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Arawakan languages

Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known as Maipurean (also Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is a language family that developed among ancient indigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated to Central America and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being Ecuador, Uruguay, and Chile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical Macro-Arawakan stock.

Name

The name Maipure was given to the family by Filippo S. Gilii in 1782, after the Maipure language of Venezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important Arawak language a century later. The term Arawak took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader Macro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the name Maipurean was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan vs Maipurean for details.

Dispersal

The Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis (ALMH)[1] suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a trade language or lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002)[2] and Eriksen (2014).[3] Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages.[1] On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the Austronesian and Austroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.[4]

Language contact

As one of the most geographically widespread language families in all of the Americas, Arawakan linguistic influence can be found in many language families of South America. Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawa, Bora-Muinane, Guahibo, Harakmbet-Katukina, Harakmbet, Katukina-Katawixi, Irantxe, Jaqi, Karib, Kawapana, Kayuvava, Kechua, Kwaza, Leko, Macro-Jê, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru, Mapudungun, Mochika, Mura-Matanawi, Nambikwara, Omurano, Pano-Takana, Pano, Takana, Puinave-Nadahup, Taruma, Tupi, Urarina, Witoto-Okaina, Yaruro, Zaparo, Saliba-Hodi, and Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.[5]

Languages

Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:

An early contrast between Ta-Arawak and Nu-Arawak, depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; nu- is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ta- is an innovation of one branch of the family.

Kaufman (1994)

The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:

Another language is also mentioned as "Arawakan":

Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.

Kaufman does not report the extinct Magiana of the Moxos group.

Aikhenvald (1999)

Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the Southern Outlier and Western branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the Maritime branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the North Amazonian branch of Northern Maipurean.

The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:

Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.

Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana with Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).

Ramirez (2001)

Internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2001):[6]

2 subgroups, 10 divisions († = extinct)

Walker & Ribeiro (2011), using Bayesian computational phylogenetics, classify the Arawakan languages as follows.

The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the Bayesian computational methods used.

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):[5]

(† = extinct)

Internal classification by Nikulin & Carvalho (2019: 270):[7]

Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:[7]

Ramirez (2020)

The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows.[8][9][10] This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001[6]), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).[5]

12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)

Varieties

Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[11]

Arawakan vs. Maipurean

In 1783, the Italian priest Filippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of the Maipure language of the Orinoco and Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family Maipure. It was renamed Arawak by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after Arawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are Maipurean or Maipuran and Arawak or Arawakan.

The term Arawakan is now used in two senses. South American scholars use Aruák for the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the Guajiboan and Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name Maipurean to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called core Arawak(an) or Arawak(an) proper instead.[12]

Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:

[The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the living Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.

Characteristics

The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix nu-, but Arawak proper has ta-. Other commonalities include a second-person singular pi-, relative ka-, and negative ma-.

The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.

Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the Quinquinaos, the Layanas, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the Aruan people spoke an Arawak dialect. The Guajira Peninsula (north of Venezuela) is occupied by the Wayuu tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Guajira peninsula.[13]

C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's British Guiana manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.[14]

Phonology

Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):

For more detailed notes on specific languages see Aikhenvald (1999) pp. 76–77.

Shared morphological traits

General morphological type

Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.[15]

Alienable and inalienable possession

Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.[16] This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:[16]

no-tiho

1SG-face

no-tiho

1SG-face

my face

tiho-ti

face-ALIEN

tiho-ti

face-ALIEN

(someone's) face

Classifiers

Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.[17] The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:

ha-dapana

DEM.INAN-CL:HOUSE

pa-dapana

one-CL:HOUSE

na-tape-dapana

3PL-medicine-CL:HOUSE

na-ya-dapana

3PL-POSS-CL:HOUSE

hanu-dapana

big-CL:HOUSE

heku

wood

na-ni-ni-dapana-mahka

3PL-make-TAV-CL:HOUSE-REC.PST.NVIS

ha-dapana pa-dapana na-tape-dapana na-ya-dapana hanu-dapana heku na-ni-ni-dapana-mahka

DEM.INAN-CL:HOUSE one-CL:HOUSE 3PL-medicine-CL:HOUSE 3PL-POSS-CL:HOUSE big-CL:HOUSE wood 3PL-make-TAV-CL:HOUSE-REC.PST.NVIS

‘This one big hospital of theirs has been made of wood’

Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb

Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb.[18] The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:[19]

ri-kapa-ni

3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT

ri-kapa-ni

3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT

'He sees him/it.'

ri-emhani

3SG.NFEM.AG-walk

ri-emhani

3SG.NFEM.AG-walk

'He walks.'

hape-ka-ni

be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT

hape-ka-ni

be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT

'He/it is cold.'

The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:[20]

Some examples

The Arawak word for maize is marisi, and various forms of this word are found among the related languages:

Lokono, marisi, Guyana.
Taíno, mahisi or mahis, Greater Antilles.
Cauixana, mazy, Rio Jupura.
Wayuu, maiki, Goajira Peninsula.
Passes, mary, Lower Jupura.
Puri, maky, Rio Paraiba.
Wauja, mainki, Upper Xingu River.

Geographic distribution

Arawak is the largest family in the Americas with the respect to number of languages. The Arawakan languages are spoken by peoples occupying a large swath of territory, from the eastern slopes of the central Andes Mountains in Peru and Bolivia, across the Amazon basin of Brazil, northward into Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago and Colombia on the northern coast of South America, and as far north as Nicaragua, Honduras, Belize and Guatemala.[21] The languages used to be found in Argentina and Paraguay as well.

Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago,[22] settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the Cusabo and Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.[23]

Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. A few Taino words are still used by English, Spanish, or Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno refugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.[citation needed]

Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent.[24] It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and Belize combined.[25]

Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent Ta-Arawakan (Ta-Maipurean) groups: Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; and Garifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next; Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and Yanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.[citation needed]

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Arawakan languages.[11]

Proto-language

Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):[26]

For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016)[5] and Ramirez (2019),[27] see the corresponding Portuguese article.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Michael, Lev; Chousou-Polydouri, Natalia (2020). "Computational phylogenetics and the classification of South American languages". Language and Linguistics Compass. 13 (12). doi:10.1111/lnc3.12358. ISSN 1749-818X. S2CID 210985305. Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-22.
  2. ^ Santos-Granero, F. 2002. The Arawakan matrix: ethos, language, and history in native South America. In Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia, ed. J Hill, F Santos-Granero, pp. 25–50. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
  3. ^ Eriksen L, Danielsen S. 2014. The Arawakan matrix. In The Native Language of South America: Origins, Development, Typology, ed. L O'Connor, P Muysken, pp. 152–76. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  4. ^ Blench, Roger. 2015. A expansão Arawak: tecendo linguística, arqueologia e antropologia Archived 2021-06-24 at the Wayback Machine. Talk given on April 29, 2015 at the Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem.
  5. ^ a b c d Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas Archived 2021-04-18 at the Wayback Machine. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.
  6. ^ a b Ramirez, Henri (2001). Línguas arawak da Amazônia Setentrional Archived 2020-07-18 at the Wayback Machine. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas. (PDF Archived 2024-05-26 at the Wayback Machine)
  7. ^ a b Nikulin, Andrey; Fernando O. de Carvalho. 2019. Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: um panorama Archived 2020-06-16 at the Wayback Machine. Macabéa – Revista Eletrônica do Netlli, v. 8, n. 2 (2019), p. 255-305. (PDF Archived 2020-06-16 at the Wayback Machine)
  8. ^ Ramirez, Henri (2020). Enciclopédia das línguas Arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados. Vol. 2 (1 ed.). Curitiba: Editora CRV. doi:10.24824/978655578892.1. ISBN 978-65-5578-892-1. S2CID 242704551.[permanent dead link]
  9. ^ Ramirez, Henri (2020). Enciclopédia das línguas Arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados. Vol. 3 (1 ed.). Curitiba: Editora CRV. doi:10.24824/978652510234.4. ISBN 978-65-251-0234-4. S2CID 243563290.[permanent dead link]
  10. ^ Ramirez, Henri; França, Maria Cristina Victorino de. (2019). Línguas Arawak da Bolívia Archived 2022-03-31 at the Wayback Machine. LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas, 19, e019012. doi:10.20396/liames.v19i0.8655045
  11. ^ a b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
  12. ^ Walker & Ribeiro (2011).
  13. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 73.
  14. ^ Deniker (1900), pp. 556–557.
  15. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 80.
  16. ^ a b Aikhenvald (1999), p. 82.
  17. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 83.
  18. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 87.
  19. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 89.
  20. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 88.
  21. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 65.
  22. ^ Lawler, Andrew (December 23, 2020). "Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals". National Geographic. Archived from the original on December 23, 2020.
  23. ^ Rudes (2004).
  24. ^ Aikhenvald (1999), p. 72
  25. ^ "Garifuna" (2015).
  26. ^ Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed from DiACL Archived 2023-03-07 at the Wayback Machine, 9 February 2020.
  27. ^ Ramirez, Henri (2019). Enciclopédia das línguas arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados Archived 2022-03-31 at the Wayback Machine. (in press)

References

Further reading

Lexicons
Data sets
Reconstructions

External links