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Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa

The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (Sanskrit तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मण, meaning 'Brāhmaṇa of the school of Tittri', abbreviated to 'TB') is a commentary on the Krishna Yajurveda. Considered by academics to be an appendix or extension of the Taittirīya Samhita, the first two books (ashṭakas) largely consist of hymns and Mantras to the Vedic-era Devas, as well as Mythology, astronomy, and astrology (i.e. the Nakshatras); the third book contains commentaries and instructions on Vedic sacrificial rites such as the Purushamedha, Kaukili-Sutramani, Ashvamedha, and Agnicayana.

Recorded around 300–400 BCE, it is prevalent in southern India in areas such in Andhra Pradesh, south and east of Narmada (Gujarat), and areas on the banks of the Godavari river down to the sea.[1]

Nomenclature

The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (Sanskrit तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मण) can be loosely translated as 'explanations of the sacred knowledge of the school of Tittiri'.

Tittiri

According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, the sage Tittiri (or Taittiri) was a pupil of Yaska (estimated 300-400 BCE).[5] According to the Vishnu Purana, Yaska was, in turn, a pupil of Vaiśampáyana (estimated 500 BCE).[6] Tittiri is also stated in the Mahabharata to have attended 'the Yaga [Vedic ritual sacrifice] conducted by Uparicaravasu' (Dvapara Yuga, before 3000 BCE).[4]

H.H. Wilson states that 'the term Taittiríya is more rationally accounted for in the Anukramańí or index of the Krishna Yajurveda. It is there said that Vaiśampáyana taught it to Yaska, who taught it to Tittiri, who also became a teacher; whence the term Taittiríya, for a grammatical rule, explains it to mean, 'The Taittiríyas are those who read what was said or repeated by Tittiri'.'[7]

Summary

Relation to the YajurVeda

The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) states that the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 'belongs to Krishna Yajurveda and [is] divided into three khandas [or ashṭakas, i.e. books]... It has both [a mixture] of Mantras and Brahmans [instructions or explanations] and [is] composed in poetic and prose manner'.[8]

A.B Keith states that 'at a comparatively early period the formulae [i.e. mantras from the Samhitas of the YajurVeda] were accompanied by explanations, called Brahmanas, texts pertaining to the Brahman or sacred lore, in which the different acts of the ritual were given Symbolical interpretations, the words of the texts commented on, and stories told to illustrate the sacrificial performance... a mass of old material, partly formulae, partly Brahmana, which had not been incorporated in the Taittiriya Samhita was collected together in the Taittiriya Brahmana, which in part contains matter more recent than the Samhita, but in part has matter as old as, at any rate, the later portions of that text'.[9]

M. Winternitz adds that the 'Taittiriya-Brahmana of the Krishna Yajurveda is nothing but a continuation of the Taittiriya-Samhita [hymns and mantras], for the Brahmanas were already included in the Samhitas of the Krishna YajurVeda. The Taittiriya-Brahmana, therefore, contains only later additions to the Samhita'.[10] S. Shrava concurs, elaborating that 'This brahmana is an appendix to the Taittirīya saṁhitā. The main purpose of expounding the brahmana was to complete the incomplete portions of the main saṁhitā. It abounds with hymns... a subtle form of the story of Yama and Nachiketā is available in the brahmana [see Katha Upanishad of the Katha Shakha, also related to the Krishna YajurVeda]’.[1]

Structure

Shrava states that the 'Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa has three ashṭakas [books]. The first two ashṭakas are named as pārakshudra and agnihotra. Portions of the third ashṭaka are individually named [i.e. after the sacrificial rites expounded, etc.]. These three ashṭakas have 28 prapāṭhakas [chapters]. Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara,[11] in his commentary names these as praśnas. [His] edition published from Mysore enumerated 78 anuvākas [sections] in the first [ashṭaka], 96 in the second and 179 in the third ashṭaka, i.e. 353 anuvākas in all’.[1]

R.L. Kashyap further elaborates while differing from Sharva slightly, stating that each ashṭaka of the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 'is divided into Prapāṭhakas which are divided into anuvāka-s. Each anuvāka is a long rhythmic prose passage without any punctuation. Ashṭaka 1 has 8 Prapāṭhakas, Ashṭaka 2 has 8 Prapāṭhakas, [and] Ashṭaka 3 has 12 Prapāṭhakas. All these 28 Prapāṭhakas (8+8+12) have 338 anuvākas [15 less than stated by Shrava]. The name Ashṭaka is given because each main part has 8 main parts or Prapāṭhaka[s]'.[12]

Ashṭakas and Prapāṭhakas

Based on information provided by Kashyap and R. Mitra,[12][13][14] the chapters (prapāṭhakas) for each of the books (ashṭakas or sometimes referred to as kandas) are as follows:

Ashṭaka 1: Pārakshudra

The Nakshatras

[If] there is a person who loves riches and feels that 'may all persons give me riches' [then] he should worship Agni in the Phalguni Star. For the Phalguni star the deity is Aryaman. He gives in charity [and] is said to be sacred (aryama). Persons desire to give him riches.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 1, Anuvaka 2, Khandika 4[15]
Page of the Taittirīya Samhita (Sanskrit).

D.M. Harness states that the ''stars of the Zodiacal belt had a particular importance as reflecting and projecting heavenly influences that the Planets travelling through them energised... The Vedic Nakshatras arose from a spiritual perception of the cosmos. Nakshatras are the mansions of the Gods or cosmic powers and of the Rishis or sages. They can also project negative or anti-divine forces, just as certain planets like Saturn have well known malefic effects. The term Nakshatra refers to a means (tra) of worship (naksha) or approach... The Nakshatras dispense the fruits of karma... For this reason Vedic rituals and Meditations to the present day follow the timing of the Nakshatras... [which] are of prime [importance] in muhurta or electional astrology for determining favorable times for actions, particularly sacramental or sacred actions like marriage... A system of 28 lunar mansions [i.e. Nakshatras] was used in the Middle East and in China as well. But in the West it was all but forgotten by a greater emphasis on the twelve signs of the Zodiac... Indeed, it could be argued that the signs arose from the Nakshatras'.[16]

Kashyap adds that the 28 Nakshatras - usually clusters rather than single stars - also determine favourable (and unfavourable) times for birth, elaborating that the 'star which is nearest to the moon at their birth-time is the birth-star... [and] Each star has its own deity'.[12] The Nakshatras are detailed in 1.1.2, 1.5.1 (ashṭaka 1); and 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 (ashṭaka 3, see below). Kashyap lists them with corresponding deities, common names, and names in Astronomy (Volume 1, Appendix 3):[12]

Avatars of Vishnu

Varaha the Boar Avatar

In primordial times, the entire universe was covered with moving waters. Prajapati was amazed and engaged in tapas to understand [what was] happening. How did it happen? He saw a lotus petal (pushkaraparna). He thought, Yes, there is something that wants to come out. Transforming himself into a boar, he went inside the water. He went into the earth deep below. There, he saw soft mud. Then, he spread that mud on [the] pushkaraparna (lotus leaf). Whatever may have happened, the basic nature of earth was retrained in the land (wet mud). In that land Bhumitva (earth-nature) was retained. To dry the wet land the creator commanded Vayu to blow on the wet lands. Then that land was full of gravel (or sand mixed with gravel). He realised that the land was full of peace (and fertile)... The land discovered (or prepared) by the boar (varaha) had the materials needed for performing [a] yajna...

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 1, Anuvaka 3, Khandikas 6–7[17]

Varaha is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of lifting the Earth out of the cosmic ocean. A.A. Macdonell states that this 'boar appears in a cosmogonic character in the SB [Shatapatha Brahmana] (14, 1, 2) where under the name of Emũṣa he is stated to have raised up the earth from the waters. In the TS [Taittirīya Samhita] (7, 1, 5) this cosmogonic boar, which raised the earth from the primeval waters, is described as a form of Prajāpati. This modification of the myth is further expanded in the TB [Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa] (1, 1, 3). In the post-Vedic mythology of the Rāmāyana and the Purãṇas, the boar which raises the earth, has become of the Avatar of Vishnu'.[18] Varaha is also mentioned in 1.7.9.56 ('yád varāháḥ'),[19] but an English translation has not been found.

Vamana the Dwarf Avatar

When the completion of yajna does not happen in a year (samvatsara) then everything is not stable. Then one has to seek the grace of Vishnu (Vamana) by performing a special rite on the ekadashi day. Yajna means Vishnu (worshipping Vishnu). They perform yajna only for stabilising. They depend on Indra and Agni. Indra and Agni gibe the abode for Gods (devas). Devas only seek shelter in them and only depend on them.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 2, Anuvaka 5, Khandika 1[17]

Vamana is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of taking back the three worlds from the Asura-king Bali in three steps. Here Vamana is explicitly mentioned in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa; the Sanskrit transliteration for this mention is (emphasis added): ' vaiṣṇaváṃ vāmanám ā́labante' (1.2.5.40.4).[19] As illustrated in the section below for ashṭaka 2, there are also several references to 'Vishnu steps' or 'Vishnu strides', associated with the Vamana avatar.

Narasimha the Man-Lion Avatar

You both (Ashvins) drink sura [alcohol] along with the Asura Namucha. You are protectors of happiness and are Soma-drinkers. You both protect the Indra-power in the Yajamana.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 4, Anuvaka 2, Khandika 1[20]

Narasimha is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of destroying the Asura-king Hiranyakashipu to protect the king's devotee son, Prahlada. D.A. Soifer states that 'Brahmana literature yields what must be considered as the prototype of that [Narasimha] myth, the Indra-Namuchi myth', adding that other academics such as Devasthali concur that although elements of the Namuchi legend are 'scattered throughout Brahmana literature (cf. VS [Vajaseneyi Samhita] 10.34; PB [Pancavimsa Brahmana] 12.6.8, MS [Maitrayani Samhita] IV.34; [and] TB [Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa] 1.7.1.6)', the fullest version is in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.[21]

An English translation of TB 1.7.1.6 referred to by Soifer has not been found. The TITUS Sanskrit transliteration for this mention is (emphasis added): 'námucim āsuráṃ na álabata' (1.7.1.6.3).[19] An indirect reference to the legend via a mention of Namuchi from 1.4.2.1 has been cited instead, as above. Notably, Prahlada, the Vaishnava son of Hiranyakashipu in Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana, is also mentioned (e.g. 1.5.9.1 and 1.5.10.8) where he is explicitly stated to be the son of Kayadhu (wife of Hiranyakashipu).[22]

Kali Yuga

There are four well-known stomas [hymns or mantras] which have to be recited. However because of the (evil) effects of Kali Yuga, (some say that) there are 5 stomas. (It is not correct), there are only four stomas as part of the Jyotishtoma (yajna).

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 5, Anuvaka 1, Khandika 11[23]

There are four yugas in each cyclical era in Hinduism, with Kali Yuga, the present yuga, being the last and most destructive. K. Ishwaran seems to incorrectly state that 'there seems to be no unequivocal reference to the cyclical notion of time in the Sruti [literature]... the word yuga does not mean an age or the theory of four yugas (Kane 1946:886-8), and the words Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali mean throws of dice (1946:886-8). The word Kali Yuga does not occur at all. Words like Krta Yuga occur (Ṣaḍviṃṡa Brāhmaṇa V.6) but are not a part of any scheme of cosmic cycles'.[24]

This assertion would however seems to be contradicted by the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa. In the first instance (1.5.1, above), the assertion of Ishwaran, Kane, etc., would mean a throw of dice would affect whether one should recite four or five stomas for the Jyotishtoma sacrifice, which is nonsensical (the Jyotishtoma sacrifice itself requires 'sixteen officiating priests... It is a sacrifice considered as the typical form of a whole class of sacrificial ceremonies. E. jyotis light, and stoma a sacrifice').[25] In addition, 3.4.16 (Anuvāka 16, enumerated in the section on the third ashṭaka) is listed as (emphasis added) 'To the presiding divinities of dice and of the Satya Yuga, etc., dice-players, those who frequent gambling halls, and the like...'. Thus, the concept of the yugas are connected with dice but do not seem to the same thing.

Animal welfare

[The] (Sun-god) Sūrya is worshipped for accepting and helping animals. By worshipping [the] sun, there is all-round development. The animal offering is possible (without any violence).

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 2, Anuvaka 3, Khandika 2[26]

Kashyap comments on a rite detailed in (1.1.6.8) that 'Offering an animal to Rudra does not mean that the animal is killed. Often the animal which is offered becomes free and it lives on the grass in the common pasture of the community without being controlled by a human. The idea is mentioned in several places in the Yajur Veda'.[12] Other relevant extracts include

Ashṭaka 2: Agnihotra

The Rishi questioned the priest "What is the aim or goal in performing the sattra Yajna? The answer: Now we are unable to grow the grass and plants needed by the cow. By doing this Yajna, the rains will be released from Heaven (diva). These drops of water will make the plants grow (feeding the cow). The fathers (pitara) have the understanding (visha) of the Agnihotra and hence cause the rains...

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 1, Anuvaka 1, Khandika 2[27]

P. Mitra states that the Agnihotra is an oblation to the fire-god, Agni.[28] According to M. Rajendralala, as 'a manual of rituals the first kanda [or prapāṭhaka] of the Taittirīya Brahmana opens with Agnihotra or the establishment of the household fire. This was the first duty of every householder and of a Brahman immediately after being invested with the Brahmanical cord, and marriage. Every householder and his wife had to devote their careful attention to the maintenance of this fire and to offering to it oblations of butter and the booking thereon of frumenty [a dish of hulled wheat boiled in milk].'[14]

Prapāṭhakas and Anuvākas

Mitra details all chapters (prapāṭhakas) and sections (anuvākas) of the second book (ashṭaka) with descriptive titles (8 prapāṭhakas, consisting of 96 anuvākas; original spelling unchanged):[13]

The Kaukili Sautramani Sacrifice

A.B. Keith states that the Kaukili (, Kaukila or Kaukila) 'Sautramani is not a Soma sacrifice, but is classified by the Sutras as a Haviryajna, though its chief characteristic in its form as recorded is the offering of Surā [liquor]. It has two distinct forms, the Kaukili, which is an independent offering, the other the Carakā, an offering which forms part of another offering, as the Rājasūya [performed by ancient kings of India] and the Agnicayana [building of a Fire-Altar]... The differences between the two forms are of detail: thus the Kaukili is marked by the singing by the Brahman of certain Sāmans [hymns]. The use of the Surā is accompanied by offerings of animals, to Indra a bull, to Sarasvati a sheep, and to the Ashvins a goat'.[29]

R. Woodard adds that 'the Vedic Sautramani belongs chiefly to Indra, taking its name from his epithet Satraman, 'good protector'. The Vedic rite is, however, rather complex; while Indra is the principal recipient, deities of the realm of fertility and fecundity [reproduction] figure prominently'.[30]

Avatars of Vishnu

Garuda the Mount of Vishnu, Kurma the Tortoise Avatar, and Krishna

The Devas said they want immortality. They said that Vaya (the bird Garuda) is the giver (or bringer) of Amrita. The bird doing the task of bringing the Amrita went back to Heaven.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 2, Anuvaka 5, Khandika 2[31]

Kurma is most commonly associated in the Itihāsa (epics) and Puranas with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, referred to as the Samudra manthan. The ocean is churned with a mountain on the back of the Tortoise avatar to acquire the nectar of immortality called Amrita for the gods, led by Indra. From the Mahabharata:

The gods then went to the king of tortoises ['Kurma-raja'] and said to him, 'O Tortoise-king, thou wilt have to hold the mountain on thy back!' The Tortoise-king agreed, and Indra contrived to place the mountain on the former's back. And the gods and the Asuras made of Mandara [Mountain] a churning staff and Vasuki the cord, and set about churning the deep for amrita...

— Mahabharata (translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883–1896), Book 1, Astika Parva, Chapter XVIII (18)[32]

Garuda is also frequently mentioned in respect to Kurma and the Samudra manthan legend. For example, in the Mahabharata (1.29–31) Garuda seeks the Amrita produced by the churning of the ocean to free himself and his mother from slavery.[33] In the Bhagavata Purana (Canto 8, Chapter 6), Krishna carries the Mandara mountain on the back of Garuda to the Ocean of Milk.[34] The tortoise (kūrma or kurmo) is also mentioned in 2.4.3.6 (2.4.3.23 of the TITUS transliteration; emphasis added): asyá kurmo harivo medínaṃ tvā.[19] Notably, 2.8.2.23 states that a mountain represents ignorance, and 2.4.6.21 states:

The wise (amūra) Devas who win all the worlds (kshetra) do the act of churning (manthan) the Vaishvānara to release the power of immortality (amṛta).

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 4, Anuvaka 6, Khandika 21[35]

Vamana the Dwarf Avatar

That Vishnu affirms on high by his mightiness, he is like a terrible lion that ranges in difficult places, yes, his abode is on the mountain-tops. In this three wide movements, all the worlds find their dwelling places.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 4, Anuvaka 3, Khandika 10[36]

Vamana is most commonly associated with the Puranic legend of taking back the three worlds from the Asura-king Bali in three steps. N. Aiyangar notes that 'In the Rig-Veda Vishnu is celebrated for his three strides by which he measures the whole universe'. These so-called 'Vishnu-strides' (Symbolically) factor into Vedic sacrificial rites enumerated by Brahamical literature such as the Shatapatha Brāhmaṇa (e.g. 6.7.4.7–8)[37] and the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (e.g. 2.4.3.10, as quoted, and 2.4.6.3).

Narasimha the Man-Lion Avatar

Narasimha is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of destroying the Asura-king Hiranyakashipu to protect the king's devotee son, Prahlada. Further references to Namuchi, considered by Soifer to be the 'prototype' of the Narasimha legend,[21] are made in 2.6.3.3 (defeated by the Ashvins rather than Indra) and 2.6.13.1 (stole sacrificial offerings from Indra).

Duties of kingship

Impel the King to take care of the citizens just like a father. Impel the king to extend his kingdom (varimanam). When the king extends his kingdom helping all, the Deva Savita reqards him with many animals and all types of help.

Let the king take care of all the animals well, moving amidst them. When the king who has done the Rajasuya [rite] punishes only the bad persons appropriately, and rewards the good men, he is learning well the duties of a good king.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 7, Anuvaka 15, Khandikas 2–3[38]

Animal welfare

Further to the duty of a king to take good care of animals (as elaborated in 2.7.15.2-3), Kashyap comments in regards to 2.1.1.4 that here 'is a brief mention of the human duty that the calves of the cow giving milk have the highest priority. Only after their needs are satisfied [is] the remaining milk... used for the Yajna. This discipline should be maintained for ten days and nights. If the milk remaining is given to the calves at night, then the Deva Rudra is not pleased since he is the lord of the cows. Ample milk should be given to the calves before the use of milk in the Yajna'.[12]

Cutting down trees

May Varuna free us from the sins of cutting [down] valuable trees. As effectively as a bath washes off the sins done by me in handling the residues of the butter used in Yajna.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 2), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 2, Prapathaka 6, Anuvaka 6, Khandika 8[39]

Ashṭaka 3

Rajendralala states that the 'first subject treated of in the third kanda [ashṭaka, 'book'] are the Constellations, some of which are auspicious and others the contrary. Then we have the rites appropriate during the wane and waxing of the moon, Darsa paurnamasa, as well as on the full moon and the new moon. The fourth chapter treats of human sacrifices, and then of a number of minor rites with special prayers. Then follow the mantras appropriate for the sacrifice of special animals. This is followed by a chapter on expiations and defects in the observance and performance of ceremonies. The eighth and ninth [prapāṭhakas, 'chapters'] are devoted to the horse sacrifice, which is the grandest ceremony enjoined on householders, especially appropriate for kings, and involves a number of rites and ceremonies (which are fully detailed in the table of contents) as also a number of ovations of different kinds'.[14]

Prapāṭhakas and Anuvākas

W. E. Hale and B. Smith cite issues 92–108 of the academic journal Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, to enumerate the structure and content of the third ashṭaka.[40][41] Mitra details all chapters (prapāṭhakas) and sections (anuvākas) with descriptive titles (12 prapāṭhakas, consisting of 164 listed anuvākas; original spelling unchanged):[14]

The Nakshatras

The star Revati follows the path of the deva Pushan. He is the lord of nourishment, protector of pashu (cattle) and makes all strong with plenitude. May these havis (offered to him) be delightful to him. He completes the yajna for us indicating the many correct paths...

May [the] Revati star protect our little animals; Pusha deva protects the cows and horses.

— Taittiriya Brahmana (Volume 1), translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 3, Prapathaka 1, Anuvaka 1, Khandikas 22–23[42]

Details are provided in the section dealing with the first ashṭaka (see above).

The Purushamedha

1. "To a (divinity of the) Brahman (cast), a Brahmana should be sacrificed (alabhate); 2. To a (divinity of the) Kshatriya (caste), a Kshatriya; 3. To the Maruts, a Vaisya; 4. To Tapa (the divinity presiding over penances), a Sudra; 5. To Tamas (the presiding divinity of darkness) a thief; 6. To Naraka (the divinity of hells) a Virana (one who blows out sacrificial fires); 7. To Papaman (the divinity of sins), a hermaphrodite (or a eunuch); 8. To Akray (the divinity of commerce), an Ayogu (one who acts against the ordinances of the Sastra); 9. To Kama (the divinity of love), a courtesan; 10. To Atikrushta (a detested divinity), a Magadha (the son of a Vaisya by a Kshatriya woman)...

— On Human Sacrifices in Ancient India by Rājendralāla Mitra (1876), Extract from the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (Prapāṭhaka 4), p.96[43]

D.M. Knipe states that there 'is no inscriptional or other record that a purusua-medha [meaning 'human-sacrifice'] was ever performed, leading some scholars to suggest it was simply invented to round out sacrificial possibilities... The significance of the entire enterprise is compromised when [the] SB [Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa] 13.6.2[44] presents a deus ex machina, an ethereal voice that intervenes to halt the proceedings: a sacrificer always eats the victim, man would therefore eat man, not an acceptable act, ergo, no performance'.[43] The 'human sacrifice' was thus symbolic in nature, as were animal sacrifices (e.g. symbolised by plant-based foods offered and consumed in rituals, such as rice-cake; an example is found in 1.6.2.3–4 in the Shatapatha).[45] The verse referred to by Knipe states:

Then a voice said to him, 'Purusha, do not consummate (these human victims): if thou were to consummate them, man (purusha) would eat man.' Accordingly, as soon as fire had been carried round them, he set them free, and offered oblations to the same divinities, and thereby gratified those divinities, and, thus gratified, they, gratified him with all objects of desire.

— Satapatha Brahmana, translated by Julius Eggeling (1900), Kanda XIII, Adhyaya VI, Brahmana I, Verse 13[46]

However, R. Mitra is less convinced, stating that neither 'Aspastambha [founder of a Shakha (school) of Yajurveda] nor Sayana [commentator on the Vedic texts] has a word to say about the human victims being Symbolical... it must be added, however, that Apastambha is very brief and obscure in his remarks, and it would be hazardous to draw a positive conclusion from the insufficient data supplied by him, particularly as the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa is positive on the subject of the human victims being let off after consecration; though the fact of the Brahmana being much later than the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, may justify the assumption that the practice of the Kanva [and Madhyandina] school[s] can be no guide to the followers of the Taittiriyaka'.[47]

The Ashvamedha

Rick F. Talbott states that the 'total ceremony of the Ashvamedha [meaning 'Horse-Sacrifice'] lasted over a year with the actual rites surrounding the sacrifice of the chosen horse taking only three days. The Ashvamedha was one of three royal sacrifices in Ancient India. Performance of this great sacrifice required a victorious king, his three wives, hundreds of attendants, a swift steed with special markings, the special sacrificial grounds near a large quantity of water [and being] supplied with a myriad of ritual utensils and materials. The Horse Sacrifice also required [four] types of priests... Only the victorious king could perform the Ashvamedha [itself]... like all of the new or full moon ceremonies this rite had a special significance for the events that followed'.[48]

References and commentaries

The commentator Apastambha (circa 600-300 BCE) has not been listed or discussed in this section as it seems he did not comment on the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa specifically, but rather on sacrificial rites in general, which are detailed in multiple Brāhmaṇas (e.g. as evidenced above, the Purushamedha is detailed in both the Shatapatha and Taittirīya Brāhmaņas). The same principle applies to the commentator Sureśvara (circa 800 CE), whose Vartika works (e.g. 'Vartika on Sariraka Brāhmaṇa', 'Vartika on Saptanna Brāhmaṇa', and 'Vartika on Udgitha Brāhmaṇa', etc.), are commentaries on specific sacrificial rites enumerated in the Brāhmaṇas, not the Brāhmaṇas themselves.

The Nirukta

Recorded by the grammarian Yaska (circa 300 BCE), the Nirukta is one of the six Smriti Vedangas ('limbs of the Vedas') concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas. The Nirukta references and lists several Brāhmaṇas as sources, including the Taittirīya Brahmaṇa.[49]

Sayana

The 14th-century Sanskrit scholar Sayana composed numerous commentaries on Vedic literature, including the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. B.R. Modak states that one of those commentaries by Sayana, a member of the Taittirīya Shakha, was on the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, and explains that 'king Bukka [1356–1377 CE] requested his preceptor and minister Madhavacharya to write a commentary on the Vedas, so that even common people would be able to understand the meaning of the Vedic Mantras. Madhavacharya told him that his younger brother Sayana was a learned person and hence he should be entrusted with the task'.[50]

Bhava Swāmī, Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara, and Rāmānḍara

According to Shrava,[1] the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa was also commented upon by:

Manuscripts and translations

References

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