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Детский труд

Палестинский ребенок , работающий на перекрестке Калия, пляж Лидо, автозаправочная станция Делек , дорога 90 недалеко от Мертвого моря.
Ребенок-работник в Дакке , Бангладеш.
Дети-шахтеры в Пруссии , конец 19 века.
В 19 веке в Великобритании был принят ряд законов о детском труде, Законы о фабриках . Детям младше 9 лет не разрешалось работать, дети в возрасте от 9 до 16 лет могли работать 12 часов в день в соответствии с Законом о хлопчатобумажных фабриках . В 1856 году закон разрешил детский труд старше 9 лет в течение 60 часов в неделю, ночью или днем. В 1901 году допустимый возраст детского труда был повышен до 12 лет. [1] [2]
Китайский ребенок чинит обувь, конец XIX века.
Детский труд в Нигерии

Детский труд — это эксплуатация детей посредством любой формы работы, которая мешает им посещать обычную школу или наносит вред психическому, физическому, социальному и моральному здоровью. [3] Такая эксплуатация запрещена законодательством во всем мире, [4] [5] хотя эти законы не считают всю работу детей детским трудом; исключения включают работу детей-художников, семейные обязанности, контролируемое обучение и некоторые формы работы, выполняемые детьми -амишами , а также детьми коренных народов в Америке. [6] [7] [8]

Детский труд существовал в разной степени на протяжении всей истории. В течение 19-го и начала 20-го веков многие дети в возрасте 5–14 лет из бедных семей работали в западных странах и их колониях . Эти дети в основном работали в сельском хозяйстве, на надомных сборочных операциях, на фабриках, в горнодобывающей промышленности и в сфере услуг, например, в качестве мальчиков-газетчиков — некоторые работали в ночные смены по 12 часов. С ростом доходов домохозяйств, доступностью школ и принятием законов о детском труде уровень детского труда снизился. [9] [10] [11]

По состоянию на 2023 год в беднейших странах мира около одного из пяти детей вовлечены в детский труд, наибольшее число из них проживает в странах Африки к югу от Сахары , где так вовлечены более одного из четырех детей. [12] Это представляет собой снижение детского труда за предыдущее полувековое время. [13] В 2017 году в четырех африканских странах ( Мали , Бенин , Чад и Гвинея-Бисау ) было зафиксировано более 50 процентов работающих детей в возрасте от 5 до 14 лет. [13] Во всем мире сельское хозяйство является крупнейшим работодателем детского труда. [14] Подавляющее большинство детского труда встречается в сельской местности и неформальной городской экономике; дети в основном нанимаются своими родителями, а не на фабриках. [15] Бедность и отсутствие школ считаются основными причинами детского труда. [16] ЮНИСЕФ отмечает, что «мальчики и девочки с одинаковой вероятностью будут вовлечены в детский труд», но в разных ролях, причем девочки значительно чаще выполняют неоплачиваемую домашнюю работу. [12]

По данным Всемирного банка , в период с 1960 по 2003 год во всем мире распространенность детского труда снизилась с 25% до 10% . [17] Тем не менее, общее число работающих детей остается высоким: ЮНИСЕФ и МОТ признают, что в 2013 году в детском труде было задействовано около 168 миллионов детей в возрасте от 5 до 17 лет по всему миру. [18]

История

Доиндустриальные общества

Детский труд является неотъемлемой частью доиндустриальной экономики. [19] [20] В доиндустриальных обществах редко существует понятие детства в современном смысле. Дети часто начинают активно участвовать в таких видах деятельности, как воспитание детей , охота и сельское хозяйство, как только они становятся компетентными. Во многих обществах дети в возрасте 13 лет считаются взрослыми и занимаются теми же видами деятельности, что и взрослые. [19]

Работа детей была важна в доиндустриальных обществах, поскольку детям нужно было обеспечивать свой труд для своего выживания и выживания своей группы. [21] Доиндустриальные общества характеризовались низкой производительностью и короткой продолжительностью жизни ; предотвращение участия детей в производительном труде было бы более пагубным для их благополучия и благополучия их группы в долгосрочной перспективе. В доиндустриальных обществах не было особой необходимости в посещении детьми школы. Это особенно касается неграмотных обществ. Большинство доиндустриальных навыков и знаний поддавались передаче посредством прямого наставничества или ученичества со стороны компетентных взрослых. [19]

Промышленная революция

Дети, идущие на 12-часовую ночную смену в США (1908 г.)
В начале 20 века было много домашних предприятий, в которых использовался детский труд. Пример из Нью-Йорка 1912 года показан выше.

С началом промышленной революции в Британии в конце 18 века, произошел быстрый рост промышленной эксплуатации труда, включая детский труд. Промышленные города, такие как Бирмингем , Манчестер и Ливерпуль, быстро выросли из маленьких деревень в крупные города и улучшили показатели детской смертности . Эти города привлекли население, которое быстро росло из-за увеличения сельскохозяйственного производства. Этот процесс был воспроизведен в других странах, переживающих индустриализацию. [22]

Викторианская эпоха , в частности, стала печально известной условиями, в которых работали дети. [23] Дети в возрасте от четырех лет работали на производственных фабриках и шахтах, работая долгие часы в опасных, часто смертельных условиях. [24] В угольных шахтах дети ползали по туннелям, слишком узким и низким для взрослых. [25] Дети также работали мальчиками на побегушках, подметальщиками , чистильщиками обуви или продавали спички, цветы и другие дешевые товары. [26] Некоторые дети брались за работу в качестве учеников в респектабельных профессиях, таких как строительство или в качестве домашней прислуги (в середине 18 века в Лондоне было более 120 000 домашней прислуги). Рабочее время было долгим: строители работали 64 часа в неделю летом и 52 часа зимой, в то время как слуги работали 80 часов в неделю. [27]

Детский труд играл важную роль в промышленной революции с самого начала, часто вызванной экономическими трудностями. Дети бедняков должны были вносить свой вклад в семейный доход. [26] В Великобритании 19-го века треть бедных семей остались без кормильца из-за смерти или отказа, что вынуждало многих детей работать с раннего возраста. В Англии и Шотландии в 1788 году две трети рабочих на 143 хлопчатобумажных фабриках с водяным приводом были описаны как дети. [28] Большое количество детей также работали проститутками . [29] Автор Чарльз Диккенс работал в возрасте 12 лет на фабрике по производству ваксы , а его семья находилась в долговой тюрьме . [30]

Зарплаты детей часто были низкими, заработная плата составляла всего 10–20 % от заработной платы взрослого мужчины. [31] [ нужен лучший источник ] Карл Маркс был ярым противником детского труда, [32] утверждая, что британская промышленность «могла бы жить, только высасывая кровь, и кровь детей тоже», и что капитал США финансировался за счет «капитализированной крови детей». [33] [34] Летиция Элизабет Лэндон критиковала детский труд в своей поэме 1835 года «Фабрика», отрывки из которой она демонстративно включила в свое Посвящение 18-летию принцессы Виктории в 1837 году.

На протяжении второй половины XIX века детский труд начал сокращаться в индустриальных обществах из-за регулирования и экономических факторов из-за роста профсоюзов . Регулирование детского труда началось с самых первых дней промышленной революции. Первый акт, регулирующий детский труд в Великобритании, был принят в 1803 году. Еще в 1802 и 1819 годах были приняты Фабричные законы, регулирующие рабочее время детей из работных домов на фабриках и хлопчатобумажных фабриках до 12 часов в день. Эти законы были в значительной степени неэффективны, и после радикальной агитации, например, «Комитетов по сокращенному рабочему дню» в 1831 году, Королевская комиссия рекомендовала в 1833 году, чтобы дети в возрасте 11–18 лет работали максимум 12 часов в день, дети в возрасте 9–11 лет максимум восемь часов, а детям до девяти лет больше не разрешалось работать. Однако этот закон применялся только к текстильной промышленности, и дальнейшая агитация привела к другому закону в 1847 году, ограничивающему как взрослых, так и детей 10-часовым рабочим днем. Лорд Шефтсбери был ярым сторонником регулирования детского труда. [ необходима цитата ]

По мере совершенствования и распространения технологий росла потребность в образованных работниках. Это привело к росту школьного образования, с последующим введением обязательного образования . Улучшенные технологии, автоматизация и дальнейшее законодательство значительно сократили детский труд, особенно в Западной Европе и США [ необходима цитата ]

Начало 20 века

В начале 20 века тысячи мальчиков были заняты в стекольной промышленности. Изготовление стекла было опасной и тяжелой работой, особенно без современных технологий. Процесс изготовления стекла включает в себя интенсивный нагрев для плавления стекла (3133 °F (1723 °C)). Когда мальчики работают, они подвергаются воздействию этого тепла. Это могло вызвать проблемы со зрением, заболевания легких, тепловое истощение, порезы и ожоги. Поскольку рабочие получали оплату поштучно, им приходилось продуктивно работать часами без перерыва. Поскольку печи должны были постоянно гореть, были ночные смены с 5:00 вечера до 3:00 утра. Многие владельцы фабрик предпочитали мальчиков младше 16 лет. [36]

По оценкам, к 1900 году в американской промышленности было занято 1,7 миллиона детей в возрасте до пятнадцати лет. [37]

В 1910 году в Соединенных Штатах было трудоустроено более 2 миллионов детей того же возраста. [38] Сюда входили дети, которые скручивали сигареты, [39] работали на фабриках, работали съемниками катушек на текстильных фабриках, работали в угольных шахтах и ​​были заняты на консервных заводах. [40] Фотографии Льюиса Хайна , изображающие работающих детей в 1910-х годах, ярко отражали тяжелое положение работающих детей на американском юге. Хайн сделал эти фотографии между 1908 и 1917 годами в качестве штатного фотографа Национального комитета по детскому труду . [41]

Предприятия домашнего хозяйства

Фабрики и шахты были не единственными местами, где детский труд был распространен в начале 20-го века. Надомное производство в Соединенных Штатах и ​​Европе также использовало детей. [9] Правительства и реформаторы утверждали, что труд на фабриках должен регулироваться, и государство обязано обеспечивать благосостояние бедных. Последующее законодательство имело эффект перемещения работы с фабрик в городские дома. Семьи и женщины, в частности, предпочитали это, потому что это позволяло им получать доход, выполняя домашние обязанности. [ необходима цитата ]

Надомное производство было активным круглый год. Семьи охотно отправляли своих детей на эти приносящие доход домашние предприятия. [42] Во многих случаях мужчины работали на дому. Во Франции более 58% рабочих швейной промышленности работали на дому; в Германии количество постоянных домашних предприятий почти удвоилось между 1882 и 1907 годами; а в Соединенных Штатах миллионы семей работали на дому семь дней в неделю, круглый год, производя одежду, обувь, искусственные цветы, перья, спичечные коробки, игрушки, зонты и другие продукты. Дети в возрасте от 5 до 14 лет работали вместе с родителями. Надомное производство и детский труд были обычным явлением в Австралии, Великобритании, Австрии и других частях мира. В сельских районах семьи также отправляли своих детей на работу в сельское хозяйство. В 1946 году Фрида С. Миллер , тогдашний директор Министерства труда США , сообщила Международной организации труда (МОТ), что эти надомные предприятия предлагали «низкую заработную плату, долгие часы, детский труд, нездоровые и антисанитарные условия труда». [9] [43] [44] [45]

21 век

Карта детского труда во всем мире в возрастной группе 10–14 лет в 2003 году по данным Всемирного банка. [46] Данные неполные, поскольку многие страны не собирают и не сообщают данные о детском труде (выделены серым цветом). Цветовой код следующий: желтый (<10% работающих детей), зеленый (10–20%), оранжевый (20–30%), красный (30–40%) и черный (>40%). В некоторых странах, таких как Гвинея-Бисау , Мали и Эфиопия, более половины всех детей в возрасте 5–14 лет работают, чтобы помогать обеспечивать свои семьи. [47]

Детский труд по-прежнему распространен во многих частях мира. Оценки детского труда различаются. Он колеблется от 250 до 304 миллионов, если учитывать детей в возрасте 5–17 лет, вовлеченных в какую-либо экономическую деятельность. Если исключить легкую случайную работу, то, по оценкам МОТ, в 2008 году во всем мире было 153 миллиона работающих детей в возрасте 5–14 лет. Это примерно на 20 миллионов меньше, чем оценка МОТ по числу работающих детей в 2004 году. Около 60 процентов детского труда было задействовано в сельскохозяйственной деятельности, такой как фермерство, молочное хозяйство, рыболовство и лесное хозяйство. Еще 25% работающих детей были заняты в сфере услуг, такой как розничная торговля, уличная торговля товарами, рестораны, погрузка и перемещение товаров, хранение, сбор и переработка мусора, чистка обуви, домашняя помощь и другие услуги. Остальные 15% работали на сборке и производстве в неформальной экономике, на надомных предприятиях, фабриках, шахтах, упаковке соли, управлении оборудованием и подобных операциях. [48] ​​[49] [50] Двое из трех работающих детей работают вместе со своими родителями, в неоплачиваемых семейных рабочих ситуациях. Некоторые дети работают гидами для туристов, иногда совмещая это с работой в магазинах и ресторанах. Детский труд в основном распространен в сельской местности (70%) и неформальном городском секторе (26%).

Вопреки распространенному мнению, большинство работающих детей нанимаются родителями, а не на производстве или в формальной экономике. Дети, которые работают за плату или компенсацию натурой, обычно находятся в сельской местности, а не в городских центрах. Менее 3% работающих детей в возрасте от 5 до 14 лет во всем мире работают вне своего дома или вдали от родителей. [15]

Детский труд составляет 22% рабочей силы в Азии, 32% в Африке, 17% в Латинской Америке, 1% в США, Канаде, Европе и других богатых странах. [51] Доля работающих детей сильно различается в разных странах и даже регионах внутри этих стран. В Африке самый высокий процент детей в возрасте 5–17 лет, занятых детским трудом, и в общей сложности более 65 миллионов. В Азии, с ее большим населением, самое большое количество детей, занятых детским трудом, — около 114 миллионов. В Латинской Америке и Карибском регионе общая плотность населения ниже, но при этом наблюдается высокий уровень заболеваемости — 14 миллионов работающих детей. [52]

Мальчик ремонтирует шину в Гамбии.

Точную информацию о детском труде сегодня трудно получить из-за разногласий между источниками данных относительно того, что составляет детский труд. В некоторых странах государственная политика способствует этой трудности. Например, общие масштабы детского труда в Китае неясны из-за того, что правительство классифицирует данные о детском труде как «совершенно секретные». [53] Китай принял правила для предотвращения детского труда; тем не менее, практика детского труда, как сообщается, является постоянной проблемой в Китае, в основном в сельском хозяйстве и секторах услуг с низкой квалификацией, а также в небольших мастерских и производственных предприятиях. [54] [55]

В 2014 году Министерство труда США опубликовало Список товаров, произведенных с использованием детского или принудительного труда , в котором Китаю было приписано 12 товаров, большинство из которых были произведены как несовершеннолетними детьми, так и наемными рабочими. [56] В отчете среди прочих товаров были перечислены электроника, одежда, игрушки и уголь.

В обзоре Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 [57] сообщается, что 76 стран представляют экстремальные риски соучастия в детском труде для компаний, работающих по всему миру. Десять стран с самым высоким риском в 2012 году, ранжированных в порядке убывания, были: Мьянма, Северная Корея, Сомали, Судан, ДР Конго, Зимбабве, Афганистан, Бурунди, Пакистан и Эфиопия. Из основных экономик роста Maplecroft поставил Филиппины на 25-е место по уровню риска, Индию на 27-е место, Китай на 36-е место, Вьетнам на 37-е место, Индонезию на 46-е место и Бразилию на 54-е место, все они были оценены как связанные с экстремальными рисками неопределенности детского труда для корпораций, стремящихся инвестировать в развивающиеся страны и импортировать продукцию с развивающихся рынков.

Причины

Молодая девушка работает на ткацком станке в Айт-Бен-Хадду , Марокко , в мае 2008 года.
В сельском хозяйстве задействовано 70% детского труда в мире. [14] Выше: ребенок, работающий на рисовой ферме во Вьетнаме .

МОТ предполагает, что бедность является самой большой причиной детского труда. [16] Для бедных домохозяйств доход от работы ребенка обычно имеет решающее значение для его или ее собственного выживания или для выживания домохозяйства. Доход от работающих детей, даже если он небольшой, может составлять от 25 до 40% дохода домохозяйства. Другие ученые, такие как Харш, изучающий африканский детский труд, и Эдмондс и Павчник, изучающий глобальный детский труд, пришли к такому же выводу. [15] [58] [59]

Хотя бедность является существенным фактором, связь между бедностью и детским трудом сложна. Исследования показывают, что детский труд обычно уменьшается по мере увеличения производительного благосостояния домохозяйств (измеряемого сельскохозяйственным землевладением на душу населения в сельской местности). Однако может наблюдаться значительный всплеск связи между детским трудом и землевладением при умеренных уровнях земли на душу населения. [60]

Отсутствие значимых альтернатив, таких как доступные школы и качественное образование, по данным МОТ [16], является еще одним важным фактором, заставляющим детей заниматься вредным трудом. Дети работают, потому что им нечем заняться. Многие общины, особенно сельские районы, где распространено от 60 до 70% детского труда, не имеют адекватных школьных помещений. Даже когда школы иногда доступны, они находятся слишком далеко, до них трудно добраться, они недоступны или качество образования настолько низкое, что родители задаются вопросом, стоит ли ходить в школу. [15] [61]

Культурные факторы

В европейской истории, когда детский труд был обычным явлением, а также в современном детском труде современного мира, определенные культурные убеждения обосновывали его. Некоторые считают, что работа полезна для формирования характера и развития навыков детей. Во многих культурах, особенно там, где процветают неформальная экономика и малый домашний бизнес, культурная традиция заключается в том, что дети следуют по стопам своих родителей; детский труд тогда является средством обучения и практики этой профессии с самого раннего возраста. Аналогичным образом, во многих культурах образование девочек менее ценится или от девочек просто не ожидается необходимости формального обучения, и этих девочек заставляют заниматься детским трудом, например, оказанием домашних услуг. [16] [62] [63] [64]

Макроэкономика

Биггери и Мехротра изучили макроэкономические факторы, которые поощряют детский труд. Они сосредоточили свое исследование на пяти азиатских странах, включая Индию, Пакистан, Индонезию, Таиланд и Филиппины. Они предполагают [65] , что детский труд является серьезной проблемой во всех пяти странах, но это не новая проблема. Макроэкономические причины способствовали широкому распространению детского труда во всем мире на протяжении большей части человеческой истории. Они предполагают, что причины детского труда включают как спрос, так и предложение. В то время как бедность и недоступность хороших школ объясняют предложение детского труда, они предполагают, что рост низкооплачиваемой неформальной экономики, а не высокооплачиваемой формальной экономики является одной из причин спроса. Другие ученые также предполагают, что негибкий рынок труда, размер неформальной экономики, неспособность отраслей к масштабированию и отсутствие современных производственных технологий являются основными макроэкономическими факторами, влияющими на спрос и приемлемость детского труда. [66] [67] [68]

По стране

Работающие дети вне школы против часов, отработанных детьми [69]

Колониальные империи

Систематическое использование детского труда было обычным явлением в колониях европейских держав между 1650 и 1950 годами. В Африке колониальные администраторы поощряли традиционные способы производства, основанные на родственных связях, то есть наем домохозяйства для работы, а не только взрослых. Миллионы детей работали на колониальных сельскохозяйственных плантациях, в шахтах и ​​в сфере бытовых услуг. [70] [71] Были обнародованы сложные схемы, по которым дети в этих колониях в возрасте от 5 до 14 лет нанимались в качестве подмастерьев без оплаты в обмен на обучение ремеслу. Система ученичества у бедняков вошла в практику в 19 веке, когда колониальному хозяину не требовалось ни одобрения местных родителей, ни одобрения ребенка, чтобы назначить ребенка на работу вдали от родителей на отдаленной ферме, принадлежащей другому колониальному хозяину. [72] Другие схемы включали программы «зарабатывай и учись», где дети работали и тем самым учились. Например, Британия приняла закон, так называемый Закон о хозяевах и слугах 1899 года, за которым последовал Закон о налогах и пропусках, чтобы поощрять детский труд в колониях, особенно в Африке. Эти законы предлагали коренным жителям законное право собственности на часть родной земли в обмен на предоставление труда жены и детей для нужд колониального правительства, например, на фермах и в качестве пиканнинов . [ необходима цитата ]

Помимо законов, на колонии были наложены новые налоги. Одним из таких налогов был подушный налог в британской и французской колониальных империях. Налогом взимались все, кто был старше 8 лет, в некоторых колониях. Чтобы платить эти налоги и покрывать расходы на проживание, дети в колониальных семьях должны были работать. [73] [74] [75]

В юго-восточных азиатских колониях, таких как Гонконг, детский труд, такой как Mui tsai (妹仔), был оправдан как культурная традиция и игнорировался британскими властями. [76] [77] Чиновники Голландской Ост-Индской компании оправдывали свои злоупотребления детским трудом тем, что «это способ спасти этих детей от худшей участи». Христианские миссионерские школы в регионах, простирающихся от Замбии до Нигерии, также требовали работы от детей и взамен предоставляли религиозное образование, а не светское образование . [70] В другом месте канадские статуты доминиона в форме так называемого Закона о нарушениях контрактов предусматривали тюремные сроки для несотрудничающих детей-работников. [78]

Предложения по регулированию детского труда появились еще в 1786 году. [79]

Африка

Детский труд в бывшей немецкой колонии Камерун , 1919 г.

Работа детей в раннем возрасте была постоянной темой по всей Африке. Многие дети начинали работать дома, чтобы помогать родителям управлять семейной фермой. [80] Сегодня в Африке дети часто вынуждены заниматься эксплуататорским трудом из-за семейных долгов и других финансовых факторов, что приводит к постоянной бедности. [80] Другие виды домашнего детского труда включают работу на коммерческих плантациях , попрошайничество и другие виды торговли, такие как чистка обуви. [81] В общей сложности, по оценкам, пять миллионов детей в настоящее время работают в сфере сельского хозяйства, и их число неуклонно увеличивается во время сбора урожая. Наряду с 30% детей, которые собирают кофе, по оценкам, есть 25 000 детей школьного возраста, которые работают круглый год. [82]

Маленькая девочка несет тяжелые предметы. Регион Катанга, ДРК; Конго, Африка.

В каких отраслях работают дети, зависит от того, выросли ли они в сельской местности или в городе . Дети, родившиеся в городах, часто работали у уличных торговцев, мыли машины, помогали на стройках, ткали одежду, а иногда даже работали экзотическими танцовщицами. [81] В то время как дети, выросшие в сельской местности, работали на фермах, выполняя физический труд, работали с животными и продавали урожай. [81] Многие дети также работают в опасных условиях, некоторые голыми руками, камнями и молотками, чтобы разобрать телевизоры на основе ЭЛТ и компьютерные мониторы. [83] Из всех работающих детей наиболее серьезные случаи были связаны с уличными детьми и детьми, ставшими жертвами торговли людьми, из-за физического и эмоционального насилия, которому они подвергались со стороны своих работодателей. [81] Для решения проблемы детского труда в 1959 году был принят Закон о конвенциях Организации Объединенных Наций о правах ребенка. [84] Однако из-за бедности, отсутствия образования и невежества правовые меры не были/не полностью соблюдаются или принимаются в Африке. [85]

Молодые уличные торговцы в Бенине

Другие правовые факторы, которые были реализованы для прекращения и сокращения детского труда, включают глобальный ответ, который вступил в силу в 1979 году в результате провозглашения Международного года ребенка. [85] Наряду с Комитетом по правам человека Организации Объединенных Наций, эти две декларации работали на многих уровнях для искоренения детского труда. [85] Хотя было предпринято много действий для прекращения этой эпидемии, детский труд в Африке по-прежнему является проблемой сегодня из-за нечеткого определения подросткового возраста и того, сколько времени требуется детям для участия в деятельности, которая имеет решающее значение для их развития. Другой вопрос, который часто возникает, - это связь между тем, что считается детским трудом в домашнем хозяйстве, и культурным принятием детей, помогающих вести семейный бизнес. [86] В конце концов, перед национальным правительством стоит постоянная задача усилить свой политический контроль над детским трудом и повысить уровень образования и осведомленности по вопросу детей, работающих ниже установленного законом возраста. Поскольку дети играют важную роль в экономике Африки, детский труд по-прежнему играет важную роль для многих в 20 веке. [ необходима ссылка ]

Австралия

Из европейского поселения в 1788 году, несовершеннолетних заключенных иногда отправляли в Австралию, где их заставляли работать. Детский труд не был таким чрезмерным в Австралии, как в Британии. При небольшой численности населения производительность сельского хозяйства была выше, и семьи не сталкивались с голодом, как в устоявшихся индустриальных странах. В Австралии также не было значительной промышленности до конца 20-го века, когда под влиянием Британии были разработаны законы о детском труде и обязательном школьном образовании. С 1870-х годов детский труд был ограничен обязательным школьным образованием. [ необходима цитата ]

Законы о детском труде в Австралии различаются от штата к штату. Как правило, детям разрешено работать в любом возрасте, но существуют ограничения для детей до 15 лет. Эти ограничения распространяются на часы работы и тип работы, которую могут выполнять дети. Во всех штатах дети обязаны посещать школу до минимального возраста окончания школы, 15 лет во всех штатах, за исключением Тасмании и Квинсленда, где возраст окончания школы составляет 17 лет . [87]

Бразилия

Детский труд в Бразилии , после сбора вторсырья на свалке

Детский труд был постоянной борьбой для детей в Бразилии с тех пор, как началась португальская колонизация региона в 1500 году. [88] Работа, в которой принимали участие многие дети, не всегда была видимой, законной или оплачиваемой. Бесплатный или рабский труд был обычным явлением для многих молодых людей и был частью их повседневной жизни по мере того, как они становились взрослыми. [89] Тем не менее, из-за отсутствия четкого определения того, как классифицировать, что такое ребенок или подросток, было мало исторической документации о детском труде в колониальный период. Из-за этого отсутствия документации трудно определить, сколько детей использовалось для каких видов работ до девятнадцатого века. [88] Первое документальное подтверждение детского труда в Бразилии относится ко времени коренных обществ и рабского труда, когда было обнаружено, что дети принудительно работали над задачами, которые превышали их эмоциональные и физические пределы. [90] Армандо Диас, например, умер в ноябре 1913 года, будучи еще совсем маленьким, став жертвой электрошока при входе в текстильную промышленность, где он работал. Мальчики и девочки ежедневно становились жертвами несчастных случаев на производстве. [91]

В Бразилии минимальный трудовой возраст был определен как четырнадцать лет из-за конституционных поправок, которые были приняты в 1934, 1937 и 1946 годах. [92] Однако из-за смены диктатуры военными в 1980-х годах минимальное возрастное ограничение было снижено до двенадцати лет, но было пересмотрено из-за сообщений об опасных и вредных условиях труда в 1988 году. Это привело к тому, что минимальный возраст был снова повышен до 14 лет. Еще один набор ограничений был принят в 1998 году, который ограничивал виды работ, в которых могла участвовать молодежь, такие как работа, которая считалась опасной, например, управление строительным оборудованием, или определенные виды работ на фабриках. [92] Хотя было предпринято много шагов для снижения риска и случаев детского труда, в Бразилии по-прежнему остается большое количество детей и подростков, работающих в возрасте до четырнадцати лет. Только недавно, в 1980-х годах, было обнаружено, что почти девять миллионов детей в Бразилии работали нелегально и не принимали участия в традиционных детских занятиях, которые помогают развивать важный жизненный опыт. [93]

Brazilian census data (PNAD, 1999) indicate that 2.55 million 10- to 14-year-olds were illegally holding jobs. They were joined by 3.7 million 15- to 17-year-olds and about 375,000 5- to 9-year-olds.[citation needed] Due to the raised age restriction of 14, at least half of the recorded young workers had been employed illegally, which led to many not being protected by important labour laws.[citation needed] Although substantial time has passed since the time of regulated child labour, there are still many children working illegally in Brazil. Many children are used by drug cartels to sell and carry drugs, guns, and other illegal substances because of their perception of innocence. This type of work that youth are taking part in is very dangerous due to the physical and psychological implications that come with these jobs. Yet despite the hazards that come with working with drug dealers, there has been an increase in this area of employment throughout the country.[94]

Britain

Many factors played a role in Britain's long-term economic growth, such as the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s and the prominent presence of child labour during the industrial age.[95] Children who worked at an early age were often not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family.[95] Child labour first started to occur in England when household businesses were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes, working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of these youths.[95] Although there are many counts of children under the age of ten working for factories, the majority of children workers were between the ages of ten and fourteen.

Another factor that influenced child labour was the demographic changes that occurred in the eighteenth century.[96] By the end of the eighteenth century, 20 per cent of the population was made up of children between the ages of 5 and 14. Due to this substantial shift in available workers, and the development of the industrial revolution, children began to work earlier in life in companies outside of the home.[97] Yet, even though there was an increase of child labour in factories such as cotton textiles, there were large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture and domestic production.[97]

With such a high percentage of children working, the rising of illiteracy, and the lack of a formal education became a widespread issue for many children who worked to provide for their families.[98] Due to this problematic trend, many parents developed a change of opinion when deciding whether or not to send their children to work. Other factors that lead to the decline of child labour included financial changes in the economy, changes in the development of technology, raised wages, and continuous regulations on factory legislation.[99]

In 1933 Britain adopted legislation restricting the use of children under 14 in employment. The Children and Young Persons Act 1933, defined the term child as anyone of compulsory school age (age sixteen). In general no child may be employed under the age of fifteen years, or fourteen years for light work.[100]

Cambodia

A little girl making money for her family by posing with a snake in a water village of Tonle Sap Lake

Significant levels of child labour appear to be found in Cambodia.[101] In 1998, ILO estimated that 24.1% of children in Cambodia aged between 10 and 14 were economically active.[101] Many of these children work long hours and Cambodia Human Development Report 2000 reported that approximately 65,000 children between the ages of 5 and 13 worked 25 hours a week and did not attend school.[102] There are also many initiative and policies put in place to decrease the prevalence of child labour such as the United States generalised system of preferences, the U.S.-Cambodia textile agreement, ILO Garment Sector Working Conditions Improvement Project, and ChildWise Tourism.[103][104]

Ecuador

Child labour in a quarry, Ecuador

An Ecuadorean study published in 2006 found child labour to be one of the main environmental problems affecting children's health. It reported that over 800,000 children are working in Ecuador, where they are exposed to heavy metals and toxic chemicals and are subject to mental and physical stress and the insecurity caused by being at risk of work-related accidents. Minors performing agricultural work along with their parents help apply pesticides without wearing protective equipment.[105]

India

Working girl in India

In 2015, the country of India is home to the largest number of children who are working illegally in various industrial industries. Agriculture in India is the largest sector where many children work at early ages to help support their family.[92] Many of these children are forced to work at young ages due to many family factors such as unemployment, large families, poverty, and lack of parental education. This is often the major cause of the high rate of child labour in India.[91]

On 23 June 1757, the English East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey. The British thus became masters of east India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) – a prosperous region with a flourishing agriculture, industry and trade.[94] This led to many children being forced into labour due to the increasing need of cheap labour to produce large numbers of goods. Many multinationals often employed children because that they can be recruited for less pay, and have more endurance to utilise in factory environments.[106] Another reason many Indian children were hired was because they lack knowledge of their basic rights, they did not cause trouble or complain, and they were often more trustworthy. The innocence that comes with childhood was utilised to make a profit by many and was encouraged by the need for family income.[106]

A sign at a construction site in Bangalore:
"Child labour prohibited"

A variety of Indian social scientists as well as the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have done extensive research on the numeric figures of child labour found in India and determined that India contributes to one-third of Asia's child labour and one-fourth of the world's child labour.[94] Due to many children being illegally employed, the Indian government began to take extensive actions to reduce the number of children working, and to focus on the importance of facilitating the proper growth and development of children.[94] International influences help to encourage legal actions to be taken in India, such as the Geneva Declaration of the Right of Children Act was passed in 1924. This act was followed by The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to which incorporated the basic human rights and needs of children for proper progression and growth in their younger years.[107] These international acts encouraged major changes to the workforce in India which occurred in 1986 when the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was put into place. This act prohibited hiring children younger than the age of 14, and from working in hazardous conditions.[94]

Due to the increase of regulations and legal restrictions on child labour, there has been a 64 per cent decline in child labour from 1993 to 2005.[108] Although this is a great decrease in the country of India, there is still high numbers of children working in the rural areas of India. With 85 per cent of the child labour occurring in rural areas, and 15 per cent occurring in urban areas, there are still substantial areas of concern in the country of India.[108]

India has legislation since 1986 which allows work by children in non-hazardous industry. In 2013, the Punjab and Haryana High Court gave a landmark order that directed that there shall be a total ban on the employment of children up to the age of 14 years, be it hazardous or non-hazardous industries. However, the Court ruled that a child can work with his or her family in family based trades/occupations, for the purpose of learning a new trade/craftsmanship or vocation.[citation needed]

Iran

The phenomenon of children labour is one of the social issues of Iranian society, which has taken on serious and diverse dimensions over time. Researches and official and unofficial data show that this social damage is more common in big cities. Also, research data shows that most of the working children in Tehran province are related to Afghan children who have immigrated to Iran legally or illegally.[109][110][111][112][113]

Kameel Ahmady, a social researcher and winner of the Literature and Humanities award from the World Peace Foundation, while emphasizing the fact that most of the children labour in Tehran province are Afghan children, along with his colleagues believes that with the continuation of Iran's economic crisis, the lack of proper mechanisms to manage and control the phenomenon and absence of legal working visa scheme for Afghan immigrants have caused this social harm to spread.[114][115][116][117][118]

Abdolreza Rahmani Fazli, the Minister of Interior at the time in August 2019, while analysing and describing the situation of working children in Tehran, said: "Reports show that street children live in poor conditions and are exploited." One thing that should be noted is that up to 80% of these children are non-Iranian. Considering that some of these children were Afghan nationals, we have raised the issue with the embassy of this country. If other institutions cooperate, we can take appropriate measures to organise street children, but if they do not cooperate. It has also been decided to issue arrest warrants for gangs exploiting children with the cooperation of the police force and the judicial system.[119][120][121]

In Isfahan province, the Iranian Department of State Welfare (behzisti) keeps a database of the scanned retina irises of a number of working street kids, and have put "child friendly" measures in place to support them, reduce the social harm from their presence, and improve their quality of life.[122]

Only Tehran as of June 2023 has seventy thousand working children they also collect recycles.[123][124]

As of July 2023 %15 of children are child labour, 8% do not have a residence. 10 per cent of children are not in school.[125]

Ireland

In post-colonial Ireland, the rate of child exploitation was extremely high as children were used as farm labourers once they were able to walk, these children were never paid for the labour that they carried out on the family farm. Children were wanted and desired in Ireland for the use of their labour on the family farm. Irish parents felt that it was the children's duty to carry out chores on the family farm.[126]

Japan

Though banned in modern Japan, shonenko (child labourers) were a feature of the Imperial era until its end in 1945. During World War II labour recruiting efforts targeted youths from Taiwan (Formosa), then a Japanese territory, with promises of educational opportunity. Though the target of 25,000 recruits was never reached, over 8,400 Taiwanese youths aged 12 to 14 relocated to Japan to help manufacture the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden aircraft.[127][128][129]

Pakistan

The Netherlands

Child labour existed in the Netherlands up to and through the Industrial Revolution. Laws governing child labour in factories were first passed in 1874, but child labour on farms continued to be the norm up until the 20th century.[130]

Soviet Union and successor states

Although formally banned since 1922, child labour was widespread in the Soviet Union, mostly in the form of mandatory, unpaid work by schoolchildren on Saturdays and holidays. The students were used as a cheap, unqualified workforce on kolhoz (collective farms) as well as in industry and forestry. The practice was formally called "work education".[131]

From the 1950s on, the students were also used for unpaid work at schools, where they cleaned and performed repairs.[132] This practice has continued in the Russian Federation, where up to 21 days of the summer holidays is sometimes set aside for school works. By law, this is only allowed as part of specialised occupational training and with the students' and parents' permission, but those provisions are widely ignored.[133][better source needed] In 2012 there was an accident near the city of Nalchik where a car killed several pupils cleaning up a highway shoulder during their "holiday work", as well as their teacher, who was supervising them.[134]

Out of former Soviet Union republics Uzbekistan continued and expanded the program of child labour on industrial scale to increase profits on the main source of Islam Karimov's income, cotton harvesting. In September, when school normally starts, the classes are suspended and children are sent to cotton fields for work, where they are assigned daily quotas of 20 to 60 kg of raw cotton they have to collect. This process is repeated in spring, when collected cotton needs to be hoed and weeded. In 2006 it is estimated that 2.7 million children were forced to work this way.[135]

Switzerland

As in many other countries, child labour in Switzerland affected among the so-called Kaminfegerkinder ("chimney sweep children") and children working p.e. in spinning mills, factories and in agriculture in 19th-century Switzerland,[136] but also to the 1960s so-called Verdingkinder (literally: "contract children" or "indentured child laborers") were children who were taken from their parents, often due to poverty or moral reasons – usually mothers being unmarried, very poor citizens, of GypsyYeniche origin, so-called Kinder der Landstrasse,[137] etc. – and sent to live with new families, often poor farmers who needed cheap labour.[138]

There were even Verdingkinder auctions where children were handed over to the farmer asking the least money from the authorities, thus securing cheap labour for his farm and relieving the authority from the financial burden of looking after the children. In the 1930s 20% of all agricultural labourers in the Canton of Bern were children below the age of 15. Swiss municipality guardianship authorities acted so, commonly tolerated by federal authorities, to the 1960s, not all of them of course, but usually communities affected of low taxes in some Swiss cantons[139] Swiss historian Marco Leuenberger investigated, that in 1930 there were some 35,000 indentured children, and between 1920 and 1970 more than 100,000 are believed to have been placed with families or homes. 10,000 Verdingkinder are still alive.[139][140] Therefore, the so-called Wiedergutmachungsinitiative was started in April 2014. In April 2014 the collection of targeted at least authenticated 100,000 signatures of Swiss citizens has started, and still have to be collected to October 2015.[citation needed]

United States

Missouri Governor Joseph W. Folk inspecting child labourers in 1906 in an image drawn by journalist Marguerite Martyn

Child labour laws in the United States are found at the federal and state levels. The most sweeping federal law that restricts the employment and abuse of child workers is the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Child labour provisions under FLSA are designed to protect the educational opportunities of youth and prohibit their employment in jobs that are detrimental to their health and safety. FLSA restricts the hours that youth under 16 years of age can work and lists hazardous occupations too dangerous for young workers to perform.

Under the FLSA, for non-agricultural jobs, children under 14 may not be employed, children between 14 and 16 may be employed in allowed occupations during limited hours, and children between 16 and 17 may be employed for unlimited hours in non-hazardous occupations.[141] A number of exceptions to these rules exist, such as for employment by parents, newspaper delivery, and child actors.[141] The regulations for agricultural employment are generally less strict.

States have varying laws covering youth employment. Each state has minimum requirements such as, earliest age a child may begin working, number of hours a child is allowed to be working during the day, number of hours a child is allowed to be worked during the week. The United States Department of Labor lists the minimum requirements for agricultural work in each state.[142] Where state law differs from federal law on child labour, the law with the more rigorous standard applies.[141]

Individual states have a wide range of restrictions on labour by minors, often requiring work permits for minors who are still enrolled in high school, limiting the times and hours that minors can work by age and imposing additional safety regulations.

Laws and initiatives

Almost every country in the world has laws relating to and aimed at preventing child labour. International Labour Organization has helped set international law, which most countries have signed on and ratified. According to ILO minimum age convention (C138) of 1973, child labour refers to any work performed by children under the age of 12, non-light work done by children aged 12–14, and hazardous work done by children aged 15–17. Light work was defined, under this convention, as any work that does not harm a child's health and development, and that does not interfere with his or her attendance at school. This convention has been ratified by 171 countries.[143]

The United Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990, which was subsequently ratified by 193 countries.[144] Article 32 of the convention addressed child labour, as follows:

...Parties recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.[4]

Under Article 1 of the 1990 Convention, a child is defined as "every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, a majority is attained earlier." Article 28 of this Convention requires States to, "make primary education compulsory and available free to all."[4]

As of 2024, 196 countries are party to the convention; the only nation that has not ratified the treaty is the United States.[145]

In 1999, ILO helped lead the Worst Forms Convention 182 (C182),[146] which has so far been signed upon and domestically ratified by 151 countries including the United States. This international law prohibits worst forms of child labour, defined as all forms of slavery and slavery-like practices, such as child trafficking, debt bondage, and forced labour, including forced recruitment of children into armed conflict. The law also prohibits the use of a child for prostitution or the production of pornography, child labour in illicit activities such as drug production and trafficking; and in hazardous work. Both the Worst Forms Convention (C182) and the Minimum Age Convention (C138) are examples of international labour standards implemented through the ILO that deal with child labour.

In addition to setting the international law, the United Nations initiated International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in 1992.[147] This initiative aims to progressively eliminate child labour through strengthening national capacities to address some of the causes of child labour. Amongst the key initiative is the so-called time-bounded programme countries, where child labour is most prevalent and schooling opportunities lacking. The initiative seeks to achieve amongst other things, universal primary school availability. The IPEC has expanded to at least the following target countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Nepal, Tanzania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa and Turkey.

Targeted child labour campaigns were initiated by the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in order to advocate for prevention and elimination of all forms of child labour. The global Music against Child Labour Initiative was launched in 2013 in order to involve socially excluded children in structured musical activity and education in efforts to help protect them from child labour.[148]

Exceptions granted

The United States has passed a law that allows Amish children older than 14 to work in traditional wood enterprises with proper supervision.

In 2004, the United States passed an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The amendment allows certain children aged 14–18 to work in or outside a business where machinery is used to process wood.[149] The law aims to respect the religious and cultural needs of the Amish community of the United States. The Amish believe that one effective way to educate children is on the job.[6] The new law allows Amish children the ability to work with their families, once they are past eighth grade in school.

Similarly, in 1996, member countries of the European Union, per Directive 94/33/EC,[8] agreed to a number of exceptions for young people in its child labour laws. Under these rules, children of various ages may work in cultural, artistic, sporting or advertising activities if authorised by the competent authority. Children above the age of 13 may perform light work for a limited number of hours per week in other economic activities as defined at the discretion of each country. Additionally, the European law exception allows children aged 14 years or over to work as part of a work/training scheme. The EU Directive clarified that these exceptions do not allow child labour where the children may experience harmful exposure to dangerous substances.[150] Nonetheless, many children under the age of 13 do work, even in the most developed countries of the EU. For instance, a recent study showed over a third of Dutch twelve-year-old kids had a job, the most common being babysitting.[151]

More laws vs. more freedom

Very often, however, these state laws were not enforced... Federal legislation was passed in 1916 and again in 1919, but both laws were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Although the number of child workers declined dramatically during the 1920s and 1930s, it was not until the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 that federal regulation of child labor finally became a reality.

— Smithsonian, on child labour in early 20th century United States[152]

Scholars disagree on the best legal course forward to address child labour. Some suggest the need for laws that place a blanket ban on any work by children less than 18 years old. Others suggest the current international laws are enough, and the need for more engaging approach to achieve the ultimate goals.[153]

Some scholars[who?] suggest any labour by children aged 18 years or less is wrong since this encourages illiteracy, inhumane work and lower investment in human capital. These activists claim that child labour also leads to poor labour standards for adults, depresses the wages of adults in developing countries as well as the developed countries, and dooms the third world economies to low-skill jobs only capable of producing poor quality cheap exports. More children that work in poor countries, the fewer and worse-paid are the jobs for adults in these countries. In other words, there are moral and economic reasons that justify a blanket ban on labour from children aged 18 years or less, everywhere in the world.[154][155]

Child labour in Bangladesh

Other scholars[who?] suggest that these arguments are flawed and ignore history, and that more laws will do more harm than good. According to them, child labour is merely the symptom of poverty. If laws ban all lawful work that enables the poor to survive, informal economy, illicit operations and underground businesses will thrive. These will increase abuse of the children. In poor countries with very high incidence rates of child labour – such as Ethiopia, Chad, Niger and Nepal – schools are not available, and the few schools that exist offer poor quality education or are unaffordable. The alternatives for children who currently work, claim these studies, are worse: grinding subsistence farming, militia or prostitution. Child labour is not a choice, it is a necessity, the only option for survival. It is currently the least undesirable of a set of very bad choices.[156][157] Traidcraft Exchange and Homeworkers Worldwide argue that attempts to eliminate child labour without addressing the level of adult earnings may lead to children being engaged in labour in "less visible and more hazardous occupations".[158]

Nepali girls working in brick factory

These scholars suggest, from their studies of economic and social data, that early 20th-century child labour in Europe and the United States ended in large part as a result of the economic development of the formal regulated economy, technology development and general prosperity. Child labour laws and ILO conventions came later. Edmonds suggests, even in contemporary times, the incidence of child labour in Vietnam has rapidly reduced following economic reforms and GDP growth. These scholars suggest economic engagement, emphasis on opening quality schools rather than more laws and expanding economically relevant skill development opportunities in the third world. International legal actions, such as trade sanctions increase child labour.[153][159][160][161]

The Incredible Bread Machine, a book published by "World Research, Inc." in 1974, stated:

Child labour was a particular target of early reformers. William Cooke Tatlor wrote at the time about these reformers who, witnessing children at work in the factories, thought to themselves: 'How much more delightful would have been the gambol of the free limbs on the hillside; the sight of the green mead with its spangles of buttercups and daisies; the song of the bird and the humming bee...' But for many of these children the factory system meant quite literally the only chance for survival. Today we overlook the fact that death from starvation and exposure was a common fate before the Industrial Revolution, for the pre-capitalist economy was barely able to support the population. Yes, children were working. Formerly they would have starved. It was only as goods were produced in greater abundance at a lower cost that men could support their families without sending their children to work. It was not the reformer or the politician that ended the grim necessity for child labour; it was capitalism.

Incidents

Cocoa production

In 1998, UNICEF reported that Ivory Coast farmers used enslaved children – many from surrounding countries.[162] In late 2000 a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa – the main ingredient in chocolate[163] – in West Africa.[164][165] Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa.[162][166][167] In 2001, the US State Department estimated there were 15,000 child slaves cocoa, cotton and coffee farms in the Ivory Coast,[168] and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association acknowledged that child slavery is used in the cocoa harvest.[168][failed verification][better source needed]

Malian migrants have long worked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast, but in 2000 cocoa prices had dropped to a 10-year low and some farmers stopped paying their employees.[169] The Malian counsel had to rescue some boys who had not been paid for five years and who were beaten if they tried to run away.[169] Malian officials believed that 15,000 children, some as young as 11 years old, were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries.[166] Parents were told the children would find work and send money home, but once the children left home, they often worked in conditions resembling slavery.[164] In other cases, children begging for food were lured from bus stations and sold as slaves.[170] In 2002, the Ivory Coast had 12,000 children with no relatives nearby, which suggested they were trafficked,[164] likely from neighboring Mali, Burkina Faso and Togo.[171]

The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking.[172] The European Cocoa Association dismissed these accusations as "false and excessive"[172] and the industry said the reports were not representative of all areas.[173] Later the industry acknowledged the working conditions for children were unsatisfactory and children's rights were sometimes violated[172] and acknowledged the claims could not be ignored. In a BBC interview, the ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom called these reports of widespread use of slave child labour by 700,000 cocoa farmers as absurd and inaccurate.[173]

In 2001, a voluntary agreement called the Harkin–Engel Protocol, was accepted by the international cocoa and chocolate industry to eliminate the worst forms of child labour, as defined by ILO's Convention 182, in West Africa.[174] This agreement created a foundation named International Cocoa Initiative in 2002. The foundation claims it has, as of 2011, active programs in 290 cocoa growing communities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, reaching a total population of 689,000 people to help eliminate the worst forms of child labour in cocoa industry.[175] Other organisations claim progress has been made, but the protocol's 2005 deadlines have not yet been met.[176][177][178]

Mining in Africa

Children engaged in diamond mining in Sierra Leone

In 2008, Bloomberg claimed child labour in copper and cobalt mines that supplied Chinese companies in Congo. The children are creuseurs, that is they dig the ore by hand, carry sacks of ores on their backs, and these are then purchased by these companies. Over 60 of Katanga's 75 processing plants are owned by Chinese companies and 90 per cent of the region's minerals go to China.[179] An African NGO report claimed 80,000 child labourers under the age of 15, or about 40% of all miners, were supplying ore to Chinese companies in this African region.[180]Amnesty International alleged in 2016 that some cobalt sold by Congo Dongfang Mining was produced by child labour, and that it was being used in lithium-ion batteries powering electric cars and mobile devices worldwide.[181][182]

BBC, in 2012, accused Glencore of using child labour in its mining and smelting operations of Africa. Glencore denied it used child labour, and said it has strict policy of not using child labour. The company claimed it has a strict policy whereby all copper was mined correctly, placed in bags with numbered seals and then sent to the smelter. Glencore mentioned being aware of child miners who were part of a group of artisanal miners who had without authorisation raided the concession awarded to the company since 2010; Glencore has been pleading with the government to remove the artisanal miners from the concession.[183]

Small-scale artisanal mining of gold is another source of dangerous child labour in poor rural areas in certain parts of the world.[184] This form of mining uses labour-intensive and low-tech methods. It is informal sector of the economy. Human Rights Watch group estimates that about 12 per cent of global gold production comes from artisanal mines. In west Africa, in countries such as Mali – the third largest exporter of gold in Africa – between 20,000 and 40,000 children work in artisanal mining. Locally known as orpaillage, children as young as six years old work with their families. These children and families suffer chronic exposure to toxic chemicals including mercury, and do hazardous work such as digging shafts and working underground, pulling up, carrying and crushing the ore. The poor work practices harm the long-term health of children, as well as release hundreds of tons of mercury every year into local rivers, ground water and lakes. Gold is important to the economy of Mali and Ghana. For Mali, it is the second largest earner of its export revenue. For many poor families with children, it is the primary and sometimes the only source of income.[185][186]

Meatpacking

In early August 2008, Iowa Labour Commissioner David Neil announced that his department had found that Agriprocessors, a kosher meatpacking company in Postville which had recently been raided by Immigration and Customs Enforcement, had employed 57 minors, some as young as 14, in violation of state law prohibiting anyone under 18 from working in a meatpacking plant. Neil announced that he was turning the case over to the state Attorney General for prosecution, claiming that his department's inquiry had discovered "egregious violations of virtually every aspect of Iowa's child labour laws."[187] Agriprocessors claimed that it was at a loss to understand the allegations. Agriprocessors' CEO went to trial on these charges in state court on 4 May 2010. After a five-week trial he was found not guilty of all 57 charges of child labour violations by the Black Hawk County District Court jury in Waterloo, Iowa, on 7 June 2010.[188]

GAP

Working child in Ooty, India

A 2007 report claimed some GAP products had been produced by child labourers. GAP acknowledged the problem and announced it is pulling the products from its shelves.[189] The report found that GAP had rigorous social audit systems since 2004 to eliminate child labour in its supply chain. However, the report concluded that the system was being abused by unscrupulous subcontractors.

GAP's policy, the report claimed, is that if it discovers child labour was used by its supplier in its branded clothes, the contractor must remove the child from the workplace, provide them with access to schooling and a wage, and guarantee the opportunity of work on reaching a legal working age.

In 2007, The New York Times reported that GAP, after the child labour discovery, created a $200,000 grant to improve working conditions in the supplier community.[190] GAP created strong relationships with developing countries to help prevent child labour and find solutions; GAP would conduct interviews and reach out to their 100,000 employees worldwide to get insight into how they feel about GAP's work environments. This survey concluded with a 68 per cent response rate, and 77 per cent of respondents considered GAP a great environment to work in.[191]

In December 2009, campaigners in the UK called on two leading high street retailers to stop selling clothes made with cotton which may have been picked by children. Anti-Slavery International and the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) accused H&M and Zara of using cotton suppliers in Bangladesh. It is also suspected that many of their raw materials originates from Uzbekistan, where children aged 10 are forced to work in the fields. The activists were calling to ban the use of Uzbek cotton and implement a "track and trace" systems to guarantee an ethical responsible source of the material.

H&M said it "does not accept" child labour and "seeks to avoid" using Uzbek cotton, but admitted it did "not have any reliable methods" to ensure Uzbek cotton did not end up in any of its products. Inditex, the owner of Zara, said its code of conduct banned child labour.[192]

Silk weaving

A 2003 Human Rights Watch report claimed children as young as five years old were employed and worked for up to 12 hours a day and six to seven days a week in the silk industry.[193] These children, HRW claimed, were bonded child labour in India, easy to find in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.[194]

In 2010, a German news investigative report claimed that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000 silk factories in 1998. In other locations, thousands of bonded child labourers were present in 1994. After UNICEF and NGOs got involved, the child labour figure dropped drastically after 2005, with the total estimated to be fewer than a thousand child labourers. The report claims the released children were back in school.[195]

Primark

In 2008, the BBC reported[196] that the company Primark was using child labour in the manufacture of clothing. In particular, a £4 hand-embroidered shirt was the starting point of a documentary produced by BBC's Panorama programme. The programme asks consumers to ask themselves, "Why am I only paying £4 for a hand embroidered top? This item looks handmade. Who made it for such little cost?", in addition to exposing the violent side of the child labour industry in countries where child exploitation is prevalent.

As a result of the BBC report, Royal Television Society awarded it a prize, and Primark took immediate action and fired three Indian suppliers in 2008.[197]

Primark continued to investigate the allegations for three years,[198] concluding that BBC report was a fake. In 2011, following an investigation by the BBC Trust's Editorial Standards Committee, the BBC announced, "Having carefully scrutinised all of the relevant evidence, the committee concluded that, on the balance of probabilities, it was more likely than not that the Bangalore footage was not authentic." BBC subsequently apologised for faking footage, and returned the television award for investigative reporting.[199][200][201]

Elimination

Child labour in a coal mine, United States, c. 1912. Photograph by Lewis Hine.
Different forms of child labour in Honduras, 1999

Concerns have often been raised over the buying public's moral complicity in purchasing products assembled or otherwise manufactured in developing countries with child labour. However, others have raised concerns that boycotting products manufactured through child labour may force these children to turn to more dangerous or strenuous professions, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study found that after the Child Labor Deterrence Act was introduced in the US, an estimated 50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution", jobs that are "more hazardous and exploitative than garment production". The study suggests that boycotts are "blunt instruments with long-term consequences, that can actually harm rather than help the children involved."[50]

According to Milton Friedman, before the Industrial Revolution virtually all children worked in agriculture.[202] During the Industrial Revolution many of these children moved from farm work to factory work. Over time, as real wages rose, parents became able to afford to send their children to school instead of work and as a result child labour declined, both before and after legislation.[203]

British historian and socialist E. P. Thompson in The Making of the English Working Class draws a qualitative distinction between child domestic work and participation in the wider (waged) labour market.[24] Further, the usefulness of the experience of the industrial revolution in making predictions about current trends has been disputed. Social historian Hugh Cunningham, author of Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500, notes that:

Fifty years ago it might have been assumed that, just as child labour had declined in the developed world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so it would also, in a trickle-down fashion, in the rest of the world. Its failure to do that, and its re-emergence in the developed world, raise questions about its role in any economy, whether national or global.[204]

According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank operating in Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become productive adults and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes—and, sadly, there are many political obstacles.[205]

The International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), founded in 1992, aims to eliminate child labour. It operates in 88 countries and is the largest program of its kind in the world.[206] IPEC works with international and government agencies, NGOs, the media, and children and their families to end child labour and provide children with education and assistance.[206]

From 2008 to 2013, the ILO operated a program through IPEC entitled "Combating Abusive Child Labour (CACL-II)". The project, funded by the European Union, contributed to the Government of Pakistan by providing alternative opportunities for vocational training and education to children withdrawn from the worst forms of child labour.[207]

Periodically, governments, employers' and workers' organisations have met in global conference to assess progress and remaining obstacles and to agree measures to eliminate the worst forms of child labour by 2016: first in Oslo (1997), followed by: The Hague (2010); Brasília, 8–10 October 2013;[208] Buenos Aires, 14–16 November 2017;[209] and most recently Durban, South Africa, 15–20 May 2022.[210]

Between 2000 and 2012, progress was made against child labour but the elimination of its worst forms was not accomplished.[211]Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda, UN Member States, employers' and workers' organisations, and civil society organisations are required to work together to eliminate child labour by 2025, forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking by 2030. Thus, the ILO established Alliance 8.7 as a global partnership.[212][213]

In January 2021, the ILO published the Child Labour Global Estimates 2020 in collaboration with UNICEF.[214] According to the report child labour decreased by 38% from 246 million in 2000 to 152 million in 2016.[215][216] Due to COVID-19 pandemic the number of children in child labour increased by 9 million.[217]

Statistics

Potential positives

The term child labour can be misleading when it confuses harmful work with employment that may be beneficial to children. It can also ignore harmful work outside employment and any benefits children normally derive from their work.[219] Domestic work is an example: all families but the rich must work at cleaning, cooking, caring, and more to maintain their homes. In most families in the world, this process extends to productive activities, especially herding and various types of agriculture,[220] and to a variety of small family businesses. Where trading is a significant feature of social life, children can start trading in small items at an early age, often in the company of family members or of peers.[221]

Work is undertaken from an early age by vast numbers of children in the world and may have a natural place in growing up.[222]Work can contribute to the well-being of children in a variety of ways;[223] children often choose to work to improve their lives, both in the short- and long-term. At the material level, children's work often contributes to producing food or earning income that benefits themselves and their families; and such income is especially important when the families are poor. Work can provide an escape from debilitating poverty, sometimes by allowing a young person to move away from an impoverished environment.[224] Young people often enjoy their work, especially paid work, or when work involves the company of peers. Even when work is intensive and enforced, children often find ways to combine their work with play.[225]

While full-time work hinders schooling, empirical evidence is varied on the relationship between part-time work and school.[222] Sometimes even part-time work may hinder school attendance or performance. On the other hand, many poor children work for resources to attend school. Children who are not doing well at school sometimes seek more satisfactory experience in work. Good relations with a supervisor at work can provide relief from tensions that children feel at school and home.[226] In the modern world, school education has become so central to society that schoolwork has become the dominant work for most children,[227] often replacing participation in productive work. If school curricula or quality do not provide children with appropriate skills for available jobs or if children do not have the aptitude for schoolwork, school may impede the learning of skills, such as agriculture, which will become necessary for future livelihood.[228]

In media

See also

Lewis Hine used photography to help bring attention to child labour in America. He created this poster in 1914 with an appeal about child labour.

International conventions and other instruments:

Notes

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