Creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lakes
Land reclamation, often known as reclamation, and also known as land fill (not to be confused with a waste landfill), is the process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground, reclaimed land, or land fill.
History
In Ancient Egypt, the rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty (c. 2000–1800 BC) undertook a far-sighted land reclamation scheme to increase agricultural output. They constructed levees and canals to connect the Faiyum with the Bahr Yussef waterway, diverting water that would have flowed into Lake Moeris and causing gradual evaporation around the lake's edges, creating new farmland from the reclaimed land. A similar land reclamation system using dams and drainage canals was used in the Greek Copaic Basin during the Middle Helladic Period (c. 1900–1600 BC).[1] One of the earliest large-scale projects was the Beemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of land. In Hong Kong the Praya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres) of land in 1890 during the second phase of construction. It was one of the most ambitious projects ever taken during the Colonial Hong Kong era.[2] Some 20% of land in the Tokyo Bay area has been reclaimed,[3] most notably Odaiba artificial island. The city of Rio de Janeiro was largely built on reclaimed land, as was Wellington, New Zealand.
Methods
Land reclamation can be achieved by a number of different methods. The simplest method involves filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling"[4] and the material used to fill the space is generally called "infill".[5][6] Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging is also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a natural process, fills channels and harbors.[7]
The shore of Jakarta Bay. Land is usually reclaimed to create new housing areas and real estate properties, for the rapidly expanding city of Jakarta. So far, the largest reclamation project in the city is the creation of Golf Island, north of Pantai Indah Kapuk.[11]
Forest City, an integrated residential and tourism district in Johor, Malaysia, was controversial due to its reclamation of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention in a designated Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 area.
The city-state of Singapore, where land is in short supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation.[12]
The size of Singapore has increased by 25% from 581.5 square kilometres in 1960 to 725.7 in 2019. This is part of the nation's plans to create more homes and common spaces in the land scarce city-state. Upcoming projects, such as the Long Island project, involving the reclamation of three tracts of land (expected to span around 800 ha), which is set at a higher level to protect against rising sea levels. It will also enclose a body of water, acting as a reservoir, strengthening the nation's water resilience. Detailed technical studies are currently underway lasting 5 years. This project would take a few decades to plan and implement.[13][14]
Considerable areas of Dunedin, New Zealand, including the "Southern Endowment", stretching from the central city to the southeastern suburbs along the shore of Otago Harbour.
Prior to the Napier earthquake of 1931, significant reclamation of the then-lagoon was undertaken in areas of Napier South and Ahuriri. There were also minor reclamation works undertaken after 1931 on the new low-lying lands brought up by the earthquake.
Areas around Wellington and Auckland's harbours have also been reclaimed.
A related practice is the draining of swampy or seasonally submerged wetlands to convert them to farmland. While this does not create new land exactly, it allows commercially productive use of land that would otherwise be restricted to wildlifehabitat. It is also an important method of mosquito control.
Even in the post-industrial age, there have been land reclamation projects intended for increasing available agricultural land. For example, the village of Ogata in Akita, Japan, was established on land reclaimed from Lake Hachirōgata (Japan's second largest lake at the time) starting in 1957. By 1977, the amount of land reclaimed totalled 172.03 square kilometres (66.42 sq mi).[27]
Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences. An example of this is the city of Mumbai.[10]
Landfill
As human overcrowding of developed areas intensified during the 20th century, it has become important to develop land re-use strategies for completed landfills. Some of the most common usages are for parks, golf courses and other sports fields. Increasingly, however, office buildings and industrial uses are made on a completed landfill. In these latter uses, methane capture is customarily carried out to minimize explosive hazard within the building.
Another strategy for landfill is the incineration of landfill trash at high temperature via the plasma-arc gasification process, which is currently used at two facilities in Japan, and was proposed to be used at a facility in St. Lucie County, Florida.[29] The planned facility in Florida was later canceled.[30]
Environmental impact
Draining wetlands for ploughing, for example, is a form of habitat destruction. In some parts of the world, new reclamation projects are restricted or no longer allowed, due to environmental protection laws. Reclamation projects have strong negative impacts on coastal populations, although some species can take advantage of the newly created area.[31] A 2022 global analysis estimated that 39% of losses (approximately 5,300 km2 or 2,000 sq mi) and 14% of gains (approximately 1,300 km2 or 500 sq mi) of tidal wetlands (mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) between 1999-2019 were due to direct human activities, including conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, plantations, coastal developments and other physical structures.[32]
Reclaimed land is highly susceptible to soil liquefaction during earthquakes,[34] which can amplify the amount of damage that occurs to buildings and infrastructure. Subsidence is another issue, both from soil compaction on filled land, and also when wetlands are enclosed by levees and drained to create polders. Drained marshes will eventually sink below the surrounding water level, increasing the danger from flooding.
^Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 152–153. ISBN 9780192804587.
^ a bBard, Solomon. [2002] (2002). Voices from the Past: Hong Kong 1842–1918. HK University press. ISBN 962-209-574-7
^Petry, Anne K. (July 2003). "Geography of Japan" (PDF). Japan Digest, Indiana University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
^Lambi, Cornelius Mbifung (2001). Environmental issues: problems and prospects. Bamenda, Cameroon: Unique Printers. p. 152. ISBN 978-9956-11-005-6.
^"Wisconsin Supplement Engineering Field Handbook Chapter 16: Streambank and Shoreline Protection" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. February 2009. p. 16–WI–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
^"Regional Road Maintenance ESA Program, Part 2: Best Management Practices" (PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. p. 2.42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
^Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric. "What is dredging?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Murray N. J., Clemens R. S., Phinn S. R., Possingham H. P. & Fuller R. A. (2014) Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 267–72 doi:10.1890/130260
^Brian Lander. State Management of River Dikes in Early China: New Sources on the Environmental History of the Central Yangzi Region . T'oung Pao 100.4-5 (2014): 325–362; Mira Mihelich, “Polders and Politics of Land Reclamation in Southeast China during the Northern Sung” (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Univ., 1979); Peter Perdue, Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan 1500–1850 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies, 1987); Mei Li 梅莉, Zhang Guoxiong 張國雄, and Yan Changgui 晏昌貴, Lianghu pingyuan kaifa tanyuan 兩湖平原開發探源 (Nanchang: Jiangxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 1995); Shiba Yoshinobu, “Environment versus Water Control: The Case of the Southern Hangzhou Bay Area from the Mid-Tang Through the Qing,” in Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History, ed. Mark Elvin and Ts'ui-jung Liu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 135–64
^ a bMumbai, Srinath Perur in (2016-03-30). "Story of cities #11: the reclamation of Mumbai – from the sea, and its people?". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
^Elyda, Corry (3 February 2017). "Jakarta clears hurdle in reclamation project". The Jakarta Post.
^Collin Anderson (2016). DP Architects on Marina Bay: Designing for Reclaimed Lands. Oro Editions. ISBN 9781941806975.
^"Land reclamation plan to create 800-ha 'Long Island' along Singapore's east coast, Singapore - THE BUSINESS TIMES". www.businesstimes.com.sg. 2023-11-28. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
^"CNA Explains: Why does Singapore want to build a 'Long Island'?". CNA. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
^"Depth charges: Land reclamation and dredging are big business". UAE: Abu Dhabi (Report). Oxford Business Group. 2013.
^The references are given in the article on the topic.
^Contributors, Ewan Crawford. "Dundee Esplanade - RAILSCOT". www.railscot.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-09-21. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
^"Waterfront Place | Maritime Trail". www.dundeemaritime.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
^"How Boston Made Itself Bigger". Culture. 2017-06-13. Archived from the original on March 2, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
^"MEMÓRIA DE FLORIANÓPOLIS - A cidade de Nossa Senhora dos Aterros | ND Mais". 11 September 2016.
^Vargas, Bruna (10 May 2019). "Porto Alegre dos aterros: saiba como a cidade avançou sobre o Guaíba ao longo das décadas". GZH (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 26 November 2020.
^ a bGuerrero, Natalia (2018-04-13). "Cómo es vivir en Santa Cruz del Islote, la isla artificial más densamente poblada del mundo". BBC News Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-07-20.
^"Segundo lote de cisternas llegó al puerto La Guaira canjeadas por petróleo". La Voz (in Spanish). 2020-05-04. Retrieved 2020-07-17.
^Alejandro Durán (2016-11-02). ""Isla Paraíso" en Venezuela, causa sensación | El Sumario" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-07-17.
^Curtis, Daniel R. (2014). "Into the frontier: medieval land reclamation and the creation of new societies. Comparing Holland and the Po Valley, 800–1500". Journal of Historical Geography. 44. Academia.edu: 93–108. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2013.10.004.
^"The History of Ogata-Mura". Ogata-Mura. 2008. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24.
^Paul B. Awosika and Marc Papineau, Phase One Environmental Site Assessment, 7000 Marina Boulevard, Brisbane, California, prepared for Argentum International by Certified. Engineering & Testing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, July 15, 1993
^"Florida county plans to vaporize landfill trash". USA Today. 2006-09-09. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
^"Trashed: Plan to use plasma technology for garbage disposal". Florida Trend. Retrieved 2024-05-11.
^Borzée, Amaël; Kim, Kyungmin; Heo, Kyongman; Jablonski, Piotr G.; Jang, Yikweon (4 October 2017). "Impact of land reclamation and agricultural water regime on the distribution and conservation status of the endangered Dryophytes suweonensis". PeerJ. 5: e3872. doi:10.7717/peerj.3872. PMC 5631092. PMID 29018610.
^Murray, Nicholas J.; Worthington, Thomas A.; Bunting, Pete; Duce, Stephanie; Hagger, Valerie; Lovelock, Catherine E.; Lucas, Richard; Saunders, Megan I.; Sheaves, Marcus; Spalding, Mark; Waltham, Nathan J.; Lyons, Mitchell B. (13 May 2022). "High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth's tidal wetlands". Science. 376 (6594): 744–749. Bibcode:2022Sci...376..744M. doi:10.1126/science.abm9583. hdl:2160/55fdc0d4-aa3e-433f-8a88-2098b1372ac5. PMID 35549414. S2CID 248749118.
^Wallis, Keith (February 12, 1996). "Bill seeks to protect harbour". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^"The REAL Dirt on Liquefaction" (PDF). ASSOCIATION OF SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA GOVERNMENTS. February 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-23.
^Chief, Habib Toumi, Bahrain Bureau (2010-01-12). "Bahrain parliament wants solution to land reclamation issue". GulfNews. Retrieved 2018-02-04.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Gravgaard, Anna-Katarina; Wheeler, William (18 October 2009). "Bangladesh Fights for Survival Against Climate Change". Pulitzer Center.
^"Courts protect our imperiled waterway – at least for the time being". Hong Kong Standard. August 14, 2006. Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^DeGolyer, Michael (March 15, 2007). "Commentary: Just Looking for Answers". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^Ng, Michael (October 5, 2006). "Lawmaker warns of West Kowloon arts venue glut". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^"Japan Fact Sheet". Japan Reference. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^gov.mo
^Cha, Victor D. (2013). The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future. Internet Archive. New York: Ecco. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-06-199850-8.
^Makowsky, Peter; Town, Jenny; Kae, Michelle Y.; Pitz, Samantha J. (2021-12-22). "North Korea's Tideland Reclamation Efforts - 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea". 38 North. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
^Kaiman, Jonathan (2017-05-03). "North Korea is building mysterious artificial islands that would be perfect for missile launches". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
^"Philippine Reclamation Authority". pea.gov.ph. Archived from the original on 2016-05-06.
^Koh Gui Qing (12 April 2005). "Singapore Finds it Hard to Expand Without Sand". PlanetArk – via Wild Singapose.
^"Singapore". The World Factbook. CIA. 1 September 2010. section Transnational issues. Retrieved 1 October 2010. disputes persist with Malaysia over […] extensive land reclamation works
^Charles Fairbairn (2017-04-04). "Auckland International Airport: A work in progress". Contractor Magazine.
^Wellington City Council — Off to a flying start with Wellington Airport
^Omotosho, Jimmy (2013). "New Cities and Real Estate Markets- A focus on the Eko Atlantic City Project". Proceedings of the 13th African Real Estate Society Conference. African Real Estate Society. doi:10.15396/afres2013_109.
^"150 years of news: How reclamations shaped Wellington". Stuff. 6 April 2015. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
^Halkett, D.J. (October 2012). "ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE PROPOSED CAPE TOWN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION CENTRE 2 ON ERWEN 192 , 245, 246 AND THE REMAINDER OF ERF 192, "SALAZAR SQUARE", ROGGEBAAI, CAPE TOWN FORESHORE" (PDF). sahra.org.za. p. 18. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
^"UAE Dredging Company Gulf Cobla Delivers Maldives Airport Land Reclamation for Expansion Project - International Dredging Review - May-June 2017". dredgemag.com. 26 July 2017. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
References
Wordie, Jason (18 April 1999). "Land-grabbing titans who changed HK's profit for good". The Standard. Hong Kong. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
MacKinnon, J.; Verkuil, Y.I.; Murray, N.J. (2012), IUCN situation analysis on East and Southeast Asian intertidal habitats, with particular reference to the Yellow Sea (including the Bohai Sea), Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 47, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN, p. 70, ISBN 9782831712550, archived from the original on 2014-06-24
Murray, N.J.; Clemens, R.S.; Phinn, S.R.; Possingham, H.P.; Fuller, R.A. (2014), "Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea" (PDF), Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 12 (5): 267–272, Bibcode:2014FrEE...12..267M, doi:10.1890/130260