Mass suicide

Mass suicide is a form of suicide, occurring when a group of people simultaneously kill themselves. Mass suicide sometimes occurs in religious settings. In war, defeated groups may resort to mass suicide rather than being captured. Suicide pacts are a form of mass suicide that are sometimes planned or carried out by small groups of depressed or hopeless people. Mass suicides have been used as a form of political protest.^{[citation needed]}

Attitudes towards mass suicide change according to place and circumstance. People who resort to mass suicide rather than submit to what they consider intolerable oppression sometimes become the focus of a heroic myth.^[1] Such mass suicides might also win the grudging respect of the victors. On the other hand, the act of people resorting to mass suicide without being threatened – especially, when driven to this step by a charismatic religious leader, for reasons which often seem obscure – tends to be regarded far more negatively.^{[citation needed]}

Historical mass suicides

Following the destruction of the Iberian city of Illiturgis by Roman General Publius Cornelius Scipio in 206 BC, people of Astapa – knowing they faced a similar fate – decided to burn the city with all of its treasures and then kill themselves.^[2]
According to Roman historians, after the Battle of Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC, 300 Teuton woman committed mass suicide following their loss.^[3]
At the end of the fifteen months of the siege of Numantia in summer 133 BC many of the defeated Numantines, instead of surrendering to the Romans, preferred to kill themselves and set fire to the city.^[4]
The 960 members of the Sicarii Jewish community at Masada collectively killed themselves in 73 AD rather than be conquered and enslaved by the Romans. Each man killed his wife and children, then the men drew lots and killed each other until the last man killed himself. Some modern scholars have questioned this account of the events.^[5]^[6]
In the 700s, the remnants of the Montanists were ordered by Byzantine Emperor Leo III to leave their religion and join orthodox Christianity. They refused, locked themselves in their places of worship, and set them on fire.^[7]
In India, the mass suicide, also known as Jauhar, was carried out by women and men of the defeated community, when the fall of a city besieged by the enemy forces was certain. Some of the known cases of Jauhar of Rajput women are at the fort of Chittaur in Rajasthan, in 1303, in 1535, and 1568.^[8]
In 1336, when the castle of Pilėnai in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was besieged by the army of the Teutonic Knights, the defenders, led by the Duke Margiris, realized that it was impossible to defend themselves any longer and made the decision to kill themselves, as well as to set the castle on fire in order to destroy all of their possessions, and anything of value to the enemy.^[9]^{[unreliable source?]}
In 1792, Revolutionary France abolished slavery in its Caribbean colonies. However, in 1802 Napoleon decided to restore slavery. In Guadeloupe, former slaves who refused to be re-enslaved started a rebellion, led by Louis Delgrès, and for some time resisted the French Army sent to suppress them – but finally realized that they could not win, and still they refused to surrender. At the Battle of Matouba on 28 May 1802, Delgrès and his followers – 400 men and some women – ignited their gunpowder stores, killing themselves while attempting to kill as many of the French troops as possible.^[10]
During the Turkish rule of Greece and shortly before the Greek War of Independence, women from Souli, pursued by the Ottomans, ascended the mount Zalongo, threw their children over the precipice and then jumped themselves, to avoid capture – an event known as the Dance of Zalongo.^[11]
In the final phase of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, many of the fighters besieged in the "bunker" at Miła 18 killed themselves by ingesting poison rather than surrender to the Nazis.^[12]
Germany was stricken by a series of unprecedented waves of suicides during the final days of the Nazi regime.^[13] On 1 May 1945, about 1,000 residents of Demmin, Germany committed mass suicide in the advent of the Red Army's capture of the town.^[14]
A Balinese mass ritual suicide is called a puputan. Major puputan occurred in 1906–1908 when Balinese kingdoms faced overwhelming Dutch colonial forces. The root of the Balinese term puputan is puput, meaning 'finishing' or 'ending'. It is an act that is more symbolic than strategic; the Balinese are "a people whose genius for theatre is unsurpassed" and a puputan is viewed as "the last act of a tragic dance-drama".^[15]
During the final days of the Battle of Saipan, over 1,000 Japanese citizens would die in mass suicides, many throwing themselves off the "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff".^[16]
90 women committed mass suicide by drowning themselves during the partition of India.^[17]

Religiously motivated suicides

Old Believers (17th–18th centuries)

During the Great Schism of the Russian Church, entire villages of Old Believers burned themselves to death in an act known as "fire baptism". This act took place over several decades. At least 20,000 Old Believers would die due to this practice.^[18]^[19]

Bekeranta (1840s)

In 19th century British Guiana, Awakaipu, an Arekuna shaman, established a settlement of indigenous tribesmen called Bekeranta (Berbice Creole Dutch meaning "Land of the White People") at the base of Kukenán-tepui. In approximately 1843 or 1844, Awakaipu instructed his followers to violently murder each other in order to reincarnate themselves as white people. Unofficial figures put the death toll at around 400, which included men, women, and children.^[20]^[21]

Yogmaya's Jal Samadhi (1941)

Yogmaya Neupane and her group of 67 disciples committed the biggest mass suicide (Jal-Samadhi) in Nepali history, by jumping into the Arun River (China–Nepal) in 1941.^[22]

Peoples Temple (1978)

On November 18, 1978, 918 people died in Peoples Temple–related incidents, led by Jim Jones, in Jonestown and Georgetown in, Guyana.^[23]^[24] Using cyanide and tranquilizers, more than 200 children were murdered in the incident, and many of the elderly were forcibly injected with poison.^[24] Many of the adults seem to have died willingly, though this is contested and there was dissent.^[24] Jones declared the act a "revolutionary suicide", which had been used as a term within the group even prior to the massacre.^[25]

Solar Temple (1994–1997)

From 1994 to 1997, the Order of the Solar Temple's members began a series of mass suicides and murders, which led to roughly 74 deaths. The first occurred in Switzerland in 1994, followed by additional deaths in France in 1995, and finally a mass suicide in Quebec in 1997. The group was led by Joseph Di Mambro, alongside Luc Jouret. Farewell letters were left by members, stating that they believed their deaths would be an escape from the "hypocrisies and oppression of this world".^[26] Members believed that a death was a "transition" to another state of being.^[27]

Heaven's Gate (1997)

In March 1997, 39 followers of Heaven's Gate died in a mass suicide in Rancho Santa Fe, California. The group, led by Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles, believed that through their deaths they were exiting their human "vessels", which would allow them to advance to the "Next Level" via a spaceship they believed to be following comet Hale–Bopp.^[28]

Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God (2000)

On March 17, 2000, several hundred members of the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God died in Uganda.^[29] While initially declared by the government and media a mass suicide, this was later changed to one of mass murder, due to the discovery of decomposing bodies nearby with signs of a more violent death.^[30] Anthropologist Richard Vokes, who wrote a 2009 book on the case following his own investigation, Ghosts of Kanungu, criticized the official interpretation of events (that it was mass murder); he argued that it had actually been a mass suicide and that the decomposing bodies were entirely unrelated to the group.^[31] John Walliss, in an analysis of the hypotheses relating to the group, viewed Vokes' theory as the most convincing.^[32]

Béchard Lane Eckankar (2004)

In August 2004, ten dead bodies were discovered, all in a sleeping position, inside a two-story house located at Béchard Lane in the suburb of Saint Paul, Vacoas-Phoenix on the island of Mauritius. They had been missing for a number of days, and large loans had been contracted by some of the victims a short time before their deaths. Several of them were active members of the Eckankar sect. The main gate and all doors of the house had been locked from the inside, and the interior was in tidy order when police broke into the house.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Adam House (2007)

In 2007, in Mymensingh, Bangladesh, a family of nine, all members of a novel "Adam's cult", committed mass suicide by hurling themselves under a train. Diaries recovered from the victims' home, the "Adam House", related they wanted a pure life as lived by Adam and Eve, freeing themselves from bondage to any religion, and refusing contact with any outsiders. After leaving Islam, they fell out of boundaries of any particular religion.^[36]^[37]

Burari deaths (2018)

In 2018, eleven family members of the Chundawat family were found dead in their home in Burari, India. Ten family members were found hanged, while the oldest family member, the grandmother, was strangled. The bodies were found on 1 July 2018; in the early morning after the death. The police have ruled the deaths as mass suicide, with an angle of shared psychosis being investigated.

Shakahola massacre (2023)

In April 2023, 110 dead bodies were found in the Shakahola forest, near Malindi, Kenya.^[38] Rescued survivors stated that they had been ordered to starve themselves to death by Paul Nthenge Mackenzie, leader of the Malindi cult. As of July 2023, the death toll has risen to 428.^[39]^[40]

References

^ Magness, Jodi (17 June 2020). "Masada: A heroic last stand against Rome". Princeton University Press.
^ Arnold, Thomas (1846). The History of Rome: From the Gaulish invasion to the end of the Second Punic War. D. Appleton & Company. p. 471 – via Google Books.
^ Florus (1929) [2nd century AD]. Epitome of Roman History. Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
^ Grout, James. "The Celtiberian War and Numantia". Encyclopedia Romana. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
^ Shaye J.D. Cohen (2010). The significance of Yavneh and other essays in Jewish Hellenism. Mohr Siebeck. p. 143. ISBN 978-3161503757.
^ Zuleika Rodgers, ed. (2007). Making History: Josephus And Historical Method. Brill. p. 397. ISBN 978-9004150089.
^ Trevett, Christine (1996). Montanism: Gender, Authority and the New Prophecy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-521-52870-2.
^ Choy, Monique; Singh, Sarina (2002). Rajasthan. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-74059-363-2.
^ Gedimino Laiškai: The Letters of Gediminas, the Great Duke of Lithuania (c. 1275–1341)
^ Moitt, Bernard (1996). "Slave Women and Resistance in the French Caribbean". In Gaspar, David Barry (ed.). More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas. Indiana University Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0253330178.
^ Memorials and Other Papers: Thomas de Quincey, ISBN 0140430156
^ Ainsztein, Reuben (1979). The Warsaw Chetto Revolt. New York: Holocaust Library. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-89604-007-6.
^ "Suicides: Nazis go down to defeat in a wave of selbstmord". Life Magazine, 14 May 1945. Accessed 10 April 2011.
^ Lakotta, Beate (5 March 2005). "Tief vergraben, nicht dran rühren". Der Spiegel (in German). SPON. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
^ Pringle, Robert (2004). Bali: Indonesia's Hindu Realm; A short history of. Short History of Asia Series. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1865088631.
^ Astroth, Alexander (2019). Mass Suicides on Saipan and Tinian, 1944: An Examination of the Civilian Deaths in Historical Context. McFarland. ISBN 9781476674568. OCLC 1049791315.
^ Dey, Arunima (16 April 2015). "Women as Martyrs: Mass Suicides at Thoa Khalsa During the Partition of India". Indialogs. 3 (Violences): 7. doi:10.5565/rev/indialogs.34. ISSN 2339-8523.
^ Coleman, Loren (2004). The Copycat Effect: How the Media and Popular Culture Trigger the Mayhem in Tomorrow's Headlines. New York: Paraview Pocket. p. 46. ISBN 978-0743482233.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, pp. 29–32.
^ Jonestown echoed in past times in Guyana: An 1840s mass suicide remembered. Polick, Paul. Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
^ Swan, Michael (1958). The Marches of El Dorado. Penguin Books. p. 244.
^ "Nepal: Yogmaya Neupane: Nepal's First Female Revolutionary". PeaceWomen. 3 February 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, p. 73.
^ a b c Lewis 2011, p. 98.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, p. 79.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, pp. 55–56.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, p. 61.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, pp. 92, 100.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, pp. 109–111.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, p. 110.
^ Vokes, Richard (2009). Ghosts of Kanungu: Fertility, Secrecy & Exchange in the Great Lakes of East Africa. Fountain Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84701-009-4.
^ Lewis & Cusack 2014, pp. 123–125.
^ Coosnapen, Michëlla. "10 cadavres bouleversent le pays". 5 Plus. Retrieved 30 August 2004.
^ "Massacre or collective suicide? The plot thickens..." L'express Outlooke. 7 September 2004. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
^ "Le mystère de Béchard Lane 10 ans après". Le Mauricien. 16 August 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
^ Jewel, Jahangir Kabir (12 July 2007). "Mymensingh joint suicide defies common sense". bdnews24.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
^ Selim, Nasima (2010). "An extraordinary truth? The Ādam "suicide" notes from Bangladesh". Mental Health, Religion & Culture. 13 (3): 223–244. doi:10.1080/13674670903061230. S2CID 145789923.
^ Kithi, Marion (28 April 2023). "360 people reported missing as heavy rains disrupt Shakahola operation". The Standard. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
^ Kimeu, Caroline (30 April 2023). "'We tried to stop her': Kenyan teenager tells how cult starved his mother". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
^ Wangira, Dorcas (1 May 2023). "Kenya starvation cult: 'My wife and six children followed Pastor Mackenzie'". BBC News. Retrieved 3 May 2023.

Sources

Lewis, James R., ed. (2011). Violence and New Religious Movements. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973563-1.
Lewis, James R.; Cusack, Carole M., eds. (2014). Sacred Suicide. Ashgate New Religions. Burlington: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4094-5086-3.