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Generalissimo

Francisco Franco, Generalissimo of Spain
Francisco Franco, Generalissimo of Spain from 1936 to 1975.

Proposed insignia of the Generalissimus of USSR (only held by Joseph Stalin)

Generalissimo[1] (/ˌdʒɛn(ə)rəˈlɪsɪmoʊ/ JEN-(ə-)rə-LIS-ih-moh) is a military rank of the highest degree, superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the states where they are used.

Usage

The word generalissimo (pronounced [dʒeneraˈlissimo]), an Italian term, is the absolute superlative of generale ('general') thus meaning "the highest-ranking of all generals". The superlative suffix -issimo itself derives from Latin -issimus,[2][3][4][5][6] meaning "utmost, to the highest grade". Similar cognates in other languages include generalísimo in Spanish, generalíssimo in Portuguese, généralissime in French, and generalissimus in Latin. The Russian word генералиссимус, generalissimus comes from Latin.[7]

Historically, this rank was given to a military officer leading an entire army or the entire armed forces of a state,[8]usually only subordinate to the sovereign.[9] Alternatively, those of imperial blood or the commanders-in-chief of several allied armies could gain the title.[10]The military leader Albrecht von Wallenstein in 1632 became the first imperial generalissimo (general of the generals) of the Holy Roman Empire. Other usage of the title has been for the commander of the united armies of several allied powers (such as Ferdinand Foch on the Western Front in 1918 or Joseph Stalin on the Eastern Front in 1945), or if a senior military officer becomes a chief of state or a head of government (like Chiang Kai-shek in the Republic of China or Francisco Franco in Spain).

The rank generalissimus of the Soviet Union would have been a generalissimo but some sources assert that Joseph Stalin refused to accept the rank.[11][12] In fact the grade was established by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, which did not need the approval of Stalin.[13] The rank of generalissimo for Stalin was used also by Western diplomacy.[14]

In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with military officers who took dictatorial power in their respective countries, especially due to the Spanish leader Francisco Franco having this rank. As such, it is used in literature depicting fictional Latin American dictatorial regimes, for example Father Hilary's Holiday by Bruce Marshall.[15]

List of generalissimos

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Napoleonic Marshal of France Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte Corvo, was elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Riksdag of the Estates and King Charles XIII in 1810. Given his exalted French military rank, the rank of generalissimus was likely granted him in order to give him precedence over "mere" Swedish field marshals. Once he became King of Sweden and Norway in 1818, the generalissimus rank became superfluous.

References

  1. ^ "generalissimo". Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and Improved. Archibald Constable. 1823. p. 484.
  2. ^ "issimus". Webster's Third New International Dictionary., French Larousse Étymologique.
  3. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on June 5, 2015. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
  4. ^ "Define Generalissimo at Dictionary.com". Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 6, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
  5. ^ "Generalissimo – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on June 14, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
  6. ^ "Definition of generalissimo – Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxford Dictionary of English. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012.
  7. ^ Arsenyev, Konstantin; Petrushevsky, Fyodor (1892). "Генералиссимус" [Generalissimo]. Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Vol. 15: Гальберг – Германий. F. A. Brockhaus (Leipzig), I. A. Efron (Saint Petersburg). p. 312.
  8. ^ "generalissimo". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) - "A supreme commander; spec. an officer in command of a combined military, naval, and air force, or of several armies. Also: a prefixed title or form of address for such a commander. Frequently figurative."
  9. ^ Thomas Hobbes (1660), Chapter XVIII: Of the Rights of Sovereigns by institution, archived from the original on July 3, 2015, retrieved August 16, 2015
  10. ^ Arsen'ev, Konstantin Konstantinovich, ed. (1892). "Генералиссимус" [Generalissimus]. Энциклопедический Словарь Ф.А.Брокгауза и И.А.Ефрона (in Russian). Brockhaus and Efron. Retrieved August 2, 2024. Титул Г. всегда присваивался только лицам царской крови или же главнокомандующим несколькими союзными армиями.
  11. ^ Service, Robert (2005). Stalin: A Biography. Harvard University Press. pp. 493, 549. ISBN 978-0-674-01697-2.
  12. ^ S. M. Shtemenko. The General Staff in the War Years. Moscow, 1985. Vietnamese version (vol. 2) . pp. 587–588.
  13. ^ Сборник законов СССР и Указов Президиума Верховного Совета СССР (1938 — июль 1956) / Сост.: М. И. Юмашев, Б. А. Жалейко. — М., 1956. — С. 202.
  14. ^ "Generalissimo Stalin (Hansard, 7 November 1945)". Archived from the original on February 13, 2019. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
  15. ^ Marshall, B: Father Hilary's Holiday Doubleday & Company, New York 1965.
  16. ^ "Adolf Johan". sok.riksarkivet.se. Retrieved September 13, 2023.
  17. ^ Whitefield, George. "Annual report of Major General George W. Davis, United States Army commanding Division of the Philippines from October 1, 1902, to July 26, 1903" (1903) [Textual record]. Archive.Org, ID: annualreportofma03unit, p. 188. Boston Public Library. OCLC 1039990497.
  18. ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 39. John Murray, London.
  19. ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 127. John Murray, London.
  20. ^ Scott, Franklin (1935). Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon. P. 153. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
  21. ^ (in Swedish) Ancienneté och Rang-Rulla öfver Krigsmagten år 1813
  22. ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King. P. 4. John Murray, London.
  23. ^ "Karl X Gustav". sok.riksarkivet.se. Retrieved September 18, 2023.
  24. ^ The New York Times, December 4, 1926, pg.6.
  25. ^ Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 562. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2018. The Earl of Athlone [Godard van Reede] was set on by the other Dutch Generals, to insist on his quality of Velt-Marshal, and to have the command with the Earl of Marlborough by turns. But, though he was now in high reputation by his late conduct, the States obliged him to yield this point to the Earl of Marlborough, whom they declared Generalissimo of all their forces, and sent orders to all their Generals and other Officers to obey him.
  26. ^ John McGroarty :The Gray Man of Christ: Generalissimo Foch (1919) Los Angeles, Walter A Abbott
  27. ^ Andermann, Jens; Rowe, William (2006). Images of Power: Iconography, Culture and the State in Latin America. Berghahn Books. p. 176. ISBN 9781845452124. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
  28. ^ "Franco of Iberia". Time, October 18, 1943. cover.
  29. ^ Pock, Johann Joseph (1724). Der politische, katholische Passagier, durchreisend alle hohe Höfe, Republiquen, Herrschafften und Länder der ganzen Welt. Brechenmacher. p. 832. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2018. wurde 1720. von dem König in Schweden ... zum Generalissimo der sämmtlichen Schwedischen Trouppen ernennet
  30. ^ a b Roper, Michael (1998). The Records of the War Office and Related Departments, 1660–1964. Kew, Surrey: Public Record Office. p. 5.
  31. ^ Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 104. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2018. The Prince was Duke of Cumberland, Lord High-Admiral of Great-Britain and Ireland, Generalissimo of all her Majesty's forces both by sea and land, and Warden of the Cinque-ports.
  32. ^ Rioseco, Pedro. "Generalísimo Máximo Gómez, ejemplo de internacionalismo y genio militar". Contraloría General de la República (in Spanish). Archived from the original on September 20, 2022. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  33. ^ Comunica Miguel Hidalgo su proclamaci n como General simo de Am rica Archived September 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Documentos Historicos de Mexico, October 24, 1810.
  34. ^ Bix, Herbert P. (October 13, 2009). Hirohito And The Making Of Modern Japan. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-186047-8. Archived from the original on June 4, 2022. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
  35. ^ Anna, Timothy E. (1985). "The Rule of Agustin de Iturbide: A Reappraisal". Journal of Latin American Studies. 17 (1): 79–110. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00009202. ISSN 0022-216X. JSTOR 157498. S2CID 145054515.
  36. ^ Doughty, Robert A. (June 30, 2009). Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War. Harvard University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-674-03431-0. Archived from the original on July 8, 2022. Retrieved July 8, 2022.
  37. ^ "Chapter XXII: Act Act To Organize The Military Forces Of The Kingdom". Laws of His Majesty Kalakaua, King of the Hawaiian Islands: Passed by the Legislative Assembly at Its Session of 1886. Honolulu: Black & Auld. 1886. pp. 37–41. OCLC 42350849. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2017.
  38. ^ Peck, Harry Thurston (1898). The International Cyclopedia: A Compendium of Human Knowledge, Rev. with Large Additions. Dodd, Mead. p. 238. Archived from the original on May 5, 2022. Retrieved May 4, 2022.
  39. ^ "The Daily Yomuiri, 29 September 2010, Kim Jong Un spotlighted / 'Heir apparent' promoted to general, makes DPRK media debut". Archived from the original on October 2, 2010. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
  40. ^ a b "Late North Korean Leader Promoted to Generalissimo". Voice of America. February 14, 2012. Archived from the original on May 8, 2022. Retrieved May 8, 2022.
  41. ^ "The Australian, 15 February 2012, Late Kim Jong-il awarded highest honour by North". Archived from the original on February 17, 2012. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
  42. ^ Rapin de Thoyras (M., Paul) (1745). Nicholas Tindal (ed.). The History of England. Vol. IV, part 1 (French original: Histoire d'Angleterre, 1724–27). J. and P. Knapton. p. 68. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2018. But an unexpected alteration was suddenly made, and the French King declared the Duke of Burgundy Generalissimo of his forces, appointing the Duke de Vendosme [sic: Vendôme] to serve under him; and he was to be accompanied by the Duke of Berry.
  43. ^ "Menschikow und Stalin waren die einzigen Heerführer der russischen Geschichte, die sich 'Generalissimus' nennen ließen." [Menshikov and Stalin were the only military leaders in Russian history who declared themselves "generalissimus".] Jena, Detlev (1996): Die russischen Zaren in Lebensbildern, Graz, p. 520.
  44. ^ "Inauguration of the exhibition José María Morelos y Pavón. Generalissimo of Mexican America armies". Gobierno de México (in Spanish). Noticias – Dirección General de Asuntos internacionales – Secretaría de Cultura. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
  45. ^ Bletch Chirguh, La Question Kurde: ses origines et ses causes, Le Caire, Impimerie Paul Barbey, 1930, front cover, Ihsan Nouri Pacha Généralissime des forces nationales Kurdes (in French)
  46. ^ "Portrait of Prince Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel (1714-1774)". hermitagemuseum.org. 2023. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  47. ^ Joseph Stalin was appointed generalissimus of the Soviet Union. See: Ivan Aleksandrovich Venediktov, Selskokhozyaystvennaya entsiklopediya, Vol. 4, Gos. izd-vo selkhoz, 1956, p. 584. Archived March 11, 2023, at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
  48. ^ Linda Pomerantz-Zhang (1992). Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 255. ISBN 962209287X. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved October 31, 2010.
  49. ^ Taylor, Jay (April 15, 2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China. Harvard University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-674-05471-4. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  50. ^ Stanley Walker, Generalissimo Rafael L. Trujillo (1955) Caribbean Library
  51. ^ A short history of Germany. Ernest Flagg Henderson, 1908
  52. ^ Tilly und Wallenstein – ein Vergleich zweier Heerführer. Harry Horstmann, 2010. (in German)
  53. ^ Chadwick, Bruce (2005). George Washington's War: The Forging of a Revolutionary Leader and the American Presidency. Sourcebooks, Inc. p. 40. ISBN 9781402226106. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2018.
  54. ^ Public Law 94-479 of January 19, 1976 to provide for the appointment of George Washington to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States
  55. ^ Moore, Frederick (June 18, 1927). "Chang Tso-lin Made Dictator in Move to Beat Back South". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 18, 2020. Retrieved February 4, 2020.