The House of Rohan (Breton: Roc'han) is a Breton family of viscounts, later dukes and princes in the French nobility, coming from the locality of Rohan in Brittany. Their line descends from the viscounts of Porhoët and is said to trace back to the legendary Conan Meriadoc. Through the Porhoët family, the Rohans are related to the Dukes of Brittany, with whom the family intermingled again after its inception. During the Middle Ages, it was one of the most powerful families in the Duchy of Brittany. The Rohans developed ties with the French and English royal houses as well, and they played an important role in French and European history.
The only surviving line of the family is the branch of Rohan-Rochefort, Dukes of Montbazon, Dukes of Bouillon and Austrian Princes of Rohan, who migrated in the early 19th century to what is now Austria.[1][2]
Following his marriage in 1645 with Marguerite de Rohan, only daughter of Henri II de Rohan, first Duke of Rohan (who died in 1638 with no male heir), Henri Chabot, a descendant of the eldest branch of the House of Chabot from Poitou, was made Duke of Rohan in 1648 and allowed to use the name of Rohan-Chabot instead of his own, thus giving rise to the House of Rohan-Chabot.[3][4]
The Rohans were descended from the Viscounts of Porhoët. According to J.-P. Soubigou, the first known viscount, Guethenoc (fl. 1028), was probably Viscount of Rennes as well and connected to the nobility of the Loire region, but he could have belonged to a Breton line holding estates around Josselin, where he built a castle.[6]
From the 12th century to the 15th century, the Rohans kept securing and increasing their estates through marriages, acquisitions, inheritances, bequests and exchanges. Thus they became rivals of the Dukes of Brittany all through the Middle Ages, according to their interest, sometimes carrying out the most important charges of the Duchy faithfully, sometimes rebelling, as John II of Rohan did in the last years of Breton independence. The "great viscount", then more powerful than ever, controlled nearly 200,000 Bretons on about a fifth of the Breton territory.[7] The heart of the viscounty of Rohan is made of the rohannais triangle[8] (the three large fortresses of La Chèze, Josselin and Pontivy) whose center is the village of Rohan, the family's nominal fief whose castle is abandoned in favor of the other three.[9]
To counter the power of the immense fiefs of the Rohan and Rieux families, which divided the Armorican peninsula into two equal parts, the Breton dukes denied them access to the coasts[10] and blocked them in the eastern part of the duchy through the fortresses of the Marches of Neustria#Breton March, whose main strongholds were Rennes and Nantes.[11] The Rohans, then unpopular in a very Breton-tradition environment, were neutralized for the time being, and struck back only with the French army's direct support during the campaign of 1487 in the French-Breton War, which was marked by internal divisions among the barons of Brittany (Rohan, Rieux, Laval...) who constantly changed sides.[12] In winter 1487–1488, John II was encircled by the ducal troops: his strongholds of La Chèze, Josselin, Rohan and Pontivy fell one after another in March 1488. The viscount was still coveting the ducal crown for his son but failed. In 1491, the marriage between Anne of Brittany and Charles VIII initiated the annexation of the duchy to the French crown, a union that was permanently ratified in 1532.
The Rohan family married several times into the Breton ducal family, the last time in 1407.
Henry II of Rohan chose Pontivy as the capital city of his fief. The chief of the Protestant party during Marie de' Medici’s regency Louis XIII’s reign, he was one of the greatest captains of his time.[13]
In the 17th century, members of the Rohan family began to use their genealogy and their power at the French Court to obtain the rank of prince étranger, thus coming second after the princes du sang before all dukes and peers. Their aim was to prove that the former Kings of Brittany effectively ruled and that the Rohans are directly descended from them.
These two assertions were difficult to establish at the time and are not used in the 21st-century historiography.[14] The Rohans then applied themselves to giving credence to this version through historians such as Dom Morice, but also through favour, forcing and violating history if needed. The Rohans had to force their claims through thanks to forged evidence (a common practice in these aristocratic families in the Ancien Régime).
In spite of attacks from rival families, the Rohans managed to base their power and impose their historical and genealogical views, which provided them with positions allowing them to secure their power and credit at Court. The greatest closeness to the King was then acquired and could not be questioned any more.
Descent tree
The family of Rohan has a long documented history, with close ties to the Dukes of Brittany.
For more detailed branches, see below.
Branches of the House of Rohan
Rohan-Guéméné branch
This branch was descended (c. 1375) from John I (1324-1396), Viscount of Rohan, and his wife Joan of Évreux (a.k.a. Joan of Navarre) (1339-1409).
This branch of Rohan-Guéméné still exists through its junior branch, the Rohan-Rochefort family.
Rohan-Rochefort branch
This family is a junior branch of the Rohan-Guéméné branch through Charles de Rohan-Guémené, a.k.a. Charles de Rohan-Rochefort (1693-1766), who took the title of Prince of Rochefort.
The family of Rohan-Rochefort, which migrated to Austria in the early 19th century, is nowadays the last remaining branch of the House of Rohan. It holds the genuine titles of Duke of Montbazon (1588, France), Duke of Bouillon (1816, Congress of Vienna), Prince of Rohan and Prince of the Holy Roman Empire with the style of Serene Highness (Durchlaucht), confirmed in 1808 by Emperor Francis II for all the members of the family. The head of the family was (since 1861) a hereditary member of the House of Lords of Austria.
Rohan-Soubise branch
This family descended from the Rohan-Guéméné branch in 1630, with the estates of Soubise (in Poitou) and the Parc-Soubise (in Mouchamps, Vendée) coming from the Rohan-Chabot family through an alliance between the two branches.
Charles de Rohan-Soubise, a.k.a. the Marshal of Soubise (1715-1787), Prince of Soubise and Marshal of France, and his daughter Charlotte Godefride Élisabeth de Rohan-Soubise (1737-1760), wife of the Prince of Condé Louis V Joseph de Bourbon-Condé (1736-1818), belonged to this branch of the family.
This branch became extinct in the Rohan-Guéméné family in 1807.
Rohan-Gié branch
This family is descended from the Rohan-Guéméné branch in 1541. It is named after the town of Gyé-sur-Seine (Aube).
Peter II of Rohan-Gié (†1525) married in 1517 Anne of Rohan (1485-1529) heiress of the eldest branch, and through this marriage became Viscount of Rohan, Lord of Léon and Count of Porhoët. His son, René of Rohan-Gié (1516-1552) married in 1534 Isabeau of Albret, a.k.a. Isabeau de Navarre (1512-1570) and was the father of René II, Viscount of Rohan and Lord of Léon († 1586) head of the Protestant party in France.[2]
The Rohan-Gué-de-l’Isle branch is a junior branch said to be descended (c. 1270) from Alan VI (1232-1304), Viscount of Rohan, and his second wife Thomasse of La Roche-Bernard (c. 1245 - after 1304). It is named after the estate of Saint-Étienne-du-Gué-de-l'Isle (Côtes-d'Armor).
This branch is said to be descended from Josselin of Rohan, son of Alan III, Viscount of Rohan and his second wife Françoise de Corbey around 1185, but its filiation has not been proven. It became extinct around 1494. Named after the estate of Montauban-de-Bretagne near Rennes. Several Seneschals and Marshals of Brittany belonged to this branch.
This branch became extinct in the Rohan-Guéméné branch in 1494.
House of Rohan-Chabot
The House of Rohan-Chabot is the eldest branch of the Chabot family, from Poitou. It is descended from the House of Rohan in female line through the marriage of Marguerite de Rohan (1617-1684) (only daughter and heiress of Henry II, Duke of Rohan) with Henri Chabot (1616-1655), from the eldest branch of the Chabot de Jarnac family, in 1645. Henri Chabot was created Duke of Rohan in 1648 by Louis XIV, and his descendants bear the name Rohan-Chabot.
Portraits
Marguerite de Rohan (v. 1330–1406) and her husband the Constable of Clisson.
Pierre de Rohan-Guéméné, also known as Marshal of Gié (1451-1513), Marshal of France.
Jacqueline de Rohan-Gié (1520-1587), Lady of Blandy-les-Tours, Marchionness of Rothelin, Princess of Neuchâtel.
Henri II de Rohan (1579-1638) viscount then Duke of Rohan, Prince of Léon, Generalissimo of the Protestant armies, Ambassador of France, Colonel-général des Suisses et des Grisons.
Benjamin de Rohan, also known as “the Duke of Soubise” (1583-1642) Duke of Frontenay.
Louis de Rohan-Guéméné, also known as “the Knight of Rohan” (1635-1674), Grand Huntsman of France, Louis XIV's Colonel of the Guards.
Armand Gaston Maximilien de Rohan-Soubise (1674-1749) Prince of Rohan, Prince of Soubise, Bishop of Strasbourg, Cardinal, member of the Académie française, Grand Almoner of France.
Charles de Rohan-Soubise, also known as “the Marshal of Soubise” (1715-1787) Prince of Soubise, Duke of Rohan-Rohan, minister of Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, Marshal of France.
Charlotte Louise de Rohan-Guéméné, Princess of Masseran, also known as “Mademoiselle de Rohan” (1722-1786).
Louis René Édouard de Rohan-Guéméné (1734-1803), Prince of Rohan, Cardinal, Archbishop of Strasbourg, member of the Académie française, Grand Almoner of the King and Head of the Sorbonne.
Charlotte de Rohan-Soubise (1737-1760), Princess of Condé.
Several members of the Rohan-Guéméné family migrated to Sychrov Castle in northern Bohemia, then part of the Austrian Empire, and were naturalized. After this branch became extinct in 1846, the princes of Rohan-Rochefort younger branch inherited the properties in Bohemia but were deprived of them in 1945, following the Beneš decrees. They also inherited the titles Serene Highness, Prince of Rohan, Prince of Guéméné, Prince of Rochefort and Prince of the Holy-Roman-Empire (in Austria until 1919), Duke of Rohan-Rohan, Duke of Montbazon with the Peerage of France attached to it, and Duke of Bouillon.
Ferdinand de Rohan-Guéméné (Paris, 7 November 1738 - Paris, 31 October 1813), Prince of Rohan-Guéméné, Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1769, Prince-Archbishop of Cambrai in 1781 and of Liège in 1790. He was First Almoner to Empress Joséphine in the early 19th century.
Soldiers
Pierre de Rohan-Guéméné, also known as Pierre I de Rohan-Gié or the “Marshal of Gié” (Saint-Quentin-les-Anges, 1451 – Paris, 22 April 1513), Lord of Gié, viscount of Fronsac, Marshal of France. He was a diplomat and councillor of the kings Louis XI, Charles VIII and Louis XII. He was charged with treason in 1504. In 1506, Pierre de Rohan-Gié was suspended for five years and exiled from the Court. He was later absolved of the crime of lèse-majesté.
Alain Benjamin Arthur de Rohan-Rochefort [fr] (8 January 1853 - 23 February 1914), Duke of Montbazon, Duke of Bouillon, Prince of Guéméné, member of the Herrenhaus, deputy at the Parliament of Bohemia.
Louis de Rohan-Guéméné, also known as the Knight of Rohan (1635 - Paris, 27 November 1674), Grand Huntsman of France, Colonel of the Guards of Louis XIV, with whom he had been brought up. Executed for a crime lèse-majesté, having taken part in the Conspiracy of Latréaumont.
Berthe de Rohan (1868-1945), titular Queen Consort of Spain, France and Navarre
Marie-Liesse de Rohan-Chabot, contracted marriage (civil 19 June 1999, religious 10 July 1999) with Prince Eudes of Orléans, Duke of Angoulême, youngest son of Henri, Count of Paris, Duke of France, the late Orleanist claimant to the throne of France.
Arms
The mascles on the arms of the House of Rohan refer to crystal twinnings, which are large crystals of chiastolite (andalusite) that develop in Ordovicianschists. They are almost square-sectioned prisms. These stones, which were for centuries called "mascles", abound in the Salles de Rohan, so much that the Viscounts of Rohan, stricken by their beauty and the likeness with the lozenge, put seven mascles or on their coat of arms; their descendants added two more in the middle of the 16th century.[100]
Former arms
Used by Geoffrey of Rohan between 1216 and 1222: gules, seven mascles or, 3, 3, 1.
Modern arms
Used by Henry I of Rohan between 1552 and 1575. The change from the old arms to the modern ones can be explained by the change of the shape of shields from the 14th century: the base is now flat, not pointed, and the empty space is filled by two new mascles.
Motto
A plus: battle cry which may mean “without more”, that is to say, without superior, reminding the Rohans’ claim to be the second most important Breton noble family after the Ducal family, or “even more”, which would be an invitation to always surpass themselves[101] is Alan IX’s personal motto, often attributed to the whole family. It is symbolized by the letter A topped with a Ducal crown accompanying the mascles on the coat of arms.[102]
Another, apocryphal motto, modelled on that of the House of Coucy, is often attributed to the Rohans: Duc je ne daigne, Roi je ne puis, Prince de Bretaigne, de Rohan je suis (Duke I will not, King I cannot, Prince of Brittany, of Rohan I am) or more often: Roi ne puis, duc ne daigne, Rohan suis (King I cannot, Duke I will not, Rohan I am).[103] Roland Barthes will use this model in a joke:[104]Then all writers will say: “Insane I cannot, Sane I will not, neurotic I am.”.
Another motto: Rather dead than soiled (Latin: Potius mori quam foedari) which is the motto of the old Dukes of Brittany, the Rohans having been their heirs presumptive since 1532 and the treaty of perpetual Union between Brittany and France.
Titles
The members of the Rohan family were first styled viscount of Porhoët, the viscount of Rohan and were granted the following titles:
Prince de Soubise (erected in 1667 but not recorded)
Duc de Rohan-Rohan (1714, extinct 1787)
Comte de l'Empire (1808)
Pair de France (1814)
Pair héréditaire (1815)
Duc pair (1817)
Prince du Saint-Empire and Serene Highness (Austria 1808 and 1830)
Duc de Bouillon (1814 and 1816 through succession of the House of La Tour d'Auvergne)
The family's many branches held the titles of Prince de Léon, Prince de Montauban, Prince de Rochefort, etc. although none of these titles were genuinely created.[106]
The Hôtel de Rohan (also known as Hôtel de Rohan-Strasbourg for it used to be the residence of the bishops belonging the branch living in Strasbourg — see supra: Clergy) and the Hôtel de Soubise, in Le Marais, which form an ensemble that hosts part of the Archives nationales nowadays.
The Hôtel de Rohan-Guémené, also known as the "Maison de Victor Hugo" (who lived only in a small part of the hôtel), is located at 6 Place des Vosges and went to the rue des Tournelles and the Impasse Guéménée.
The Hôtel de Rohan-Montbazon, 29 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré.
Prosper Jean Levot, Biographie bretonne: recueil de notices sur tous les Bretons, vol. 2;
Georges Martin, Histoire et généalogie de la Maison de Rohan, 1998, Lyon, 1 vol. in 8°, 256 p. ill.;
Éric Mension-Rigau, Les Rohan, Histoire d'une grande famille, Perrin, 2017, 320 p., read online;
Pierre-Hyacinthe Morice, Mémoires pour servir de preuves à l'histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Bretagne, 1742–1746;
Frédéric Morvan, Alain VI, vicomte de Rohan, ou l’origine de la fortune des Rohan, Bulletin et mémoires de la Société polymatique du Morbihan, vol. CXXXIV, 2008, p. 79-122;
Frédéric Morvan, La Chevalerie bretonne et la formation de l'armée ducale 1260-1341, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2009, Annexes Généalogie n°35 « les Rohan »;
Frédéric Morvan, Les règlements des conflits de succession dans la noblesse bretonne au XIIIème siècle, 2010, accessed 8 October 2013;
Frédéric Morvan, Les Chevaliers bretons. Entre Plantagenets et Capétiens du milieu XIIe siècle au milieu du XIIIe siècle éditions Coop Breizh, Spézet 2014, « Généalogie des Rohan », 286;
Claude Muller, Le siècle des Rohan : une dynastie de cardinaux en Alsace au XVIIIème siècle, La Nuée bleue, Strasbourg, 2006;
Tudchentil. Inventaire 4/23;
Musée protestant. Henri de Rohan (1574-1638);
Les Protestants bretons. Les Salles de Rohan;
Revue des deux mondes.
Notes and references
^Fernand de Saint-Simon, Etienne de Séréville, Dictionnaire de la noblesse française, 1975, p. 869.
^ a b cHenri Jougla de Morenas Raoul de Warren, Grand Armorial de France, vol. 6, p. 45, read online.
^Fernand de Saint-Simon, Etienne de Séréville, Dictionnaire de la noblesse française, 1975, p. 870.
^Henri Jougla de Morenas, Raoul de Warren, Grand Armorial de France, vol. 2, p. 366 read online.
^Jean-Yves Copy, ‘’Art, société et politique au temps des ducs de Bretagne’’, Aux Amateurs de livres, 1986, p. 1118.
^J.-P. Soubigou, "Le Léon dans la Bretagne des Xe-XIe siècles", Annales de Bretagne, no 120-4, 2013, p. 14.
^Yvonig Gicquel, Alain IX de Rohan, 1382-1462, Éditions Jean Picollec, 1986, p. 212
^The rohannais triangle corresponds to the Rochefort-Malestroit-Elven triangle of the House of Rieux.
^Yvonig Gicquel Alain IX de Rohan, 1382-1462, Éditions Jean Picollec, 1986, p. 102.
^In the north, the castle of Guingamp which covered Tréguier and Paimpol; the castles of the Léguer valley (Tonquédec castle, Coat-an-Noz castle) which covered Lannion
^Alain Guillerm, Fortifications et marine en Occident, L'Harmattan, 1994, p. 92.
^Nicolas Martin, La France fortifiée : châteaux, villes et places fortes, Nathan, 1990, p. 70.
^Jean-Loup Avril, Mille Bretons : dictionnaire biographique, Les Portes du Large, 2002, p. 387.
^Jean-Paul Soubigou, "Le Léon dans la Bretagne des Xe-XIe siècles", Annales de Bretagne, no 120-4, 2013, p. 14.
^Daughter of Raoul II of Fougères (?–24/07/1257), Baron of Fougères, Grand Seneschal of Brittany, crusader, and Joan of Dol.
^Daughter of Alan of Vitré, a.k.a. Alan II of Dinan (1155 – before 1197), Lord of Vitré, Southern-Dinan and Bécherel, Seneschal of Brittany, and Clemencia of Fougères (c. 1175–1252).
^Daughter of Joscelin of La Roche-Bernard and Mahaut of Montfort (c. 1214–1279), Lady of Montfort(-sur-Meu) and Boutavant.
^Daughter of Thibaut II of Rochefort (c. 1260 – after 1327), Lord of Rochefort, Châteauneuf-d'Ille-et-Vilaine and Assérac, Viscount of Donges, and Anne of Neuville (c. 1265 – after 1327).
^Daughter of Peter V of Rostrenen (c. 1270–1347), Lord of Rostrenen, and Anne du Pont (c. 1280–?).
^Son of Giles of Montmorency-Laval a.k.a. Gilles I of Laval-Loué (?–06/08/1556), Viscount of Brosse, Lord of Loué, Benais, Montsabert, Marcillé, Le Parvis and Bressuire, Baron of Pontchâteau, and Françoise of Maillé (c. 1493–?), Viscountess of Brosse, Baroness of Pontchâteau, Lady of Maillé, La Rochecorborn, La Haye and La Motte-Sainte-Heraye.
^Son of John III of Rieux (16/06/1377–08/01/1431), Lord of Rieux and Rochefort, Baron of Ancenis, Viscount of Lord of Assérac, Lord then Baron of Malestroit, and Joan of Harcourt (11/09/1399–03/03/1456).
^Son of Charles of Dinan (?–1418), Lord of Montafilant and Châteaubriant, and Joan of Beaumanoir.
^Beatrice of Rohan was betrothed to Gilles de Rais but the marriage contract was not followed up for some unknown reason, maybe Beatrice's death (Cazacu, Matei (2005), Gilles de Rais (in French), Paris: Tallandier, p. 54, ISBN 2-84734-227-3.).
^Son of Charles of Valois a.k.a. Charles II “the Magnanimous” of Alençon (1297–26/08/1346), Count of Chartres, Perche and Alençon, et de María de La Cerda (1310–13/03/1379).
^Daughter of John of Montauban (1412–1466), Admiral of France, and Anne of Keranrais.
^Daughter of Francis I of Rieux (11/08/1418–20/11/1458), Lord of Rieux and Rochefort, Baron of Malestroit, Count of Harcourt, Lord of Assérac, Viscount of Donges, Councillor and Chamberlain of Francis I of Brittany, Knight of the Order of the Ermine, Chamberlain of the Dauphin Louis XI, and Joanna of Rohan (1415 – after 1459) (cited in the tree).
^Son of John VIII of Maure (?–1529), Lord of Maure, and Marie du Plessis-Angier (?–1497).
^Son of Hardouin IX of Maillé (1415–1487), Baron of Maillé, and Antoinette of Chauvigny (c. 1428–20/04/1473), Lady of Brosse.
^Daughter of Guy of Rieux (?–12/02/1591), Lord of Châteauneuf, Viscount of Donges, Governor of Brest, and Madeleine of Espinay (?–27/09/1597).
^Daughter of Charles d'Avaugour (?–1608), Count of Vertus, Goëlo, Viscount of Saint-Nazaire, Baron of Avaugour and Ingrandes, Lord of Clisson, Champtoceaux and Montfaucon, and Philippa of Saint-Amadour, Viscountess of Guiguen, Lady of Thouaré and La Touche-Limouzinière.
^Daughter of Henry III of Lenoncourt (?–1584), Lord of Lenoncourt, and Françoise of Montmorency-Laval (?–1614).
^Daughter of Louis Charles d'Albert de Luynes (1620–1690), Duke of Luynes, Duke of Chevreuse, Prince of Léon, and Anne de Rohan-Guéméné (1640–1684) (cited in the tree).
^Daughter of Charles de Cochefilet, Count of Vauvineux.
^Son of François Léonor de Créquy (?–30/10/1721), Baron of Frohans, and Marie Antoinette de Schouteeten, Lady of Robermez and Ardennes.
^Daughter of Claude I d'Avaugour (1581 in Thouaré-sur-Loire – 06/08/1637 in Paris), Count of Vertus and Goëlo, Viscount of Saint-Nazaire, Baron of Avaugour and Ingrandes, Lord of Clisson, Champtoceaux and Montfaucon, and Catherine Fouquet de La Varenne (1590-10/05/1670).
^Son of Claude of Espinay (c. 1552 – after 1584), Larquis of Espinay, Count of Durtal, and Françoise of La Rochefoucauld.
^Daughter of Henry III of Lenoncourt
^Daughter of René II of Montmorency-Laval (?-1557), Viscount of Bresteau, Lord of Saint-Aubin, Coudrayes, Boisdauphin, Aulnay, Louaillé, Saint-Mars, La Mousse, Rouperreux, Saint-Georges, Rofay and Maugasteau, and Catherine of Baif.
^Son of Giles of Montmorency-Laval a.k.a. Giles II of Laval-Loué (? – December 1559), Viscount of Brosse, Lord of Loué, Benais, Montsabert, Marcillé, Parvis, Bressuire, Maillé, La Rochecorborn, La Haye and La Motte-Sainte-Heraye, and Louise of Sainte-Maure (? – after 1549), Countess of Nesle and Joigny.
^"De Rohan Guéméné-Rochefort". Register. The Times. No. 74155. London. 22 July 2023. col 2, p. 78.
^Daughter of Claude I of Avaugour
^Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Jullien de Courcelles, Histoire généalogique et héraldique des pairs de France, des grands dignitaires de la couronne, des principales familles nobles du royaume et des maisons princières de l'Europe, précédée de la généalogie de la maison de France, Arthus-Bertrand, Paris, 1827, vol. 8, p. 209
^Daughter of Josselin of La Roche-Bernard
^B. Galimard Flavigny (2006) p. 317-319
^Louis Chauris, Minéraux de Bretagne, Saint-Julien-du-Pinet, Les Éditions du Piat, 2014.
^Éric Mension-Rigau, Les Rohan. Histoire d'une grande famille, Perrin, 2017, p. 11.
^Alain Boulaire, Les Rohan, France-Empire, 2001, 346.
^Édouard Drumont, 1897, p 392. Mon vieux Paris. E. Flammarion (Paris), 2 vol. (XIX-384, XI-435 p.)
^Le Plaisir du texte, Paris, Seuil, 1973
^Source: Recueil des lettres missives d'Henri IV, publié par m. Berger de Xivrey, Jules Berger de Xivrey, Joseph Gaudet, Imprimerie Royale, 1843
^Bulletin de la Société héraldique et généalogique de France, 1879, p. 275 read online.
^Fonds Rohan-Bouillon (XIe - XIXe siècle), France Archives, 2004, accessed 14 October 2018