Смешанные боевые искусства ( ММА ) [а] — это полноконтактный вид единоборств, основанный на ударах , борьбе и борьбе в партере , включающий в себя приемы из различных видов единоборств со всего мира. [10]
В начале 20-го века различные межстилевые соревнования проходили по всей Японии и странам Восточной Азии . В то же время в Бразилии существовал феномен, называемый вале тудо , который стал известен благодаря неограниченным боям между различными стилями, такими как дзюдо , бразильское джиу-джитсу , борьба в захвате , лута ливре , муай-тай и капоэйра . Ранним громким смешанным боем был бой Кимуры против Грейси в 1951 году. В середине 20-го века в Гонконге уличные бои на крышах между различными стилями боевых искусств дали начало гибридному стилю боевых искусств Брюса Ли — Джит Кун До . Еще одним предшественником современных смешанных единоборств стал показательный бой Али против Иноки 1976 года , состоявшийся между боксером Мухаммедом Али и борцом Антонио Иноки в Японии, который впоследствии вдохновил на создание Shooto в 1985 году, Pancrase в 1993 году и Pride Fighting Championships в 1997 году.
В 1990-х годах семья Грейси привезла свой стиль бразильского джиу-джитсу , впервые разработанный в Бразилии в 1920-х годах, в Соединенные Штаты, что привело к основанию промоутерской компании Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) в 1993 году. Компания проводила мероприятие практически без правил, в основном из-за влияния Арта Дэви и Рориона Грейси, пытавшихся воспроизвести смешанные соревнования, существовавшие в Бразилии [11] и Японии. Позже они внедрили другой набор правил (например, исключили удары ногами по лежащему противнику), который отличался от других лиг, которые больше предпочитали реалистичные уличные бои. [12] Первое задокументированное использование термина смешанные боевые искусства было в обзоре UFC 1 телевизионного критика Говарда Розенберга в 1993 году.
Первоначально продвигаемый как соревнование по поиску наиболее эффективных боевых искусств для настоящего рукопашного боя, спортсмены из разных боевых стилей сталкивались друг с другом в состязаниях с относительно небольшим количеством правил. [13] Позже отдельные бойцы включили несколько боевых искусств в свой стиль. Промоутеры ММА были вынуждены принять дополнительные правила для повышения безопасности участников, соблюдения спортивных правил и расширения массового признания этого вида спорта. [14] После этих изменений этот вид спорта стал пользоваться все большей популярностью благодаря платному просмотру , который соперничает с боксом и профессиональной борьбой . [15]
В Древнем Китае боевые виды спорта появились в форме Лэйтай , смешанного вида единоборств без правил, который сочетал в себе китайские боевые искусства , бокс и борьбу. [16]
В Древней Греции существовал вид спорта под названием панкратион , в котором использовались навыки захвата и ударов, схожие с теми, что используются в современных смешанных единоборствах. Панкратион был сформирован путем объединения уже существующих традиций борьбы и бокса и, в олимпийских терминах, впервые появился на 33-й Олимпиаде в 648 году до нашей эры. Все удары и захваты были разрешены, за исключением укусов и выдавливаний, которые были запрещены. Бойцы, называемые панкратиастами, сражались до тех пор, пока кто-то не мог продолжать или не подавал сигнал о сдаче, поднимая указательный палец; раундов не было. [18] [19] По словам историка Э. Нормана Гардинера, «Ни одна отрасль легкой атлетики не была популярнее панкратиона». [20] Также имеются свидетельства существования подобных смешанных видов единоборств в Древнем Египте , Индии и Японии . [16]
В середине 19 века в кругу единоборств появился новый вид спорта сават . Французские бойцы сават хотели проверить свои приемы против традиционных боевых стилей своего времени. В 1852 году во Франции состоялся конкурс между французскими саватами и английскими боксёрами, использующими голые кулаки , в котором французский боец Рамбо, известный как La Resistance, сражался с английским бойцом Дикинсоном и победил, используя его удары ногами. Тем не менее, английская команда всё равно выиграла четыре других матча во время конкурса. [21] Соревнования проходили в конце 19-го и середине 20-го века между французскими саватами и другими стилями боя. В качестве примеров можно привести бой 1905 года между французским мастером бокса Жоржем Дюбуа и дзюдоистом Реньераном, который закончился победой последнего с помощью удушающего приема, а также нашумевший бой 1957 года между французским мастером бокса и профессиональным боксером Жаком Кайроном и молодым японским каратистом по имени Мочизуки Хироо, который закончился тем, что Кайрон нокаутировал Хироо с помощью крюка . [21]
Кэтч-рестлинг появился в конце 19 века, объединив несколько мировых стилей борьбы , включая индийский пехлвани и английскую борьбу. [22] [23] В свою очередь, кэтч-рестлинг оказал большое влияние на современный ММА. [ требуется цитата ] [24] Сообщается, что бои без правил имели место в конце 1880-х годов, когда борцы, представляющие стиль кэтч-рестлинга и многие другие, встречались на турнирах и матчах-вызовах в мюзик-холле по всей Европе. В США первая крупная встреча между боксером и борцом в наше время произошла в 1887 году, когда Джон Л. Салливан , тогдашний чемпион мира по боксу в тяжелом весе, вышел на ринг со своим тренером, чемпионом по борьбе Уильямом Малдуном , и был брошен на мат через две минуты. Следующая известная встреча произошла в конце 1890-х годов, когда будущий чемпион по боксу в тяжелом весе Боб Фицсиммонс встретился с чемпионом Европы по борьбе Эрнестом Рёбером . В сентябре 1901 года Фрэнк «Пэдди» Славин , который был претендентом на титул боксера Салливана, нокаутировал будущего чемпиона мира по борьбе Фрэнка Готча в Доусон-Сити , Канада. [25] Дзюдоист Рен-Ньеран, получивший известность после победы над Джорджем Дюбуа, снова сражался в другом подобном поединке, в котором он проиграл украинскому борцу-кэтчу Ивану Поддубному. [21]
Другим ранним примером смешанных боевых искусств было бартитсу , которое Эдвард Уильям Бартон-Райт основал в Лондоне в 1899 году. Объединяя в себе борьбу в кетч-рестлинге , дзюдо , бокс , сават , джиу-джитсу и канне де комбат (французский бой на палках), бартитсу было первым известным боевым искусством, объединившим азиатские и европейские стили борьбы, [26] и в котором соревнования в стиле ММА проводились по всей Англии, сталкивая европейских борцов в кетч-рестлинге и японских чемпионов по дзюдо с представителями различных европейских стилей борьбы. [26]
Среди предшественников современных ММА были смешанные бои по всей Европе, Японии и Тихоокеанскому региону в начале 1900-х годов. [27] В Японии эти бои были известны как мерикан , от японского сленга, означающего «американский [бой]». Бои мерикан проводились по различным правилам, включая решение по очкам, лучший из трех бросков или нокдаунов и победу через нокаут или сдачу. [28]
Самбо , боевое искусство и вид единоборств, возникшее в России в начале 1920-х годов, объединило различные формы боевых стилей, такие как борьба, дзюдо и удары, в одно уникальное боевое искусство. [29] [30] Популярность профессиональной борьбы, которая в то время проводилась по различным правилам борьбы в захвате , пошла на убыль после Первой мировой войны , когда спорт разделился на два жанра: « стрельба », в которой фактически соревновались бойцы, и « шоу », которое превратилось в современный профессиональный рестлинг . [31] В 1936 году боксер-тяжеловес Кингфиш Левински и профессиональный борец Рэй Стил соревновались в смешанном матче, в котором борец в захвате Стил выиграл за 35 секунд. [31] 27 лет спустя протеже Рэя Стила Лу Тес дважды сражался с боксером Джерси Джо Уолкоттом в боях смешанного стиля. Первая схватка была настоящим поединком, в котором Тес выиграл, а вторая схватка была работой, в которой Тес также выиграл.
В 1940-х годах в поселении Палама на Гавайях пять мастеров боевых искусств под руководством Адриано Эмперадо, желая определить, какое боевое искусство лучше, начали проверять друг друга в своих соответствующих искусствах: кэнпо, джиу-джитсу, китайском и американском боксе и тансудо . Из этого они разработали кадзюкенбо , первое американское смешанное боевое искусство.
В 1951 году громким грэпплинг-матчем был поединок Масахико Кимура против Элио Грейси , который состоялся между дзюдоистом Масахико Кимурой и основателем бразильского джиу-джитсу Элио Грейси в Бразилии. Кимура победил Грейси, используя захват гьяку-удэ-гарами , который позже стал известен как «Кимура» в бразильском джиу-джитсу. [32] В 1963 году борец и дзюдоист « Дзюдо » Джин Лебелл сражался с профессиональным боксером Майло Сэвиджем в матче без правил . Лебелл победил Хараи Гоши удушающим приемом сзади, оставив Сэвиджа без сознания. Это был первый телевизионный бой смешанного стиля в Северной Америке. Толпа родного города была настолько разгневана, что начала освистывать и бросать стулья в Лебелла. [33]
12 февраля 1963 года три каратиста из додзё Оямы ( позже кёкусин ) отправились на боксерский стадион Лумпини в Таиланде и сразились с тремя бойцами муай-тай. Трое бойцов кёкусин каратэ были Тадаши Накамура, Кэндзи Куросаки и АкиФуджихира (также известный как Нобору Осава), в то время как команда муай-тай состояла из трех настоящих тайских бойцов. [34] Япония выиграла со счетом 2–1: Тадаши Накамура и Акио Фудзихира оба нокаутировали своих противников ударами, в то время как Кэндзи Куросаки, который сражался с тайцем, был нокаутирован локтями. Японский боец, который проиграл, Кэндзи Куросаки, был инструктором кёкусин, а не претендентом, и что он был заменой отсутствующего выбранного бойца. В июне того же года каратист и будущий кикбоксер Тадаши Савамура встретился с лучшим тайским бойцом Самарном Сор Адисорном: Савамура был сбит с ног шестнадцать раз на пути к поражению. [34] Савамура продолжил применять полученные в этом бою знания на турнирах по кикбоксингу.
В конце 1960-х — начале 1970-х годов концепция гибридных боевых искусств была популяризирована на Западе Брюсом Ли через его систему Джит Кун До . [35] Ли считал, что «лучший боец — это не боксер, каратист или дзюдоист. Лучший боец — это тот, кто может адаптироваться к любому стилю, быть бесформенным, принимать свой собственный стиль и не следовать системе стилей». [36] В 2004 году президент UFC Дана Уайт назвал Ли «отцом смешанных боевых искусств», заявив: «Если вы посмотрите на то, как тренировался Брюс Ли, как он сражался, и на многое из того, что он писал, он сказал, что идеальный стиль — это отсутствие стиля. Вы берете немного из всего. Вы берете лучшее из каждой дисциплины, используете то, что работает, и выбрасываете остальное». [37]
Современник Брюса Ли, практикующий Вин Чун Вонг Шун Леунг , получил известность, сражаясь в 60–100 нелегальных боях бэймо против других китайских мастеров боевых искусств различных стилей. Вонг также сражался и побеждал западных бойцов других боевых стилей, таких как его матч против русского боксера Гико [38], его телевизионный бой против фехтовальщика [ 39] и его бой против тайваньского мастера кунг-фу Ву Мин Джита [40] . Вонг объединил бокс и кикбоксинг в своем кунг-фу, как это делал Брюс Ли.
Бой Мухаммеда Али против Антонио Иноки состоялся в Японии в 1976 году. Классический поединок между профессиональным боксером и профессиональным борцом закончился неудачей, поскольку каждый из бойцов отказался взаимодействовать в стиле другого, и после 15-раундовой ничьей была объявлена ничья. Мухаммед Али получил значительные повреждения ног, так как Антонио Иноки непрерывно наносил ему удары ногами в течение всего боя, из-за чего он был госпитализирован на следующие три дня. [41] Бой сыграл важную роль в истории смешанных боевых искусств. [42]
Основу современных смешанных боевых искусств в Японии можно найти в нескольких промоушенах профессионального рестлинга в стиле шут-стайл , таких как UWF International и Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi , оба основанных в 1991 году, которые пытались создать основанный на бое стиль, который смешивал борьбу , кикбоксинг и захваты . Другой промоушен, созданный примерно в то же время Акирой Маэдой, под названием Fighting Network RINGS, изначально начинался как промоушен профессионального рестлинга в стиле шут-стайл, но также продвигал ранние соревнования по смешанным боевым искусствам. С 1995 года он начал идентифицировать себя как промоушен смешанных боевых искусств и отошел от первоначального стиля шут-стайл. Профессиональные борцы Масакацу Фунаки и Минору Судзуки основали Pancrase в 1993 году, который изначально продвигал законные соревнования по правилам профессионального рестлинга. Эти промоушены вдохновили Pride Fighting Championships , который начал свою работу в 1997 году. Pride был приобретен его конкурентом Ultimate Fighting Championship в 2007 году. [43] [44]
Бой между чемпионом по боксу Golden Gloves Джоуи Хэдли и чемпионом по карате Арканзаса Дэвидом Валовичем состоялся 22 июня 1976 года в бейсбольном парке Memphis Blues. Правила боя были смешанными: каратисту разрешалось использовать кулаки, ступни и колени, в то время как боксер мог использовать только кулаки. Хэдли выиграл бой нокаутом в первом раунде. [45]
В 1988 году Рик Руфус вызвал Чангпуека Киатсонгрита на нетитульный супербой по муай-тай против кикбоксинга . Руфус в то время был непобеждённым кикбоксёром и обладал как титулом чемпиона мира KICK в суперсреднем весе, так и титулом чемпиона США PKC в среднем весе. Киатсонгриту становилось всё труднее получать бои в Таиланде, поскольку его вес (70 кг) был нетипичен для Таиланда, где соревновательные бои, как правило, проходили в более низких весовых категориях. Руфус дважды сбил Чангпуека с ног ударами в первом раунде, сломав ему челюсть, но проиграл техническим нокаутом в четвёртом раунде из-за кульминации низких ударов ногами по ногам, к которым он не был готов. Этот матч стал первым популярным боем, который продемонстрировал силу таких низких ударов ногами преимущественно западной аудитории. [46]
Движение, которое привело к созданию современных смешанных боевых искусств, возникло в результате слияния нескольких более ранних сцен боевых искусств: мероприятий вале-тудо в Бразилии, боев на крышах в культуре уличных боев Гонконга и профессиональных борцов , особенно в Японии .
Вале тудо зародился в 1920-х годах и стал известен благодаря своей ассоциации с « Gracie challenge », который был выпущен Карлосом Грейси и Элио Грейси и позже поддержан потомками семьи Грейси . «Gracie Challenges» проводились в гаражах и спортзалах членов семьи Грейси. Когда популярность возросла, эти типы смешанных боев стали основным развлечением на карнавалах в Бразилии. [47]
В середине 20-го века смешанные боевые искусства появились в культуре уличных боев Гонконга в форме боев на крыше. В начале 20-го века был приток мигрантов из материкового Китая, в том числе китайских учителей боевых искусств, которые открыли школы боевых искусств в Гонконге. В середине 20-го века резкий рост преступности в Гонконге в сочетании с ограниченными людскими ресурсами полиции Гонконга привели к тому, что многие молодые гонконгцы изучали боевые искусства для самообороны . Примерно в 1960-х годах в Гонконге было около 400 школ боевых искусств, обучающих своим собственным отличительным стилям боевых искусств. В культуре уличных боев Гонконга в 1950-х и 1960-х годах появилась сцена боев на крыше, где банды из конкурирующих школ боевых искусств бросали друг другу вызов в кулачных боях на крышах Гонконга, чтобы избежать репрессий со стороны колониальных британских властей Гонконга . Самым известным бойцом, вышедшим из гонконгской сцены боев на крыше, был Брюс Ли , который объединил различные техники из разных школ боевых искусств в свою собственную гибридную систему боевых искусств под названием Джит Кун До . Ли продолжил популяризировать концепцию смешанных боевых искусств на международном уровне. [48]
Ранние смешанные бои по профессиональной борьбе в Японии (известные как Ишу Какутоги Сэн (異種格闘技戦), буквально «разнородные боевые спортивные состязания») стали популярны благодаря Антонио Иноки только в 1970-х годах. Иноки был учеником Рикидодзана , а также Карла Готча , который тренировал многочисленных японских борцов по борьбе в захвате .
Регламентированные соревнования по смешанным боевым искусствам были впервые представлены в Соединенных Штатах компанией CV Productions, Inc. Ее первое соревнование под названием Tough Guy Contest состоялось 20 марта 1980 года в Нью-Кенсингтоне, штат Пенсильвания , в Holiday Inn . В том же году компания переименовала бренд в Super Fighters и санкционировала десять регламентированных турниров в Пенсильвании . В 1983 году Сенат штата Пенсильвания принял законопроект, известный как « Закон о крутых парнях », который конкретно призывал: «Запрещать соревнования крутых парней или соревнования Battle of the Brawlers», и положил конец этому виду спорта. [49] [50] [51]
В Японии существовала собственная форма смешанных боевых искусств Shooto , которая произошла от шут-рестлинга в 1985 году, а также производная от шут-рестлинга Pancrase , которая была основана как промоушен в 1993 году. Pancrase 1 состоялся в Японии в сентябре 1993 года, за два месяца до UFC 1, который состоялся в Соединенных Штатах в ноябре 1993 года.
В 1993 году этот вид спорта был вновь представлен в Соединенных Штатах организацией Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). [52] Первоначально промоутеры UFC позиционировали это событие как турнир по видеоиграм с реальными боями, похожий на Street Fighter и Mortal Kombat . [53] Спорт получил международное признание и широкую известность, когда боец джиу-джитсу Ройс Грейси выиграл первый турнир Ultimate Fighting Championship , победив трех соперников всего за пять минут. [54] произведя революцию в боевых искусствах. [55] [56]
Первые турниры Vale Tudo Japan состоялись в 1994 и 1995 годах, и оба были выиграны Риксоном Грейси . Примерно в то же время начали развиваться международные соревнования по Vale Tudo (World Vale Tudo Championship (WVC), VTJ , IVC , UVF и т. д.). Интерес к смешанным боевым искусствам как к виду спорта привел к созданию Pride Fighting Championships (Pride) в 1997 году. [57]
Спорт достиг нового пика популярности в Северной Америке в декабре 2006 года: матч-реванш между тогдашним чемпионом UFC в полутяжелом весе Чаком Лидделлом и бывшим чемпионом Тито Ортисом , соперничал по продажам PPV некоторых из крупнейших боксерских событий всех времен, [58] и помог валовому сбору PPV UFC 2006 года превзойти любой другой промоушен в истории PPV. В 2007 году Zuffa LLC , владельцы промоушена UFC MMA, купили японский конкурирующий бренд MMA Pride FC , объединив контрактных бойцов в один промоушен. [59] Были проведены сравнения с консолидацией, которая произошла в других видах спорта, например, слиянием AFL-NFL в американском футболе . [60]
Первое задокументированное использование названия смешанные боевые искусства было в обзоре UFC 1 телевизионного критика Говарда Розенберга в 1993 году. [61] [62] Термин приобрел популярность, когда веб-сайт newfullcontact.com (один из крупнейших веб-сайтов, освещающих этот вид спорта в то время) разместил и перепечатал статью. Первое использование термина промоушеном было в сентябре 1995 года Риком Блюмом, президентом и генеральным директором Battlecade Extreme Fighting, сразу после UFC 7. [63] Официальный представитель UFC Джефф Блатник был ответственен за то, чтобы Ultimate Fighting Championship официально принял название смешанные боевые искусства. Ранее он позиционировался как «Ultimate Fighting» и «No Holds Barred (NHB)», пока Блатник и Джон Маккарти не предложили название «MMA» на заседании по правилам UFC 17 в ответ на возросшую общественную критику. [64] Вопрос о том, кто на самом деле придумал это название, все еще остается предметом споров. [65]
Первое регулируемое государством мероприятие MMA было проведено в Билокси, штат Миссисипи, 23 августа 1996 года с санкционированием шоу IFC Mayhem in Mississippi [66] Атлетической комиссией Миссисипи под руководством Уильяма Лайонса. Используемые правила были адаптацией правил кикбоксинга, уже принятых большинством государственных спортивных комиссий. Эти измененные правила кикбоксинга разрешали броски и борьбу в партере и отменили раунды, хотя они позволяли рефери поднимать бойцов и возобновлять бой, если на земле не было никаких действий. Эти правила были первыми в современном MMA, которые определили фолы, боевые поверхности и использование клетки.
В марте 1997 года Спортивная комиссия Айовы официально санкционировала Battlecade Extreme Fighting в соответствии с измененной формой своих существующих правил для Shootfighting . Эти правила создали три формата «пятиминутный раунд/минутный перерыв» и впервые ввели обязательные перчатки для Shootfighting, а также весовые категории. Запрещенные удары были перечислены как удары в пах, удары головой, укусы, выдавливание глаз, выдергивание волос, удары противника локтем, когда противник находится на мате, удары по почкам и удары кулаком по затылку. Удерживание за ринг или клетку по любой причине считалось фолом. [67] [68] Хотя между этими и окончательными Едиными правилами есть незначительные различия, особенно в отношении ударов локтем, правила Айовы позволяли промоутерам смешанных боевых искусств проводить по сути современные мероприятия легально в любом месте штата. 28 марта 1997 года Extreme Fighting 4 был проведён по этим правилам, что сделало его первым шоу, проведённым по версии современных правил. [ необходима цитата ]
В апреле 2000 года Атлетическая комиссия штата Калифорния единогласно проголосовала за правила, которые позже стали основой для Единых правил смешанных боевых искусств . Однако, когда законодательство было отправлено в столицу Калифорнии в Сакраменто для рассмотрения, было установлено, что этот вид спорта выходит за рамки юрисдикции CSAC, что сделало голосование бессмысленным. [69]
30 сентября 2000 года Спортивный контрольный совет штата Нью-Джерси (NJSACB) начал разрешать промоутерам смешанных боевых искусств проводить мероприятия в Нью-Джерси. Первым мероприятием было мероприятие IFC под названием Battleground 2000, проведенное в Атлантик-Сити. Целью было позволить NJSACB наблюдать за реальными событиями и собирать информацию для установления всеобъемлющего набора правил для эффективного регулирования спорта. [70]
3 апреля 2001 года NJSACB провела встречу для обсуждения регулирования мероприятий по смешанным боевым искусствам. На этой встрече была предпринята попытка унифицировать множество правил и положений, которые использовались различными организациями смешанных боевых искусств. На этой встрече NJSACB, несколько других регулирующих органов, многочисленные промоутеры мероприятий по смешанным боевым искусствам и другие заинтересованные стороны согласовали предложенные единые правила. По завершении встречи все присутствовавшие стороны смогли договориться о едином наборе правил для регулирования спорта смешанных боевых искусств. [70]
Правила, принятые NJSACB, стали фактическим стандартным набором правил для профессиональных смешанных боевых искусств по всей Северной Америке. 30 июля 2009 года на ежегодном собрании Ассоциации боксерских комиссий было внесено предложение о принятии этих правил в качестве «Единых правил смешанных боевых искусств». Предложение было принято единогласно. [71]
В ноябре 2005 года армия США начала санкционировать смешанные боевые искусства, проведя первый ежегодный чемпионат по армейским единоборствам, организованный Школой боевых искусств армии США . [72]
Канада официально декриминализировала смешанные боевые искусства, проголосовав за законопроект S-209 5 июня 2013 года. Законопроект позволяет провинциям иметь право создавать спортивные комиссии для регулирования и санкционирования профессиональных боев по смешанным боевым искусствам. [73]
С тех пор, как UFC обрела известность в основных средствах массовой информации в 2006 году, а также после слияния с Pride FC в 2007 году и покупки WEC и Strikeforce , это самый значительный промоушен ММА в мире с точки зрения популярности, зарплат, таланта и уровня конкуренции. Бойцы обычно получают контракты в UFC после успешных выступлений в других промоушенах ММА по всему миру.
Некоторые из самых популярных промоушенов ММА:
По всему миру существуют сотни тренировочных центров ММА. [74] [75]
Залы смешанных единоборств служат специализированными тренировочными центрами, где бойцы развивают свои навыки в различных дисциплинах боевых искусств, таких как бразильское джиу-джитсу, борьба, тайский бокс и бокс. Эти залы предоставляют структурированную среду для подготовки спортсменов к соревнованиям, предлагая программы тренировок, спаррингов и кондиционирования. Некоторые залы, такие как UFC Performance Institute, предлагают такие удобства, как камеры криотерапии , подводные беговые дорожки и машины DEXA . [76] Ниже приведены популярные залы смешанных единоборств вместе с известными бойцами, которые тренировались в них.
В результате увеличения числа участников, организованных тренировочных лагерей, обмена информацией и современной кинезиологии понимание эффективности различных стратегий значительно улучшилось. Комментатор UFC Джо Роган утверждал, что боевые искусства за десять лет после 1993 года развились больше, чем за предыдущие 700 лет вместе взятые. [77]
«Во время своего правления на вершине спорта в конце 1990-х он был образцом — он мог наносить удары с лучшими ударниками; он мог бороться с лучшими борцами; его выносливость была непревзойденной».
— Майк Слоан описывает раннее доминирование чемпиона UFC Фрэнка Шемрока [78]
The high profile of modern MMA promotions such as UFC and Pride has fostered an accelerated development of the sport. The early 1990s saw a wide variety of traditional styles competing in the sport.[79] However, early competition saw varying levels of success among disparate styles. In the early 1990s, practitioners of grappling based styles such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu dominated competition in the United States. Practitioners of striking based arts such as boxing, kickboxing, and karate, who were unfamiliar with submission grappling, proved to be unprepared to deal with its submission techniques.[80][81][82][83][84] As competitions became more and more common, those with a base in striking arts became more competitive as they cross-trained in styles based around takedowns and submission holds.[84] Likewise, those from the varying grappling styles added striking techniques to their arsenal. This increase of cross-training resulted in fighters becoming increasingly multidimensional and well-rounded in their skill-sets.
The new hybridization of fighting styles can be seen in the technique of "ground and pound" developed by wrestling-based UFC pioneers such as Dan Severn, Don Frye and Mark Coleman. These wrestlers realized the need for the incorporation of strikes on the ground as well as on the feet, and incorporated ground striking into their grappling-based styles. Mark Coleman stated at UFC 14 that his strategy was to "Ground him and pound him", which may be the first televised use of the term.
Since the late 1990s, both strikers and grapplers have been successful at MMA, although it is rare to see any fighter who is not schooled in both striking and grappling arts reach the highest levels of competition.
MMA fighters are ranked according to their performance and outcome of their fights and level of competition they faced. The most popular and used, ranking portals are:
The rules for modern mixed martial arts competitions have changed significantly since the early days of vale tudo, Japanese shoot wrestling, and UFC 1, and even more from the historic style of pankration. As the knowledge of fighting techniques spread among fighters and spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems needed to be amended.[91]The main motivations for these rule changes were protection of the health of the fighters, the desire to shed the perception of "barbarism and lawlessness", and to be recognized as a legitimate sport.[citation needed]
The new rules included the introduction of weight classes; as knowledge about submissions spread, differences in weight had become a significant factor. There are nine different weight classes in the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. These nine weight classes include flyweight (up to 125 lb / 56.7 kg), bantamweight (up to 135 lb / 61.2 kg), featherweight (up to 145 lb / 65.8 kg), lightweight (up to 155 lb / 70.3 kg), welterweight (up to 170 lb / 77.1 kg), middleweight (up to 185 lb / 83.9 kg), light heavyweight (up to 205 lb / 93.0 kg), heavyweight (up to 265 lb / 120.2 kg), and super heavyweight with no upper weight limit.[70]
Small, open-fingered gloves were introduced to protect fists, reduce the occurrence of cuts (and stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for striking to allow more captivating matches. Gloves were first made mandatory in Japan's Shooto promotion and were later adopted by the UFC as it developed into a regulated sport. Most professional fights have the fighters wear 4 oz gloves, whereas some jurisdictions require amateurs to wear a slightly heavier 6 oz glove for more protection for the hands and wrists.
Time limits were established to avoid long fights with little action where competitors conserved their strength. Matches without time limits also complicated the airing of live events. The time limits in most professional fights are three 5 minute rounds, and championship fights are normally five 5-minute rounds. Similar motivations produced the "stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived that both are resting on the ground or not advancing toward a dominant position.[91]
In the U.S., state athletic and boxing commissions have played a crucial role in the introduction of additional rules because they oversee MMA in a similar fashion to boxing. In Japan and most of Europe, there is no regulating authority over competitions, so these organizations have greater freedom in rule development and event structure.[citation needed]
Previously, Japan-based organization Pride Fighting Championships held an opening 10-minute round followed by two five-minute rounds. Stomps, soccer kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent are legal, but elbow strikes to the head are not.[92] This rule set is more predominant in the Asian-based organizations as opposed to European and American rules. More recently, Singapore-based organization ONE Championship allows soccer kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent as well as elbow strikes to the head, but does not allow head stomps.[93] In 2016, ONE later banned soccer kicks.[94] However, they still allow knees to the head of a grounded opponent.
Victory in a match is normally gained either by the judges' decision after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee (for example if a competitor cannot defend themself intelligently) or the fight doctor (due to an injury), a submission, by a competitor's cornerman throwing in the towel, or by knockout.
As soon as a fighter is unable to continue due to legal strikes, his opponent is declared the winner. As MMA rules allow submissions and ground and pound, the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to the fighter.
Referee stoppage: the referee may stop a match in progress if:
Doctor stoppage/cut: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries, such as a large cut. The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a disqualification or no contest will be issued instead.
Corner stoppage: a fighter's corner may announce defeat on the fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress or between rounds. This is normally done when a fighter is being beaten to the point where it is dangerous and unnecessary to continue. In some cases, the fighter may be injured.
Retirement: a fighter is so dazed or exhausted that he/she cannot physically continue fighting. Usually occurs between rounds.
A fighter may admit defeat during a match by:
Technical Submission: the referee stops the match when the fighter is caught in a submission hold and is in danger of being injured. This can occur when a fighter is choked unconscious, or when a bone has been broken in a submission hold (a broken arm due to a kimura, etc.).
If the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are organization-specific.
Technical decision: in the unified rules of MMA, if a fighter is unable to continue due to an accidental illegal technique late in the fight, a technical decision is rendered by the judges based on who is ahead on the judges' scorecards at that time. In a three-round fight, two rounds must be completed for a technical decision to be awarded and in a five-round fight, three rounds must be completed.
Forfeit: a fighter or their representative may forfeit a match prior to the beginning of the match, thereby losing the match.
Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter is unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.
No contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "no contest", except in the case of a technical decision in the unified rules. A result can also be overturned to a no contest if the fighter that was originally victorious fails a post fight drug test for banned substances.
Mixed martial arts promotions typically require that male fighters wear shorts in addition to being barechested, thus precluding the use of gi or fighting kimono to inhibit or assist submission holds. Male fighters are required by most athletic commissions to wear groin protectors underneath their trunks.[70] Female fighters wear short shorts and sports bras or other similarly snug-fitting tops. Both male and female fighters are required to wear a mouthguard.[70][95]
The need for flexibility in the legs combined with durability prompted the creation of various fighting shorts brands, which then spawned a range of mixed martial arts clothing and casual wear available to the public.[citation needed]
According to the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, an MMA competition or exhibition may be held in a ring or a fenced area. The fenced area can be round or have at least six sides. Cages vary: some replace the metal fencing with a net, others have a different shape from an octagon, as the term "The Octagon" is trademarked by the UFC (although the 8-sided shape itself is not trademarked).[96] The fenced area is called a cage generically, or a hexagon, an octagon or an octagon cage, depending on the shape.
Most 'traditional' martial arts have a specific focus and these arts may be trained to improve in that area. Popular disciplines of each type include:[97]
Most styles have been adapted from their traditional forms, such as boxing stances, which lack effective counters to leg kicks, the Muay Thai stance, which is poor for defending against takedowns due to its static nature and most weight being placed on the back leg with a light front leg, and judo or Brazilian jiu-jitsu techniques, which must be adapted for no-gi competition and susceptibility to strikes. It is common for a fighter to train with multiple coaches of different styles or an organized fight team to improve various aspects of their game at once. Cardiovascular conditioning, speed drills, strength training and flexibility are also important aspects of a fighter's training. Some schools advertise their styles as simply "mixed martial arts", which has become a style in itself, but the training will still often be split into different sections.
While mixed martial arts was initially practiced almost exclusively by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As the sport has become more mainstream and more widely taught, it has become accessible to wider range of practitioners of all ages. Proponents of this sort of training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying levels of competitiveness and fitness.[98][99]
Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a form of submission grappling. It came to international prominence in the martial arts community in the early 1990s, when BJJ expert Royce Gracie won the first, second, and fourth Ultimate Fighting Championships, which at the time were single-elimination martial arts tournaments. Royce often fought successfully against larger opponents who practiced other styles, including boxing, wrestling, shoot-fighting, karate, and taekwondo. It has since become a staple art and key component for many MMA fighters. BJJ is largely credited for bringing widespread attention to the importance of ground fighting. BJJ is primarily a ground-based fighting style that applies close range grappling techniques and uses joint locks and chokeholds to submit the adversary. But standup techniques can also be used such as throws, holds, and strikes.
Some notable fighters who are known for using BJJ skills include: Alexandre Pantoja, Amanda Nunes, Anderson Silva, Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira, Charles Oliveira, Cris Cyborg, Deiveson Figueiredo, Demian Maia, Fabrício Werdum, Glover Teixeira, José Aldo, Junior dos Santos, Lyoto Machida, Maurício 'Shogun' Rua, Rafael dos Anjos, Ricardo Arona, Ronaldo Souza, Vitor Belfort, Wanderlei Silva, Mackenzie Dern, Aljamain Sterling, B.J. Penn, Brian Ortega, Brandon Moreno, Chael Sonnen, Demetrious Johnson, Frank Mir, Georges St-Pierre, José Alberto Quiñónez, Gerald Meerschaert, Ilia Topuria, Jan Błachowicz, Jim Miller, Nate Diaz, Gabriel Benítez, Tom Aspinall, and Tony Ferguson.
Wrestling (including freestyle, Greco-Roman and American folkstyle) gained tremendous respect due to its effectiveness in mixed martial arts competitions. It is widely studied by mixed martial artists as Wrestling allows competitors to control where the match will go: superior wrestlers can dominate the Clinch and take their opponents into the ground with its excellent takedowns, particularly against the legs, where they will transition into groundfighting and can either get a superior top position and start striking their opponent (a tactic known as Ground-and-Pound)[100] or start grappling for submissions. While wrestlers with stronger striking base can use defensive wrestling to defend takedowns maintain the fight in the feet where they use their superior striking, a tactic known as "Sprawl-and-Brawl",[101] or use wrestling to escape submission attempts. It is also credited for conferring an emphasis on conditioning for explosive movement and stamina, both of which are critical in competitive mixed martial arts.
There are multiple wrestling styles around the world which MMA fighters have as their base. American fighters are usually trained in folkstyle wrestling, the style competed in high school and college competitions. Many American champions were former NCAA Division I Wrestling Champions, such as Kevin Randleman and Mark Kerr. While fighters from around the world train primarily in "international" Olympic styles such as Greco-Roman and Freestyle wrestling. Some former wrestlers who competed in the Olympics have joined MMA competition, such as Daniel Cormier, Dan Henderson, Ben Askren, silver medalists Matt Lindland and Yoel Romero, and gold medalist Henry Cejudo.[102] Some fighters have also come from local Folk wrestling backgrounds, UFC flyweight champion Deiveson Figueiredo is trained at Luta Marajoara, a folk wrestling style from Marajó island.[103]Notable wrestlers who were MMA competitors include: Khabib Nurmagomedov, Jon Jones, Chael Sonnen, Johny Hendricks, Georges St-Pierre, Cain Velasquez, Chad Mendes, Randy Couture, Brock Lesnar, Mark Coleman, Frankie Edgar, Efrain Escudero, Colby Covington, Kamaru Usman, Justin Gaethje, José Alberto Quiñónez, Chris Weidman, Daniel Cormier, Dan Henderson, Alberto Del Rio, Tito Ortiz, Khamzat Chimaev, Ilia Topuria, Tyron Woodley, Yoel Romero, Deiveson Figueiredo, Mark Schultz, Anatoly Malykhin, Jason Jackson, Ryan Bader, Johnny Eblen, Daniel Zellhuber, and Henry Cejudo.
Greco-Roman wrestling is one of two styles of wrestling contested at the Olympic Games, the other being Freestyle. Greco-Roman wrestling only allows for holds above the waist and has a strong emphasis on clinch fighting. Due to the difficulty to achieve takedowns when one is not allowed to attack the legs, Greco-Roman is not utilized in MMA as often as styles that do allow fighters to attack the legs, such as Freestyle and Catch. Despite this, there have been fighters who come from a background in Greco-Roman wrestling. Notable examples are Randy Couture, Dan Henderson, Mark Madsen, Matt Lindland (all four were Olympic wrestlers or Olympic alternates), Jon Jones, Dan Severn, Ilia Topuria, Alexander Volkanovski, Magomed Ankalaev and Sergei Pavlovich.
Catch wrestling is the ancestor of freestyle wrestling and includes submissions which are prohibited in freestyle wrestling.[104] Widely popular around the world during the 19th and 20th centuries, catch wrestling underwent a decline as its amateur-side became olympic freestyle wrestling, while the professional side became modern professional wrestling. Catch survived in Japanese Puroresu-style Pro Wrestling, where wrestlers such as Antonio Inoki and Karl Gotch promoted "strong style pro wrestling", that while worked, had realistic and full contact moves, resulting in the creation of the Universal Wrestling Federation and Shoot wrestling (which in their own turn would inspire the creation of legit proto-MMA shootfighting organizations such as Shooto and Pancrase). Many pro wrestlers that trained in shoot-style would later compete in MMA, which led to resurgence of Catch with the advent of mixed martial arts in the 90s. The term no holds barred was used originally to describe the wrestling method prevalent in catch wrestling tournaments during the late 19th century wherein no wrestling holds were banned from the competition, regardless of how dangerous they might be. The term was applied to mixed martial arts matches, especially at the advent of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.[105]
A lot of MMA fighters train in catch wrestling as their sole grappling style or as a complement to Brazilian jiu-jitsu, as it teaches techniques and tactics not found in Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[104] Notable MMA fighters who use catch wrestling as their primary grappling style include: Josh Barnett, Ken Shamrock, Frank Shamrock, Bas Rutten, Kazushi Sakuraba, Erik Paulson, Bobby Lashley, Minoru Suzuki, Masakatsu Funaki, Rumina Sato, Masakazu Imanari, Muhammad Mokaev and Paul Sass.[104]
Kickboxing, along with boxing, are recognised as a foundation for striking in mixed martial arts, and are both widely practiced and taught. Each has different techniques. kickboxing is a group of stand-up combat martial arts based on kicking and punching. The modern style originated in Japan, developed from Karate, and had additional development in the Netherlands and the United States. Different governing bodies apply different rules, such as allowing the use of elbows, knees, clinching or throws, etc. Notable fighters include Alex Pereira, Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Zhang Weili, Edson Barboza, Darren Till, Anderson Silva, José Aldo, Charles Oliveira, Mauricio Rua, Wanderlei Silva, Ciryl Gane, Donald Cerrone, Jiří Procházka Cris Cyborg, Stephen Thompson, Mirko Cro Cop, Alistair Overeem, Israel Adesanya, Sean O'Malley, Michael Page, Yair Rodríguez, Cory Sandhagen, Alexander Volkanovski, Volkan Oezdemir, Dricus Du Plessis and Leon Edwards.
Boxing is a combat form that is widely used in MMA and is one of the primary striking bases for many fighters.[106] Boxing punches account for the vast majority of strikes during the stand up portion of a bout and also account for the largest number of significant strikes, knock downs and KOs in MMA matches.[107] Several aspects of boxing are extremely valuable such as footwork, combinations, and defensive techniques such as slips, head movement and stance (including chin protection and keeping hands up) commonly known as the Guard position.[108] Boxing-based fighters have also been shown to throw and land a higher volume of strikes when compared with other striking bases, at a rate of 3.88 per minute with 9.64 per minute thrown (compared with Muay Thai at 3.46 and 7.50, respectively).[106] Fighters known for using boxing include: Petr Yan, Dustin Poirier, Conor McGregor, Max Holloway, Erik Pérez, Calvin Kattar, Sean Strickland, Cain Velasquez, Nick Diaz, Glover Teixeira, José Aldo, Ilia Topuria, Junior dos Santos, B.J. Penn, Dan Hardy, Shane Carwin, Jack Della Maddalena, Francis Ngannou, Alexander Gustafsson, Gabriel Benítez, Jamahal Hill, Justin Gaethje and Andrei Arlovski.
Luta Livre (also referred to Luta Livre Brasileira, Submission or Esportiva) is a Brazilian submission wrestling style, developed in Brazil in the 1920s by catch wrestling practitioner Euclydes "Tatu" Hatem, including techniques from catch wrestling, judo, wrestling and Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Luta livre is divided in the categories of esportiva, which is a form of submission grappling, differentiating from no-gi BJJ with its focus on quick and energetic submissions, and vale tudo, which includes strikes both standing up and on the ground in addition to grappling and submissions.[109] Luta livre was important to the development of mixed martial arts, as rivalry between jiu-jitsu and luta livre fueled the vale tudo scene. However, the success of Brazilian jiu-jitsu over luta livre practitioners, especially after the Desafio: Jiu Jitsu vs Luta Livre event in 1991 (which was broadcast live by Rede Globo), resulted in the style waning in popularity,[110] although it seems to be making a resurgence, especially as an alternative to both Brazilian jiu-jitsu and catch wrestling.[111] Some notable luta livre practitioners in MMA include: Marco Ruas, Eugenio Tadeu, José Aldo, Renato Sobral, Pedro Rizzo, Alexandre Franca Nogueira, Terry Etim, Jesus Pinedo and Darren Till.
Judo is a Japanese grappling martial art which has both ne-waza (ground grappling) and tachi-waza (standing grappling), several judo practitioners have competed in mixed martial arts matches. They use their knowledge in judo for clinching and for doing explosive and fast takedowns which quickly transition into submission holds in the ground. However, judo is traditionally and exclusively trained using the judogi, as such, many techniques and strategies from judo can not be translated into MMA.[112] Fighters who hold a black belt in judo include Fedor Emelianenko, Marco Ruas, Khabib Nurmagomedov, Ian Garry, Dong Hyun Kim, Cub Swanson, Don Frye, Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira, Fabricio Werdum, Vitor Belfort, Benoît Saint-Denis, Merab Dvalishvili, Reinier de Ridder and Olympian judokas Ronda Rousey,[113] Hector Lombard, Rick Hawn[114] and Hidehiko Yoshida. Former WEC middleweight champion Paulo Filho has credited judo for his success in an interview.[115]
Sambo is a Russian martial art, combat sport and self-defense system.[116] It is a mixture of judo and freestyle wrestling using a keikogi known as kurtka. Sambo focuses on throwing, takedowns, grappling, and includes submissions from judo and catch wrestling. Sports sambo is characterized as a grappling style focused in pinning and in explosive takedowns which can be quickly transitioned into devastating leglocks. Sambo also has a modality known as combat sambo, which adds punches, kicks, elbows and knees, making it a proto-MMA hybrid fighting style. Sambo is popular in Russia and eastern Europe, where it is taught as a complement to judo and wrestling training, Sambo also provides a good base for MMA with all-around skills for combining grappling and striking. Some notable Sambo fighters that transitioned into MMA include: Fedor Emelianenko, Khabib Nurmagomedov, Islam Makhachev, Igor Vovchanchyn, Oleg Taktarov, Andrei Arlovski, Yaroslav Amosov, and Shavkat Rakhmonov.
Karate is a striking-based Japanese with Okinawan origins martial art using punches, kicks, sometimes elbows, knees and even limited grappling. It is divided in various schools and styles, which distinguishes techniques, training methods, among other things. Some styles, especially Kyokushin and other full contact styles, has proven to be effective in MMA as it is one of the core foundations of kickboxing, and specializes in striking techniques.[117][118][119][120] Karate from all styles has also been a common base, with many getting introduced to martial arts and combat sports by training Karate in their youth. Various styles of karate are practiced by some MMA fighters, notably Chuck Liddell, Bas Rutten, Lyoto Machida, Stephen Thompson, John Makdessi, Uriah Hall, Erik Pérez, Ryan Jimmo, Georges St-Pierre, Kyoji Horiguchi, Giga Chikadze, Robert Whittaker, Henry Cejudo, and Louis Gaudinot. Liddell is known to have an extensive striking background in Kenpō with Fabio Martella.[121] Lyoto Machida practices Shotokan Ryu,[122] and St-Pierre practices Kyokushin.[123]
Sanda, or Sanshou, is one of the two disciplines of sport wushu. It is a modernized and full contact version of wushu, created in the late 20th century as a condensation of traditional Chinese kung fu techniques to be used in a full contact competition environment.[124][125] It is a kickboxing style which has punching, kicking, some use of elbows and knee strikes—similar to Kickboxing or Muay Thai— but it has the distinction of allowing a range of takedowns, throws and sweeps, similar to judo and wrestling.[124][126]
They can be highly effective in competition due to their mixture of striking and takedowns, which can be easily synthesized with the rest of MMA training, such as groundfighting.[126] It is prominently used by fighters from China, but it has found a following amongst many fighters around the world.[126] Chief amongst these fighters is Cung Le, who is most notable for his TKO and KO victories over former UFC champions Frank Shamrock and Rich Franklin, and UFC strawweight champion Zhang Weili, the first Chinese champion in the UFC. Other wushu sanshou based fighters who have entered MMA include Michael Page, Song Yadong, K. J. Noons, Pat Barry, Zhang Tiequan,[127] Muslim Salihov,[128] and Zabit Magomedsharipov.[129]
Taekwondo is a Korean martial art, emerging in the 1950s as a mixture between Japanese Karate, traditional Korean martial arts and some Chinese kung fu. It is a striking-based style with heavy focus on various styles of kicking, such as head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast kicking techniques.[130] Several accomplished MMA fighters have an extensive background in taekwondo, and many were introduced to martial arts through it.[131][132] Some fighters who use taekwondo techniques in MMA are former UFC lightweight champion and WEC lightweight champion Anthony Pettis, who is 3rd dan black belt as well as an instructor,[133] Benson Henderson, Yair Rodriguez, Marco Ruas and former UFC middleweight champion Anderson Silva, who is a 5th dan black belt.[134]
In his instructional book, Anderson Silva admitted the influence of taekwondo in the formation of his unique style. "In each of my fights, I tried to utilize techniques from all the various styles I had studied. I threw taekwondo kicks. I threw Muay Thai knees and elbows, and I used my knowledge of Brazilian jiu-jitsu on the ground."[135] Anthony Pettis has also stated that he is "definitely a traditional martial artist first and a mixed martial artist second",[133] as well as his "style of attacking is different [because of his] taekwondo background".[136]
Other notable fighters who have a base in Taekwondo or are known for using their Taekwondo skills while fighting include Edson Barboza, Valentina Shevchenko, Cung Le, Patrick Smith, Mirko Cro Cop, Cory Sandhagen, Israel Adesanya and Conor McGregor.
Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian art form that incorporates elements of martial arts, games, music, and dance. Capoeira is often practiced as a form of dancing and game, but its origins lie as a concealed style of self-defense and combat, and can be used as such. It uses a style of fighting with quick and complex maneuvers, which use power, speed, and leverage across a wide variety of kicks, spins and techniques. Pure Capoeira is difficult to use in MMA due its complexity, but many fighters incorporated individual techniques into their reportoire.[137] Additionally, Capoeira has an importance to MMA history, as many capoeiristas participated in Vale Tudo challenges in Brazil against practitioners of other martial arts, in particular with a rivalry with Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[138] In 1995 at the Desafio Internacional de Vale Tudo event, Capoeirista Mestre Hulk defeated two-time BJJ world champion Amaury Bitetti using Capoeira techniques in an underdog victory.[139]
Some fighters which have trained Capoeira and incorporated techniques include Anderson Silva, Conor McGregor, Deiveson Figueiredo, Thiago Santos, Marco Ruas and Michel Pereira.
Although not as common as other disciplines, some fighters have used Savate effectively in MMA. Savate restricts the use of shins and knees, allowing only foot kicks. It focuses on kicking more than punching, and its kicks are characteristically very fast, mobile and flexible. It also possesses a complex and evasive footwork. However, because Savatuers train wearing shoes, adjustments have to be made to how they throw kicks in MMA. Notable Savate fighters include Karl Amoussou, Gerard Gordeau, Cheick Kongo, and former Bellator Light Heavyweight Champion Christian M'Pumbu.
The techniques utilized in mixed martial arts competition generally fall into two categories: striking techniques (such as kicks, knees, punches and elbows) and grappling techniques (such as clinch holds, pinning holds, submission holds, sweeps, takedowns and throws).
Today, mixed martial artists must cross-train in a variety of styles to counter their opponent's strengths and remain effective in all the phases of combat and have a strategy.
Sprawl-and-Brawl is a stand-up fighting tactic that consists of effective stand-up striking while avoiding ground fighting typically by using sprawls to defend against takedowns or throws.[101]
A Sprawl-and-Brawler is usually a boxer, kickboxer, or karateka who has trained in various styles of wrestling, judo, and/or sambo to avoid takedowns to keep the fight standing. This is a form which is heavily practiced in the amateur leagues.
These fighters will often study submission wrestling to avoid being forced into submission should they find themselves on the ground. This style can be deceptively different from traditional kickboxing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques to incorporate takedown and ground fighting defense. A few notable examples are Igor Vovchanchyn, Mirko Filipović, Chuck Liddell, Mark Hunt and more recently Alex Pereira, Junior dos Santos, Justin Gaethje, Andrei Arlovski,[140] and Joanna Jędrzejczyk.[141]
Ground-and-pound is a strategy consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a top, or dominant grappling position, and then striking the opponent repeatedly, primarily with fists, hammerfists, and elbows. Ground-and-pound is also used as a precursor to attempting submission holds.
The style is used by fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or is knocked out. Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic. It was first demonstrated as an effective technique by Mark Coleman, then popularized by fighters such as Chael Sonnen, Glover Teixeira, Don Frye, Frank Trigg, Jon Jones, Cheick Kongo, Mark Kerr, Frank Shamrock, Tito Ortiz, Matt Hughes, Daniel Cormier, Chris Weidman, and Khabib Nurmagomedov.[100]
While most fighters use ground-and-pound statically, by way of holding their opponents down and hitting them with short strikes from the top position, a few fighters manage to utilize it dynamically by striking their opponents while changing positions, thus not allowing their opponents to settle once they take them down. Cain Velasquez is one of the most devastating ground strikers in MMA and is known for continuing to strike his opponents on the ground while transitioning between positions.[142] Fedor Emelianenko, considered among the greatest masters of ground-and-pound in MMA history, was the first to demonstrate this dynamic style of striking in transition. He was striking his opponents on the ground while passing guard, or while his opponents were attempting to recover guard.[143][144]
In the year 2000, MMA play-by-play commentator Stephen Quadros coined the popular phrase lay and pray. This refers to a situation where a wrestler or grappler keeps another fighter pinned or controlled on the mat to avoid a stand up, yet exhibits little urgency to finish the grounded opponent with a knockout or a submission for the majority or entirety of the fight, looking for a decision win through high control time.[145] The implication of "lay and pray" is that after the wrestler/grappler takes the striker down and 'lays' on him to neutralize the opponent's striking weapons, he 'pray's that the referee does not return them to the standing position. This style is considered by many fans as the most boring style of fighting and is highly criticized for intentionally creating non-action, yet it is effective. Some argue that 'lay-and-pray' is justified and that it is the responsibility of the downed fighter to be able to protect himself from this legitimate fighting technique.[145][146][147][148] Many consider Jon Fitch's style to epitomize 'lay and pray'.[149] Former UFC Welterweight champion Georges St-Pierre has been criticized by fans for playing it safe and applying the lay-and-pray tactic in his fights,[150] as has former Bellator MMA Welterweight champion Ben Askren, who justified the tactic, explaining that championship fights are much harder, as they are five rounds long compared with the usual three.[151]
Submission-seeking is a reference to the strategy of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw and then applying a submission hold, forcing the opponent to submit. While grapplers will often work to attain dominant position, some may be more comfortable fighting from other positions. It enable fighters to force opponents into submission through joint locks or chokes. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) plays a significant role in MMA submission grappling, with techniques such as armbars, triangles, rear-naked chokes, guillotines, and kimuras being commonly utilized.[152]
If a grappler finds themselves unable to force a takedown, they may resort to pulling guard, whereby they physically pull their opponent into a dominant position on the ground.[153] This was one of the first fighting styles that had shown success, popularized by BJJ exponent Royce Gracie during early UFC events. Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notably Brazilian jiu-jitsu, catch wrestling, judo, sambo, luta livre and shoot wrestling. Submission-based styles were popularized in the early UFC events by Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock, and were the dominant tactic in the early UFCs. Modern proponents of the submission-seeking style, such as Demian Maia, Ronaldo Souza, Charles Oliveira, Ryan Hall, Marcin Held, and Paul Craig tend to come from a Brazilian jiu-jitsu background.[154]
Clinch-Fighting is a tactic consisting of using a clinch hold to prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while also attempting takedowns or throws and striking the opponent using knees, stomps, elbows, and punches. The clinch is often utilized by wrestlers and judokas that have added components of the striking game (typically boxing), and Muay Thai fighters.
Ken Shamrock was known for his impressive clinch work when he submitted Dan Severn with a standing guillotine choke at UFC 6.
Wrestlers and judoka may use clinch fighting as a way to neutralize the superior striking skills of a stand-up fighter to prevent takedowns or throws by a superior ground fighter. Ronda Rousey, with her judo background, is considered a master at initiating throws from the clinch to set up armbars.[155]
The clinch or "plum" of a Muay Thai fighter is often used to improve the accuracy of knees and elbows by physically controlling the position of the opponent. Anderson Silva is well known for his devastating Muay Thai clinch. He defeated UFC middle weight champion Rich Franklin using the Muay Thai clinch and kneeing Franklin repeatedly to the body and face—breaking Franklin's nose. In their rematch Silva repeated this and won again.[156]
Other fighters may use the clinch to push their opponent against the cage or ropes, where they can effectively control their opponent's movement and restrict mobility while striking them with punches to the body or stomps also known as dirty boxing or "Wall and Maul". Randy Couture used his Greco-Roman wrestling background to popularize this style en route to six title reigns in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.[157]
Especially used by fighters with strong wrestling background when facing a highly skilled grappler, or by wrestlers who prefer stand-up fights. Usually fighters who adopt this strategy use takedowns only for scoring, allowing the adversary to stand up and continue the fight. They also want to land clear strikes and control the octagon. In order to win the fight by decision all score oriented fighters have to have strong defensive techniques and avoid takedowns.[158]
In general, fighters who cannot win fights through lightning offense, or are more suited to win fights in the later rounds or via decision are commonly known as grinders. Grinders aim to shut down their opponent's game plan and chip away at them via clinching, smothering and ground-and-pound for most of the rounds. Prominent examples of grinders are Pat Healy,[159] Chael Sonnen,[160] and Colby Covington.
While mixed martial arts is primarily a male dominated sport, it does have female athletes. Female competition in Japan includes promotions such as the all-female Valkyrie, and Jewels (formerly known as Smackgirl).[161] However historically there has been only a select few major professional mixed martial arts organizations in the United States that invite women to compete. Among those are Strikeforce, Bellator Fighting Championships, the all female Invicta Fighting Championships, and the now defunct EliteXC.[citation needed]
There has been a growing awareness of women in mixed martial arts due to popular female fighters and personalities such as Megumi Fujii, Miesha Tate, Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos, Ronda Rousey, Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Holly Holm, Alexa Grasso and Gina Carano among others. Carano became known as "the face of women's MMA" after appearing in a number of EliteXC events. This was furthered by her appearances on MGM Television's 2008 revival of their game show American Gladiators.[citation needed] Additionally, U.S. Congresswoman Sharice Davids (D-KS-3), elected in 2018, is a former professional MMA fighter.
In Japan, female competition has been documented since the mid-1990s. Influenced by female professional wrestling and kickboxing, the Smackgirl competition was formed in 2001 and became the only major all-female promotion in mixed martial arts. Other early successful Japanese female organizations included Ladies Legend Pro-Wrestling, ReMix (a predecessor to Smackgirl), U-Top Tournament, K-Grace, and AX.[citation needed]
Aside from all-female organizations, most major Japanese male dominated promotions have held select female competitions. These have included DEEP, MARS, Gladiator, HEAT, Cage Force, K-1, Sengoku, Shooto (under the name G-Shooto), and Pancrase (under the name Pancrase Athena).[citation needed]
In the United States, prior to the success of The Ultimate Fighter reality show that launched mixed martial arts into the mainstream media,[citation needed] there was no major coverage of female competitions. Some early organizations who invited women to compete included, International Fighting Championships, SuperBrawl, King of the Cage, Rage in the Cage, Ring of Combat, Bas Rutten Invitational, and HOOKnSHOOT. From the mid-2000s, more coverage came when organizations such as Strikeforce, EliteXC, Bellator Fighting Championships, and Shark Fights invited women to compete.
Outside Japan and the United States, female competition is almost exclusively found in minor local promotions. However, in Europe some major organizations have held select female competitions, including It's Showtime, Shooto Europe, Cage Warriors, and M-1 Global.
Following Zuffa's acquisition of Strikeforce in March 2011,[162][163][164][165] the UFC began promoting women's fights, with Ronda Rousey rapidly becoming one of the promotion's biggest draws.[166]
Controversy arose in 2013, when CFA (Championship Fighting Alliance) fighter Fallon Fox came out as a transgender woman. The case became a centerpiece of debates concerning whether it was fair to have a transgender woman compete against cisgender women in a contact sport.[167] Neither the UFC nor Invicta FC says they will allow her to fight, and then-UFC Bantamweight champion Ronda Rousey said she would not fight her.[168]
Amateur Mixed Martial Arts is the amateur version of the Mixed Martial Arts in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. Under the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) and World MMA Association (WMMAA), it is practiced within a safe and regulated environment which relies on a fair and objective scoring system and competition procedures similar to those in force in the professional Mixed Martial Arts rules.[169][170]Amateur MMA is practiced with board shorts and with approved protection gear that includes shin protectors, and amateur MMA gloves.
The International Mixed Martial Arts Federation and the World Mixed Martial Arts Association announced an amalgamation on April 11, 2018, uniting the two organisations behind one bid for Olympic sport recognition after being instructed by Global Association of International Sport Federations (GAISF). The WMMAA and the IMMAF signed a legally binding affiliation memorandum of understanding (MOU) in May 2018 and finalized the agreement by November 2018, along with the first unfiied world championships.[171][172]
The Global Association of Mixed Martial Arts (GAMMA) was established in 2018 by former WMMAA and IMMAF federations and representatives.[173][174] From 8 to 12 March 2024, mixed martial arts was included as a demonstration sport in the 2023 African Games in Accra, Ghana, under GAMMA.[175][176][177][178] From 11 to 13 July 2024, GAMMA member federations participated in the 2nd Asian Mixed Martial Arts Championships organised by the Asian Mixed Martial Arts Association (AMMA) under the Olympic Council of Asia.[179]
World Mixed Martial Arts Association (WMMAA) was founded in 2012 in Monaco by M-1 Global commercial promoters and is under the leadership of the General Secretary Alexander Endelgarth, President Finkelstein and Fedor Emelianenko.[180][181][182][183] The World MMA Association was an organization that managed and developed mixed martial arts, establishing rules and procedures, hosting MMA competitions.
On October 20, 2013, the first World MMA Championship was held in Saint Petersburg, Russia.[184]
By December 2013, WMMAA had 38 member states representing the sport and registered in accordance with national laws. By 2017, WMMAA had expanded to 83 members: Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Colombia, Czech Republic, France, Guatemala, Georgia, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Serbia, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Venezuela.[185]
On February 29, 2012, the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) was set up to bring international structure, development and support to mixed martial arts worldwide.[186] IMMAF launched with support of market leader, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC).[187][188] The IMMAF is a non-profit, democratic federation organized according to international federation standards to ensure that MMA as a sport is allowed the same recognition, representation and rights as all other major sports. The IMMAF is registered under Swedish law and is founded on democratic principles, as outlined in their statutes.[189] As of March 2015, there were 39 total members from 38[190] countries, which come from Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, India, Ireland (Northern Ireland), Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Lithuania, Malaysia, Nepal, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Romania, The Seychelles, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.[190]
The IMMAF held its first Amateur World Championships in Las Vegas, US, from June 30 to July 6, 2014.[191][192][193]
GAMMA was founded in 2018 as the international governing body for mixed martial arts, with the support of main sponsor ONE Championship.[173][174] It aims are to achieve official international sport recognition for mixed martial arts, to develop the sport and its governance structures globally and promote its growth and benefits in communities worldwide. Its vision is Olympic Games inclusion.[194][195][196] GAMMA is a non-profit organisation registered in the Netherlands with Alexander Engelhardt as president.[197] GAMMA has 80 national federations as members across 5 continents[198] and organises international, nations tournaments around the world under amateur MMA rules.[199][200][201][202] In 2024, GAMMA achieved the inclusion of mixed martial arts as a demonstration discipline in the 2023 African Games in Accra.[175][176][177][178]
Mixed Martial Arts competitions have changed dramatically since the first Ultimate Fighting Championship in 1993, specifically with the inception of the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. There remains a paucity of data on injuries that occur in MMA, and resulting concerns with regard to MMA's safety remain. A 2014 systematic review concluded that the injury incidence rate in MMA appears to be greater than in most, if not all, other popular and commonly practiced combat sports.[203]
In a 2014 meta-analysis of the available injury data in MMA, the injury incidence rate was estimated to be 228.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures (one athlete-exposure is defined as one athlete participating in a single fight).[203] The estimated injury incidence rate in MMA is greater than in other full-contact combat sports such as judo (44.0 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[204] taekwondo (79.4 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[205] amateur boxing (77.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[206] and professional boxing (118.0–250.6 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures).[207][208][209][210]
In general, the injury pattern in MMA is very similar to that in professional boxing but unlike that found in other combat sports such as judo and taekwondo.[203] The most commonly injured body region is the head (66.8% to 78.0% of reported injuries) followed by the wrist/hand (6.0% to 12.0% of reported injuries), while the most frequent types of injury were laceration (36.7% to 59.4% of reported injuries), fracture (7.4% to 43.3% of reported injuries), and concussion (3.8% to 20.4% of reported injuries).[203] The frequency of impact to the ear and low utilization of ear protection leads to a high frequency of perichondral hematoma that can lead to cauliflower ear.[211]
Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.[212] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force probably to kill a person.[213] Also, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated CTE. This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased. In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE.[214][215][216][217][218][219]
Because the disease is detected post-mortem, and MMA are relatively young, there are still few cases of CTE recognized in MMA, although there are more and more suspected and confirmed cases of CTE.[220][221] In preliminary results reported in April 2012 as part of an ongoing study of a 109 professional boxers and MMA fighters being conducted by Charles Bernick and his colleagues at Cleveland Clinic's Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, fighters with more than six years of ring experience were observed to have reductions in size in their hippocampus and thalamus, while fighters with more than twelve years of ring experience were observed to have both reductions in size and symptoms such as memory loss (the hippocampus and thalamus deal with memory and alertness). Bernick speculates that the cumulative damage over time from lesser blows may eventually prove an even more important topic of study than that of infrequent concussions.[222]
In January 2021, veteran UFC fighter Spencer Fisher confirmed to MMA Fighting that he suffered from all the symptoms of CTE: "I'm just beat up, and it's just gotten worse, like all my injuries are catching up with me now, aside from the brain thing, which is the biggest one, because it adds, it adds the depression, and putting things, thoughts together and staying on track." Later, Dana White ruled on this: "He's not the first and he's definitely not going to be the last. This is a contact sport and anybody who's ever done this younger, myself included, is dealing with brain issues. It's part of the gig."[223] In late 2021, Rose Gracie, daughter of UFC founder Rorion Gracie, in an interview about CTE on the MMA Fighting podcast, calls lack of CTE awareness in MMA 'criminal negligence'.[224]
There have been seven known deaths in MMA to date.[225][failed verification]There were no documented cases of deaths after a sanctioned MMA event prior to 2007.[226]
Since 2007, there have been six fatalities in mixed martial arts matches. The first was the death of Sam Vasquez on November 30, 2007.[227] Vasquez collapsed shortly after being knocked out by Vince Libardi in the third round of an October 20, 2007, fight at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas.[226] Vasquez had two separate surgeries to remove blood clots from his brain, and shortly after the second operation suffered a stroke and did not regain consciousness.[227]
The second death stemming from a sanctioned mixed martial arts contest occurred in South Carolina on June 28, 2010, when 30-year-old Michael Kirkham was knocked out and never regained consciousness. He was pronounced dead two days after the fight.[228]
The third death on August 11, 2012, involved 30 year old Tyrone Mims, who was making his amateur MMA debut at "Conflict MMA: Fight Night at the Point VI" in South Carolina, making his the second MMA-related death in the state.[229] After being TKO'd in the second round of the fight he became unresponsive and was taken to Medical University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead one hour later. No evidence of brain trauma or concussion was found and the initial autopsy has proved inconclusive. Coroner Rae Wooten explained that his death may probably have been from an irregular heartbeat caused by over exertion; however whether or not his death was a direct result of his fight remains a mystery.[230]
On February 27, 2014, 29-year-old Booto Guylain was transported to Johannesburg General Hospital to be treated for swelling and bleeding on the brain after suffering a KO loss via elbow in the last round of his fight in South African promotion "Extreme Fighting Championship Africa". He was unable to make a recovery, and after one week in the hospital he was pronounced dead.[231][232]
On April 9, 2016, 28-year-old João Carvalho, died following a Total Extreme Fighting event at the National Stadium in Dublin (Ireland). The Portuguese fighter was beaten by technical knockout in a fight on 9 April 2016 against Charlie Ward, and fell ill twenty minutes after the fight. He was taken immediately to Beaumont hospital, where he underwent emergency brain surgery, but died two days later.[233]
On July 15, 2017, after a TKO loss resulting from unanswered punches in the second round of his fight, 37 year old Donshay White became unresponsive and collapsed in his locker room and was rushed to the KentuckyOne Health Sts. Mary & Elizabeth Hospital in Kentucky.[234] He was soon pronounced dead and was revealed to be caused by hypertensive/atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.[235]
Professional MMA competitions enjoy different levels of legality in different countries. This is dependent on the laws of the specific state.
The International Mixed Martial Arts Federation attempts to provide an internationally recognised set of standards which will be universally adhered to.[236] However, they have no basis in national law and are meant as advisement only. Whereby regulation exists, however, the likelihood of MMA being legally recognised as a legitimate sport is increased. This was the case with France who banned it as a sport in 2016, due to a lack of regulation, then unbanned it in 2020 after a French federation began regulating it.[237]
Media related to Mixed martial arts at Wikimedia Commons
In addition to producing professional Pancrase competitors who are known as Pancraseism (captain/ Kiuma Kunioku); Pancrase Inagakigumi(captain / Katsuomi Inagaki); Pancrase GRABAKA (captain/ Sanae Kikuta); Pancrase Mission(captain / Minoru Suzuki); Pancrase Megaton(captain/ Keigo Takamori). Pancrase Organization has its own gyms in Japan which is called P's LAB with plans to establish additional Pancrase amateur gyms and also to spread Hybrid Wrestling around the world.
In fact, some might claim that shootfighting was the original form of Mixed Martial Arts.
In both ancient China and Greece, the most popular sports were probably wrestling, boxing, and combinations thereof (Greek pankration, Chinese leitai). The same might be argued for ancient Egypt, India and Japan. [...] In both ancient China and Greece, the no-holds-barred combat sport (Greek pankration, Chinese leitai) was probably the most popular one.
(Regarding Mixed Martial Arts (MMA)) With [Bruce Lee's] philosophy of "absorbing what is useful and disgarding what is not", Bruce Lee's influence can be seen in the development of MMA.