and Yupʼik language. The center also supports local artists and entrepreneurs.[51]

Language and literature

Language

The Yupʼik speak four or five Yupik languages. The Yupʼik people constitute the largest ethnic group in Alaska and the Yupʼik languages are spoken by the largest number of native persons. Yupʼik, like all Northern Indigenous languages, is a suffixing language made up of noun and verb bases to which one or more postbases and a final ending or enclitics are added to denote such features as a number, case, person, and position. The Yupʼik category of number distinguishes singular, plural, and dual. Yupʼik does not have a category of gender and articles. The Yupʼik orthography one sees nowadays was developed at the University of Alaska Fairbanks in the 1960s by native speakers of Yupʼik elders working with linguists.[7] The Yupʼik are among the most numerous of the various Alaska Natives. There are 10,400 speakers out of a population of 25,000, but the language was classified as threatened in 2007, according to Alaska Native Language Center.[52]

Byron Nicholai, a Yup'ik singer and dancer from Toksook Bay, performs to President Obama's cabinet.

It is a single well-defined language (now called Yupʼik or Yupʼik and Cupʼik) a dialect continuum[53] with five major dialects: extinct Egegik (Aglegmuit-Tarupiaq), and living Norton Sound or Unaliq-Pastuliq dialect (two subdialects: Unaliq and Kotlik), General Central Yupʼik dialect (seven subdialects: Nelson Island and Stebbins, Nushagak River, Yukon or Lower Yukon, Upper or Middle Kuskokwim, Lake Iliamna, Lower Kuskokwim, and Bristol Bay), Hooper Bay-Chevak dialect (two subdialects: Hooper Bay Yupʼik and Chevak Cupʼik), and Nunivak Cupʼig dialect.[54] Nunivak Island dialect (Cupʼig) is distinct and highly divergent from mainland Yupʼik dialects.

Education

Yupʼik was not a written language until the arrival of Europeans, the Russians, around the beginning of the 19th century.[7] Pre-contact knowledge transfer and learning among Yupʼik people traditionally was through oral culture, with no written history or transcribed language. Children were taught about subsistence practices, culture, and social systems through stories, legends, toys, and examples of behavior.[44]

School bus at Crooked Creek, Alaska (Tevyaraq), March 5, 2008

The early schools for Alaska Natives were mostly church-run schools of the Russian Orthodox missions in Russian-controlled Alaska (1799–1867), and, after 1890, the Jesuits and Moravians, allowed the use of the Alaska Native languages in instruction in schools. However, in the 1880s, Presbyterian missionary Sheldon Jackson (1834–1909) began a policy of prohibiting Native languages in the mission schools he managed. When he became United States Commissioner of Education, he proposed a policy of prohibition of indigenous language use in all Alaskan schools. This policy came into full force in about 1910. From that time period until the passage of the Bilingual Education Act in 1968, children in Alaskan schools suffered severe treatment for speaking their Native languages in schools.[56][57]

Chevak, Kashunamiut School District, the school (blue), lake, and condemned old school (red)

17 Yupʼik villages had adopted local elementary bilingual programs by 1973. In the 1980s and 1990s, Yupʼik educators became increasingly networked across village spaces. Between the early 1990s and the run of the century, students in Yupʼik villages, like youth elsewhere became connected to the Internet and began to form a "Yupʼik Worldwide Web". Through Facebook and YouTube, youth are creating new participatory networks and multimodal competencies.[58]

Bilingualism is still quite common in Alaska today, especially among Native people who speak English in addition to their own language.[7] All village schools are publicly funded by the state of Alaska. The school districts of the Yupʼik area:

Literature

Yupʼik oral storytelling stories or tales are often divided into the two categories of Qulirat (traditional legends) and Qanemcit (historical narratives). In this classification then, what is identified as myth or fairytale in the Western (European) tradition is a quliraq, and a personal or historical narrative is a qanemciq.[66][67]

The stories that previous generations of Yupʼik heard in the qasgi and assimilated as part of a life spent hunting, traveling, dancing, socializing, preparing food, repairing tools, and surviving from one season to the next.[68] Yupʼik oral stories (qulirat and qanemcit) of the storytellers (qulirarta) were embedded in many social functions of the society. Storyknifing (yaaruilta literally "let's go story knife!") stories a traditional and still common activity of young girls and is told by children of all ages in the Yupʼik lands. These stories are illustrated by figures sketched on mud or snow with a ceremonial knife, known as a story knife or storytelling knife (yaaruin, saaruin, ateknguin, quliranguarrsuun in Yupʼik, qucgutaq in Cupʼik, igaruarun in Cupʼig). Story knives are made of wood (equaq is a wooden story knife) ivory or bone (cirunqaaraq is an antler story knife). In the Yupʼik storytelling tradition, an important aspect of traditional stories is that each listener can construct his or her own meaning from the same storytelling.[69]

Art

The Yupʼik traditionally decorate almost all of their tools, even ones that perform smaller functions.[70] Traditionally sculptures are not made for decoration. One of their most popular forms of the Alaska Native art is the Yupʼik mask. They most often create masks for ceremonies but the masks are traditionally destroyed after being used. These masks are used to bring the person wearing them luck and good fortune in hunts. Other art forms, including Yupʼik clothing, and Yupʼik dolls are the most popular.

Clothing

Nunivak Cupʼig child wearing bird skin clothing (parka?) and wood knot-like beaded circular cap (uivqurraq), photograph by Edward Curtis, 1930

The traditional clothing system developed and used by the Yupʼik and other Northern Indigenous peoples is the most effective cold-weather clothing developed to date. Yupʼik clothing tended to fit relatively loosely. Skin sewing is an artistic arena in which Yupʼik women and a few younger men excel. Yupʼik women made clothes and footwear from animal skins (especially hide and fur of marine and land mammals for fur clothing, sometimes birds, also fish), sewn together using needles made from animal bones, walrus ivory, and bird bones such as front part of a crane's foot and threads made from other animal products, such as sinew. The semilunar woman's knife ulu is used to process and cut skins for clothing and footwear. Women made most clothing of caribou (wild caribou Rangifer tarandus granti and domestic reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and sealskin. The English words kuspuk (parka cover or overshirt) and mukluk (skin boot) which is derived from the Yupʼik word qaspeq and maklak. Before the arrival of the Russian fur traders (promyshlennikis), caribou and beaver skins were used for traditional clothing but Northern Indigenous peoples were compelled to sell most of their furs to the Russians and substitute (inferior) manufactured materials. Everyday functional items like skin mittens, mukluks, and jackets are commonly made today, but the elegant fancy parkas (atkupiaq) of traditional times are now rare. Today, many Yupʼik have adopted western-style clothing.

Mask

Yupʼik painted wood mask depicting the face of a tuunraq (keeper of the game), Yukon River area, late 19th century, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas

Yupʼik masks (kegginaquq and nepcetaq in Yupʼik, agayu in Cupʼig) are expressive shamanic ritual masks. One of their most popular forms of the Alaska Native art is masks. The masks vary enormously but are characterized by the great invention. They are typically made of wood and painted with few colors. The Yupʼik masks were carved by men or women but mainly were carved by men. They most often create masks for ceremonies but the masks are traditionally destroyed after being used. After Christian contact in the late 19th century, masked dancing was suppressed, and today it is not practiced as it was before in the Yupʼik villages.[71][72]

The National Museum of the American Indian, as a part of the Smithsonian Institution, provided photographs of Yupʼik ceremonial masks collected by Adams Hollis Twitchell, an explorer and trader who traveled Alaska during the Nome Gold Rush newly arrived in the Kuskokwim region, in Bethel in the early 1900s.[28]

Music and dance

Nunivak Cupʼig man playing a very large drum (cauyaq) in 1927 photograph by Edward S Curtis

Yupʼik dancing (yuraq in Yupʼik) is a traditional form of dancing usually performed to songs in Yupʼik. Round drums cover with seal stomachs and played with wooden sticks of driftwood to provide a rhythmic beat. Both men and women choreograph the dances and sing in accompaniment. Typically, the men are in the front, kneeling and the women stand in the back. The drummers are in the very back of the dance group. The Yupʼik use dance fans (finger masks or maskettes, tegumiak)to emphasize and exaggerate arm motions. Dancing plays an important role in both the social and spiritual life of the Yupʼik community. The Yupʼik have returned to practicing their songs and dances, which are a form of prayer. Traditional dancing in the qasgiq is a communal activity in the Yupʼik tradition. Mothers and wives brought food to the qasgiq (men's house) where they would join in an evening of ceremonial singing and dancing. The mask was a central element in Yupʼik ceremonial dancing.[73] There are dances for fun, social gatherings, exchange of goods, and thanksgiving. Yupʼik ways of dancing (yuraryaraq) embrace six fundamental key entities identified as ciuliat (ancestors), angalkuut (shamans), cauyaq (drum), yuaruciyaraq (song structures), yurarcuutet (regalia) and yurarvik (dance location).[74] The Yuraq is used as a generic term for Yupʼik/Cupʼik regular dance. Also, yuraq is concerned with animal behavior and hunting of animals or with the ridicule of individuals (ranging from affectionate teasing to punishing public embarrassment). But, used for inherited dance is Yurapik or Yurapiaq (lit. "real dance"). The dancing of their ancestors was banned by Christian missionaries in the late 19th century. After a century, the Cama-i dance festival is a cultural celebration that started in the mid-1980s with the goal to gather dancers from outlying villages to share their music and dances. There are now many groups that perform dances in Alaska. The most popular activity in the Yupʼik-speaking area is rediscovered Yupʼik dancing.

Yupik Dance Festivals

Every year, the Yupiit of the Qaluuyaaq (Nelson Island) and the surrounding villages of Nelson Island gather up every weekend in each village. Each village hosts a Yupik dance festival which they call the festival Yurarpak (you-rawr-puk).

The qelutviaq is a one-string fiddle or lute played by the Yupʼik of Nelson Island.

Drums of Winter or Uksuum Cauyai: Drums of Winter (1977) is an ethnographic documentary on the culture of the Yupʼik people, focusing primarily on dance, music, and potlatch traditions in the community of Emmonak, Alaska.

Toys and games

Nunivak Cupʼig children playing jump-rope (qawaliqtar in Cupʼig), 1940 or 1941

An Eskimo yo-yo or Alaska yo-yo is a traditional two-balled skill toy played and performed by the Eskimo-speaking Alaska Natives, such as Inupiat, Siberian Yupik, and Yupʼik. It resembles fur-covered bolas and yo-yo. It is regarded as one of the most simple, yet most complex, cultural artifacts/toys in the world.[75][76] The Eskimo yo-yo involves simultaneously swinging two sealskin balls suspended on caribou sinew strings in opposite directions with one hand. It is popular with Alaskans and tourists alike.[77]

Doll

Yupʼik dolls (yugaq, irniaruaq, sugaq, sugaruaq, suguaq in Yupʼik, cugaq, cugaruaq in Cupʼik, cuucunguar in Cupʼig) are dressed in traditional-style clothing, intended to protect the wearer from cold weather, and are often made from traditional materials obtained through food gathering. Play dolls from the Yupʼik area were made of driftwood, bone, or walrus ivory and measured from one to twelve inches in height or more.[78] Some human figurines were used by shamans. Dolls also mediated the transition between childhood and adulthood in the Yupʼik shamanism.

Cuisine

Tumnaq used to make Eskimo ice cream, circa 1910

Yupʼik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing, and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yupʼik region is rich in waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yupʼik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales, and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had a rich game, Yupʼik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), and the other half is purchased from commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods).

Traditional Yupʼik delicacies is, akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stink heads), mangtak (muktuk).

Elevated cache (qulvarvik, qulrarvik, neqivik, enekvak, mayurpik, mayurrvik, ellivik, elliwig) was used to store food where it would be safe from animals. Hooper Bay, Alaska, 1929.

Elevated cache or raised log cache, also raised cache or log storehouse (qulvarvik sg qulvarviit pl [Yukon, Kuskokwim, Bristol Bay, NR, Lake Iliamna], qulrarvik [Egegik], neqivik [Hooper Bay-Chevak, Yukon, Nelson Island], enekvak [Hooper Bay-Chevak], mayurpik [Hooper Bay-Chevak], mayurrvik [Nelson Island], ellivik [Kuskokwim], elliwig [Nunivak]) is a bear cache-like safe food storage place designed to store food outdoors and prevent animals from accessing it. Elevated cache types include log or plank caches, open racks, platform caches, and tree caches. The high cabin-on-post cache was probably not an indigenous form among either Eskimos or Alaskan Athabaskans. Cabin-on-post caches are thought to have appeared in the 1870s. The cabin on-post form may thus have been introduced by early traders, miners, or missionaries, who would have brought with them memories of the domestic and storage structures constructed in their homelands.[79]

Fish

Alaskan economical salmonoid fish species (Oncorhynchus) are main food for the Yupʼik: Sockeye or Red salmon (sayak), Chum or Dog salmon (kangitneq), Chinook or King salmon (taryaqvak), Coho or Silver salmon (qakiiyaq), Pink or Humpback salmon (amaqaayak).

Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are the primary main subsistence food for the Yupʼik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called neqa (sg) neqet (pl) in Yupʼik. Also for salmon called neqpik ~ neqpiaq (sg) neqpiit ~ neqpiat (pl) in Yupʼik, means literally "real food". But, the main food for the Iñupiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called niqi in Iñupiaq, also for meat called niqipiaq "real food").

Alaska subsistence communities are noted to obtain up to 97% of the omega-3 fatty acids through a subsistence diet.[80]

Tepas, also called stink-heads, stink heads, stinky heads, are fermented fish head such as king and silver salmon heads, are a traditional food of the Yupʼik. A customary way of preparing them is to place fish heads and guts in a wooden barrel, cover it with burlap, and bury it in the ground for about a week. For a short while in modern times, plastic bags and buckets replaced the barrel. However this increased the risk of botulism, and the Yupʼik have reverted to fermenting fishheads directly in the ground.[81][82]

Mammals

Muktuk drying at Point Lay, Alaska. June 24, 2007.

Muktuk (mangtak in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, mangengtak in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber).

Plants

The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yupʼik delicacy commonly called akutaq or "Eskimo ice cream".

The mousefood (ugnarat neqait) consists of the roots of various tundra plants which are cached by voles in burrows

Ceremonies

The dominant ceremonies are: Nakaciuq (Bladder Festival), Elriq (Festival of the Dead), Kevgiq (Messenger Feast), Petugtaq (request certain items), and Keleq (invitation).

Religion

Shamanism

Yupʼik shaman (angalkuq) exorcising evil spirits (caarrluk) from a sick boy. The enormous wooden hands with shortened thumbs (inglukellriik unatnquak ayautaunatek) worn by the shaman. Nushagak Bay, ca. 1890s.[28]

Historically and traditionally, Yupʼik and other all Eskimos traditional religious practices could be very briefly summarised as a form of shamanism based on animism. Aboriginally and in early historic times the shaman, called as medicine man or medicine woman (angalkuq sg angalkuk dual angalkut pl or angalkuk sg angalkuuk dual angalkuut pl in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, angalku in Cupʼig) was the central figure of Yupʼik religious life and was the middle man between spirits and the humans. The role of the shaman is the primary leader, petitioner, and a trans-mediator between the human and non-human spiritual worlds in association with music, dance, and masks. The shaman's professional responsibility was to enact ancient forms of prayers to request the survival needs of the people. The powerful shaman is called a big shaman (angarvak).

Yupʼik shamans directed the making of masks and composed the dances and music for winter ceremonies. The specified masks depicted survival essentials requested in ceremonies.[74] Shamans often carved the symbolic masks that were vital to many Yupʼik ceremonial dances and these masks represented spirits that the shaman saw during visions.[83] Shaman masks or plaque masks (nepcetaq sg nepcetak dual nepcetat pl) were empowered by shamans and are powerful ceremonial masks represented a shaman's helping spirit (tuunraq). Shamans wearing masks of bearded seal, moose, wolf, eagle, beaver, fish, and the north wind were accompanied by drums and music.[74]

Big mouth, 1493 by Hartmann Schedel (1440–1514), Nuremberg Chronicle (Schedel'sche Weltchronik). The Big mouth similar to Yupʼik Miluquyulit

Legendary animals, monsters, and half-humans: amikuk (sea monster said to resemble an octopus); amlliq (monster fish); arularaq (monster identified as "Bigfoot"); cirunelvialuk (sea creature); cissirpak (great worm; ingluilnguq creature that is only half a person); inglupgayuk (being with half a woman's face); irci, irciq (creature, half animal and half man); itqiirpak (big hand from the ocean); kun'uniq (sea creature with human features seen on pack ice); meriiq (creature that will suck the blood from one's big toe); miluquyuli (rock-throwing creature); muruayuli (creature that sinks into the ground as it walks); paalraayak (creature that moves underground); qamurralek (being with a dragging appendage); qununiq (person who lives in the sea); qupurruyuli (being with human female face who helps people at sea); quq'uyaq (polar bear); quugaarpak (mammoth-like creature that lives underground); tengempak (giant bird); tengmiarpak ("thunderbird"); tiissiq (caterpillar-like creature that leaves a scorched trail); tumarayuli (magical kayak); tunturyuaryuk (caribou-like creature); u͡gayaran (giant in Kuskokwim-area folklore); ulurrugnaq (sea monster said to devour whales); uligiayuli (ghost said to have a big blanket, which it wraps around children who are out too late at night playing hide-and-seek, it then takes them away); yuilriq (witch or ghost that walks in the air above the ground and has no liver; a large monster that lives in the mountains and eats people).[5]

Legendary humanoids: alirpak little person; cingssiik (little people having conical hats); ciuliaqatuk (ancestor identified with the raven); egacuayak (elf, dwarf); kelessiniayaaq (little people, said to be spirits of the dead); ircenrraq ("little person" or extraordinary person); tukriayuli (underground dweller that knocks on the earth's surface).[5]

Christianity

Yupi'k in western and southwestern Alaska have had a long Christian history, in part from Russian Orthodox, Catholic, and Moravian influence. The arrival of missionaries dramatically altered life along the Bering Sea coast.[28] Yupʼik beliefs and lifestyles have changed considerably since the arrival of Westerners during the 19th century.[84]

The first Native Americans to become Russian Orthodox were the Aleuts (Unangan) living in contact with Russian fur traders (promyshlennikis) in the mid 18th century. Saint Jacob (or Iakov) Netsvetov, a Russian-Alaskan creole (his father was Russian from Tobolsk, and his mother was an Aleut from Atka Island) who became a priest of the Orthodox Church, being the first Alaska Native Orthodox priest in Alaska, and continued the missionary work of St. Innocent among his and other Alaskan Native people. He moved to the Russian Mission (Iqugmiut) on the Yukon River in 1844 and served there until 1863. Netsvetov invented an alphabet and translated church materials and several Bible texts into Yupʼik and kept daily journals.[85][86]

The Russian Orthodox presence in Yupʼik territory was challenged in the late 1880s by Moravian and Catholic missions. Eventually, the Russian Orthodox missions in Alaska consolidated into a whole Diocese of Alaska, a part of the larger Orthodox Church in America which was formed from the original Russian Orthodox dioceses in North America.[87]

The Yupʼik at Moravian Mission Station, Bethel on the Kuskokwim River in the year 1900[88]

The Moravian Church is the oldest Protestant denomination in Alaska, and is organized into four provinces in North America: Northern, Southern, Alaska, and Labrador. The Moravian mission was first founded at Bethel, along the Kuskokwim River in 1885.[84] The mission and reindeer station Bethel (Mamterilleq literally "site of many caches") was first established by Moravian missionaries near or at the small Yupʼik village called Mumtrelega[89] (Mamterilleq literally "site of many caches") or Mumtreklogamute or Mumtrekhlagamute (Mamterillermiut literally "people of Mamterilleq"). In 1885, the Moravian Church established a mission in Bethel, under the leadership of the Kilbucks and John's friend and classmate William H. Weinland (1861–1930) and his wife with carpenter Hans Torgersen. John Henry Kilbuck (1861–1922) and his wife, Edith Margaret Romig (1865–1933), were Moravian missionaries in southwestern Alaska in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[90] John H. Kilbuck was the first Lenape to be ordained as a Moravian minister. They served the Yupʼik, used their language in the Moravian Church in their area, and supported the development of a writing system for Yupʼik. Joseph H. Romig (1872–1951) was a frontier physician and Moravian Church missionary and Edith Margaret's brother, who served as Mayor of Anchorage, Alaska, from 1937 to 1938. Although the resemblances between Yupʼik and Moravian ideology and action may have aided the initial presentation of Christianity, they also masked profound differences in expectation.[91]

The Society of Jesus is a Christian male religious congregation of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits. In 1888, a Jesuit mission was established on Nelson Island and a year later moved to Akulurak (Akuluraq, the former site of St. Mary's Mission) at the mouth of the Yukon River.[28][84] Segundo Llorente (1906–1989) was a Spanish Jesuit, philosopher, and author who spent 40 years as a missionary among the Yupʼik people in the most remote parts of Alaska. His first mission was at Akulurak.

During Christmas Yupʼiks give gifts commemorating the departed.[5]

Health

Food, clean water, and sanitation

Traditional subsistence foods, such as fish and marine mammals, and to a lesser extent shellfish, are the only significant direct dietary sources of two important types of the omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA protect against heart disease and possibly diabetes. The replacement of a subsistence diet that is low in fat and high in omega-3s with a market-based Western diet has increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Alaska Natives. Many markets (store-bought) foods are high in fats, carbohydrates, and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases.[80]

Presently, two major problems for the growing population are water and sewage. Water from rivers and lakes is no longer potable as a result of pollution. Wells must be drilled and sewage lagoons built, but there are inherent problems as well. Chamber pots (qurrun in Yupʼik and Cupʼik, qerrun in Cupʼig) or honey buckets with waterless toilets are common in many rural villages in the state of Alaska, such as those in the Bethel area of the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta. About one-fourth of Alaska's 86,000 Native residents live without running water and use plastic buckets, euphemistically called honey buckets, for toilets.[92]

Alcohol epidemic

When Alaska became a state in 1959, state laws took control of alcohol regulation from the federal government and Native communities. In 1981, however, the state legislature changed the alcohol laws to give residents broad powers, via a local option referendum, to regulate how alcohol comes into their communities. The 1986 statutes have remained in effect since that time, with only relatively minor amendments to formalize the prohibition on home brew in a dry community (teetotal) and clarify the ballot wording and scheduling of local option referendums.[93] Alaska specifically allows local jurisdictions to elect to go dry by public referendum. State law allows each village to decide on restrictions, and some boroughs may prohibit it altogether.[94]

Since the 1960s there has been a dramatic rise in alcohol abuse, alcoholism, and associated violent behaviors, which have upset family and village life and resulted in physical and psychological injury, death, and imprisonment.[21] Alcohol abuse and suicide are more common among Alaska Natives than among most American racial/ethnic groups, especially among rural young Yupʼik men.[95][96][97] Unintentional injury (accidents) and intentional self-harm (suicide) have been among the leading causes of death in Native Alaska for many years.[98] Alaska Natives have higher rates of suicide than other Native Americans of the continental United States.[99] Alcohol abuse and dependence are associated with high rates of violence and a variety of health problems.[100]

As of 2009, about 12% of the deaths among American Indians and Alaska Natives were alcohol-related in the United States overall. Deaths due to alcohol among American Indians are more common in men and among Northern Plains Indians, but Alaska Natives showed the lowest incidence of death.[101] Existing data do indicate, however, that Alaska Native alcohol-related death rates are almost nine times the national average, and approximately 7% of all Alaska Native deaths are alcohol-related.[100]

A 1995-97 study by the Center for Disease Control found that in some continental Amerindian tribes the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder was 1.5 to 2.5 per 1000 live births, more than seven times the national average,[102] while among Alaska natives, the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder was as high as 5.6 per 1000 live births.[103]

Great Death

The Great Death[21] or the Big Sickness[104] (quserpak, literally "big cough") referred to the flu (influenza) pandemic (worldwide epidemic) of 1918. The 1918 flu pandemic (January 1918 – December 1920) was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic, the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus. It infected 500 million people across the world, including remote Pacific islands and the Arctic, and killed 50 to 100 million of them—three to five percent of the world's population[105]—making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history.

In the U.S., about 28% of the population suffered, and 500,000 to 675,000 died.[106] Native American tribes were particularly hard hit. In the Four Corners area alone, 3,293 deaths were registered among Native Americans.[107] Entire villages perished in Alaska.[108] The influenza epidemic across the Seward Peninsula in 1918 and 1919 wiped out about 50 percent of the native population of Nome (later an epidemic diphtheria during 1925 serum run to Nome), and 8 percent of the native population of Alaska. More than 1,000 people died in northwest Alaska,[109] and double that across the state,[109] and the majority were Alaska Natives. The Alaska Natives had no resistance to either of these diseases.[110] Native tribes had no immunity. As a result of epidemics, the Yupʼik world would go upside down; it would end.[21] From there it spread like a wildfire to all corners of Alaska, killing up to 60 percent of the Northern Indigenous and Alaskan Athabaskan people. This epidemic killed whole families and wiped out entire villages.[21] Many Kuskuqvamiut also migrated to the Bristol Bay region from the Kuskokwim River region to the north of Bristol Bay, especially after the influenza epidemic of 1918–19.[17]

Modern tribal unions

Alaska Native tribal entities for the Yupʼik are recognized by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs:

The Alaska Native Regional Corporations of the Yupʼik were established in 1971 when the United States Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA).

Notable Central Alaskan Yupʼik people

Non-enrolled lineal descendants

See also

References

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