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Voiceless alveolar fricative

The voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least six types with significant perceptual differences:

The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.

Voiceless alveolar sibilant

The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as sssst! or psssst!.

The voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have [s].[2] However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as [ʃ], but no [s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, [s] does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.[3]

Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant

The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area. In the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German.

Occurrence in Europe

Modern

In Romance languages, it occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant in Astur-Leonese, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, northern European Portuguese, and some Occitan dialects. It also occurs in Basque and Mirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common [s]; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g. Antioqueño and Pastuso, in Colombia).

Amongst Germanic languages, it occurs in Dutch (and closely related Low German), Icelandic, many dialects in Scandinavia, and working-class Glaswegian English.

It also occurs in Modern Greek (with a laminal articulation), as well as the Baltic languages.

There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating an apical pronunciation. However, that is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds,[citation needed] but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant [ʂ].

Medieval

In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany,[4] and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English [s], and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred.[5] A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written ⟨s⟩ or ⟨ss⟩, while the non-retracted variants were written ⟨z⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin /s/, /ss/ or /ns/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates [t͡s] and [d͡z], which in turn derived from palatalized /k/ or /t/. The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic /s/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic /t/ that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were wizzen "to know" (Old English witan, cf. "to wit") vs. wissen "known" (Old English wissen), and wīz "white" (Old English wīt) vs. wīs(e) "way" (Old English wīs, cf. "-wise").

Description of the retracted sibilant

Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar to palato-alveolar ʃ. For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with [ʃ]. This occurred, for example, in English borrowings from Old French (e.g. push from pousser, cash from caisse); in Polish borrowings from medieval German (e.g. kosztować from kosten, żur from sūr (contemporary sauer)); and in representations of Mozarabic (an extinct medieval Romance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted [s̺] and [ʃ] has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples are jabón (formerly xabón) "soap" from Latin sapō/sapōnem, jibia "cuttlefish" (formerly xibia) from Latin sēpia, and tijeras "scissors" (earlier tixeras < medieval tiseras) from Latin cīsōrias (with initial t- due to influence from tōnsor "shaver").

One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid:[6] "There is a Castilian s, which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint /ʃ/ and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain".

Many dialects of Modern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with a laminal articulation.[4]

Loss of the voiceless alveolar sibilant

This distinction has since vanished from most of the languages that once had it in medieval times.

Loss-causing events

Those languages in which the sound occurs typically did not have a phonological process from which either [s] or [ʃ] appeared, two similar sounds with which ⟨s̺⟩ was eventually confused. In general, older European languages only had a single pronunciation of s.

In Romance languages, [s] was reached from -ti-, -ci-, -ce- ([ti], [ki], [ke]) clusters that eventually became [ts], [tsi], [tse] and later [s], [si], [se] (as in Latin fortia "force", civitas "city", centum "hundred"), while [ʃ] was reached:

In High German, [s] was reached through a [t] > [ts] > [s] process, as in German Wasser compared to English water. In English, the same process of Romance [ts] > [s] occurred in Norman-imported words, accounting for modern homophones sell and cell. [ʃ] was also reached from a -sk- cluster reduction as in Romance, e.g. Old English spelling asc for modern ash, German schiff and English ship compared to Danish skib.

Exceptions

Standard Modern Greek, which has apical [s̺], lacked both processes.

The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomenon have normally preserved the apical [s̺], that is, Icelandic, Dutch and many Scandinavian lects. It is also found in a minority of Low German dialects.

The main Romance language to preserve the sound, Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced [s] and [ʃ], and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away. Galician, Catalan and Ladino changed only [s].

Reach in ancient times

Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted [s̺] was the normal pronunciation in spoken Latin. Certain borrowings suggest that it was not far off from the sh-sound [ʃ], e.g. Aramaic Jeshua > Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs) > Latin Jesus, Hebrew Shabbat > Latin sabbatum; but this could also be explained by the lack of a better sound in Latin to represent Semitic š. It equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modern Basque.

For the same reasons, it can be speculated that retracted [s̺] was the pronunciation of Proto-Germanic s. Its presence in many branches of Indo-European and its presence particularly in the more conservative languages inside each branch (e.g. Icelandic, Spanish), as well as being found in disparate areas, such as the Baltic languages and Greece, suggests it could have ultimately been the main allophone of Proto-Indo-European s,[5] known for ranging from [s] to as far as [ɕ].

[ʃ], but not [s], was developed in Italian. However, where Spanish and Catalan have apical [s̺], Italian uses the same laminal [s] that occurs in standard forms of English: evidence, it could be argued, that S was not pronounced apically in Latin. But Neapolitan has a medieval S becoming either [s] or [ʃ] depending on context, much as in European Portuguese, which could attest to the previous existence of [s̺] in the Italian Peninsula. The Italian pronunciation as laminal S could also be explained by the presence of [ʃ] but not [s], thus moving the pronunciation of [s̺] to the front of the mouth in an attempt to better differentiate between the two sounds.

Voiceless lamino-dental sibilant

A voiceless laminal dental or dentialveolar sibilant contrasts with a voiceless apical alveolar or post-alveolar sibilant in Basque and several languages of California, including Luiseño of the Uto-Aztecan family and Kumeyaay of the Yuman family.

Comparison between English and Spanish

The term "voiceless alveolar sibilant" is potentially ambiguous in that it can refer to at least two different sounds. Various languages of northern Iberia (e.g., Astur-Leonese, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Portuguese and Spanish) have a so-called "voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant" that lacks the strong hissing of the [s] described in this article but has a duller, more "grave" sound quality somewhat reminiscent of a voiceless retroflex sibilant. Basque, Mirandese and some Portuguese dialects in northeast Portugal (as well as medieval Spanish and Portuguese in general) have both types of sounds in the same language.

There is no general agreement about what actual feature distinguishes these sounds. Spanish phoneticians normally describe the difference as apical (for the northern Iberian sound) vs. laminal (for the more common sound), but Ladefoged and Maddieson[7] claim that English /s/ can be pronounced apically, which is evidently not the same as the apical sibilant of Iberian Spanish and Basque. Also, Adams[8] asserts that many dialects of Modern Greek have a laminal sibilant with a sound quality similar to the "apico-alveolar" sibilant of northern Iberia.

Some authors have instead suggested that the difference lies in tongue shape. Adams[8] describes the northern Iberian sibilant as "retracted". Ladefoged and Maddieson[7] appear to characterize the more common hissing variant as grooved, and some phoneticians (such as J. Catford) have characterized it as sulcal (which is more or less a synonym of "grooved"), but in both cases, there is some doubt about whether all and only the "hissing" sounds actually have a "grooved" or "sulcal" tongue shape.

Features

Features of the voiceless alveolar sibilant:

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Non-retracted alveolar

Retracted alveolar

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative

The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed ⟨θ̠⟩, occasionally ⟨θ͇⟩ (retracted or alveolarized [θ], respectively), ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩ (constricted voiceless [ɹ]), or ⟨t̞⟩ (lowered [t]).

Some scholars also posit the voiceless alveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as ⟨ɹ̥⟩.

Few languages also have the voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur.[87]

Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.

Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.[87]

Features

Occurrence

Voiceless lateral-median fricative

The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "lisp" fricative) is a consonantal sound. Consonants is pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow.

Features

Occurrence

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.
  2. ^ Maddieson (1984), p. ?.
  3. ^ Jessica Hunter; Claire Bowern; Erich Round (1 June 2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait". Journal of Language Contact. 4 (1): 106–140. doi:10.1163/187740911X558798. ISSN 1877-4091. Wikidata Q56228341.
  4. ^ a b Adams (1975), p. ?.
  5. ^ a b Vijūnas (2010).
  6. ^ Obaid (1973), p. ?.
  7. ^ a b Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. ?.
  8. ^ a b Adams (1975), p. 283.
  9. ^ a b Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154
  10. ^ Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.
  11. ^ Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
  12. ^ Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.
  13. ^ a b c d Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".
  14. ^ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
  15. ^ Klagstad Jr. (1958), p. 46.
  16. ^ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.
  17. ^ Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.
  18. ^ Palková (1994), p. 228.
  19. ^ Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.
  20. ^ "English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  21. ^ a b Adams (1975), p. 288.
  22. ^ Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
  23. ^ Grønnum (2005), p. 144.
  24. ^ Szende (1999), p. 104.
  25. ^ a b c d Canepari (1992), p. 68.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h Canepari (1992), p. 72.
  27. ^ a b c Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
  28. ^ Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
  29. ^ Kara (2002), p. 10.
  30. ^ Kara (2003), p. 11.
  31. ^ Nau (1998), p. 6.
  32. ^ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
  33. ^ a b Skaug (2003), pp. 130–131.
  34. ^ Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
  35. ^ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.[permanent dead link]
  36. ^ Chew (2003), p. 67.
  37. ^ Lamb (2003), p. 18.
  38. ^ Kordić (2006), p. 5.
  39. ^ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
  40. ^ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
  41. ^ a b c d Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 258.
  42. ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.
  43. ^ Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
  44. ^ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
  45. ^ a b c d e f Adams (1975), p. 289.
  46. ^ a b Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.
  47. ^ a b Ladefoged (2005), p. 168.
  48. ^ a b Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66.
  49. ^ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
  50. ^ Buk, Mačutek & Rovenchak (2008).
  51. ^ Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
  52. ^ Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
  53. ^ Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.
  54. ^ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
  55. ^ a b Basbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.
  56. ^ a b Thorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that /s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.
  57. ^ a b Grønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.
  58. ^ a b c d Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
  59. ^ a b c d Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
  60. ^ Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
  61. ^ a b Canepari (1992), p. 73.
  62. ^ a b Mangold (2005), p. 50.
  63. ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
  64. ^ Okada (1999), p. 117.
  65. ^ a b Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  66. ^ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
  67. ^ a b Hualde, J. Basque Phonology (1991) Routledge ISBN 0-415-05655-1
  68. ^ Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1921). "Bengali Phonetics". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 2. London: 7. doi:10.1017/s0041977x0010179x. S2CID 246637825.
  69. ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
  70. ^ Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
  71. ^ Saborit (2009), p. 12.
  72. ^ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  73. ^ Kokkelmans, JOACHIM HENRI N (2021). "The Phonetics and Phonology of Sibilants: A Synchronic and Diachronic OT Typology of Sibilant Inventories". Università degli studi di Verona (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  74. ^ a b Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 27.
  75. ^ a b Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
  76. ^ a b Kress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, as s in sausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the German sch. The difference is that German sch is labialized, while Icelandic s is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."
  77. ^ a b c d Pétursson (1971), p. ?, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.
  78. ^ a b c d e f g Adams (1975), p. 286.
  79. ^ Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
  80. ^ Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.
  81. ^ Canepari (1992), p. 71.
  82. ^ Adams (1975), p. 285.
  83. ^ "2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)] (PDF). Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30.
  84. ^ Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.
  85. ^ Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.
  86. ^ Thompson (1959).
  87. ^ a b c d Laver (1994), p. 263.
  88. ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
  89. ^ a b Loakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.
  90. ^ a b Buizza (2011), pp. 16–28.
  91. ^ Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.
  92. ^ Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.
  93. ^ Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
  94. ^ Van Herk, Gerard (2010). "Identity Marking and Affiliation in an Urbanizing Newfoundland Community". Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader: 139.
  95. ^ Clarke, Sandra (2009). Hickey, Raymond (ed.). "The Legacy of British and Irish English in Newfoundland". Legacies of Colonial English. Studies in English Language: 242–261. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511486920. ISBN 9780521830201.
  96. ^ a b Laver (1994), pp. 263–264.
  97. ^ Boberg (2004), p. 361.
  98. ^ Kerswill, Torgerson & Fox (2006), p. 30.
  99. ^ a b Árnason (2011), p. 115.
  100. ^ a b Grønnum (2005), p. 139.
  101. ^ a b Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.
  102. ^ Heselwood (2013) Phonetic transcription in theory and practice, p 122–123
  103. ^ Janet Watson (January 2011). "Lateral fricatives and lateral emphatics in southern Saudi Arabia and Mehri". academia.edu.
  104. ^ Watson, Janet (January 2013). "Lateral reflexes of Proto-Semitic D and Dh in Al-Rubūʽah dialect, south-west Saudi Arabic: Electropalatographic and acoustic evidence". Nicht Nur mit Engelszungen: Beiträge zur Semitischen Dialektologie: Festschrift für Werner Arnold.
  105. ^ Younger speakers distinguish between voiceless [aθˡˁːajm] for emotional pain and voiced [[Voiced_alveolar_fricative#Voiced_lateral-median_fricative|[aðˡˁːajm]]] for physical pain.

References

External links