Tehuantepec (Spanish pronunciation: [tewanteˈpek], in full, Santo Domingo Tehuantepec) is a city and municipality in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is part of the Tehuantepec District in the west of the Istmo Region. The area was important in pre-Hispanic period as part of a trade route that connected Central America with what is now the center of Mexico. Later it became a secondary capital of the Zapotec dominion, before it was conquered by the Spanish in the early 16th century.
The city is still the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and is the second largest in the region. The city is known for its women and their traditional dress, which was adopted by Frida Kahlo. Tehuantepec has a reputation for being a matriarchal society. Women dominate the local markets and are known to taunt men. However, political power is still the domain of men.
The city experienced a short economic boom in the early 20th century related to a rail line that was built linking the two oceans, but it was soon eclipsed by the Panama Canal. The project, however, has revived since 2018, as the Mexican government has worked on the rehabilitation of the line and other projects related to it, in a project known as the Interoceanic Corridor of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
Tehuantepec is the second largest city on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the south of Mexico.[2] Founded by the Zapotecs in the period just before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, Tehuantepec remains the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus.[3] One important symbol of this culture is the image of a Zapotec woman from the area called La Tehuana. In the 2000s, a sculpture of this figure was created by Miguel Hernández Urbán from the State of Mexico. The sculpture is found at the main entrance to the city of Tehuantepec, made of local marble and fine wood along with stainless steel brought from Mexico City. The work made Hernández an "adopted son" of the city.[4] The city remains home to many traditions and customs which are centuries old, with many, especially in the market, still favoring the Zapotec language over Spanish.[5] The city reached its height in the early 20th century with the arrival of the railroad. However, since then the importance of this railroad had severely diminished by the building of the Panama Canal. Today the city is considered to be poor, with many of its buildings in disrepair. Many survive on subsistence commerce.[6] Many motorcycle taxi operators in Tehuantepec and other cities in Oaxaca are underage, between 13 and 15.[7] The city also has had problems with stray dogs including an incident when about twenty dogs took over the main entrance.[8]
Despite the circumstances, the government of Andrés Manuel López Obrador revived the railroad and started working on its rehabilitation, as part of the project known as Interoceanic Corridor of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (abbreviated in Spanish as CIIT), modernizing the railroad line and planning the construction of 10 industrial parks across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The project has often been described as a potential "competitor" to the Panama Canal, but the project's administration believes it will work as a "complement" to it. Though the project has raised some controversy over environmental and other such social issues, it is expected to contribute to the country's economic growth and the industrial development of the South of Mexico.[9] It is planned to open for passenger operations in December 2023 and for other related works to be completed by July 2024.[10]
Tehuantepec and nearby Juchitán have had a fierce rivalry dating back to the 19th century. In 1862, Napoleon III sent French troops to collect on debts Mexico owed. Those Frenchmen allied themselves with local Mexican conservatives who allowed them to occupy the Isthmus area. Both Juchitán and Tehuantepec resisted the occupation until a captain in Tehuantepec switched sides. When the Juchitecos learned of this, they attacked Tehuantepec, suffering a defeat. Four year later, this same captain attacked Juchitán but was defeated as well. After the French left in 1862, Juchitán attacked Tehuantepec as a personal vendetta. Although there has been no blood shed since then, the rivalry and competitive attitudes have carried into modern times. Each has tried to outdo the other in festivals in both quantity and quality. The two communities mock one another in looks, hairstyles and clothing.[11]
The center of the city has colonial era constructions such as the Santo Domingo Monastery from the 16th century, which is also the main cathedral.[12] The former monastery part of the cathedral complex houses the Casa de Cultura or cultural center. The monastery was remodeled for this purpose at a cost of 50,000 pesos, mostly to rehabilitate walls and ceiling vaults. This Casa de Cultura houses the Museo de Antropología e Historia Zapoteca del Istmo, which contains archeological and artistic artifacts from the region. The museum has halls dedicated to archeology, ethnographic studies, the history of the Mexican Revolution and the Reform War, as well as items related to religion, regional dress, housing and folk art. It also has a library.[13]The municipal palace was built during the railroad boom in the early 20th century. Covering an entire side of the main plaza, it today towers over the other buildings in the center. It is built in provincial Neoclassical style with massive columns and arches. However, the back of the structure is very different, as it is an irregular pattern of brickwork, which looks like it has half collapsed. In reality, the structure was never completed. Since 1906, the city has promised to finish the building, but never has. Even the federal government in 1975 announced plans to not only finish the building but restore many of the churches and plazas, but they never came to fruition.[14]
The most important institution in the city is the market. There are four traditional markets with the most important of these located just off the main square. The main market building was built by the city in 1970, with booths in this market now worth as much as $30,000 pesos. The owners of the booths pay a small trust fee which is used for public works projects.[15] These are supplemented by tianguis markets in the Guichivere neighborhood on Wednesdays and one in Reoloteca neighborhood on Sundays. The market is the center of nearly all commerce in the city, with 95% of the goods small enough to carry sold there. As a result, the city lacks department, electronics, clothing, jewelry and other types of stores.[12][16]
The city's markets are dominated by women, known as Tehuanas, who make up nearly all of the buyers and sellers. Until the 1970s, there was a complete ban on men in this area, but this was relaxed at that time.[citation needed] Today still it is estimated that less than five percent of the people seen in the market are men. The historical reason for this is that traditionally women worked in the markets as men worked in the fields. Today still, men in the market can be subjected to taunts by the women who question their masculinity.[17] The dominance of women in the markets, and the city in general in the daytime, made the city an interest starting in the 19th century. The writings of French traveler and historian Brasseur de Bourbourg and later by Mexican educator José Vasconcelos described Tehuantepec as a matriarchial society. Later writings went as far as stating that the birth of a daughter was cause for celebration and men turned over their wages over to women. This depiction of the women of Tehuantepec focused on three factors: their dominance in the markets; their unreserved manner, often ridiculing men publicly; and that they bathed partially nude in the local river. [citation needed]
In the early 20th century, painter Frida Kahlo (1907–1954) adopted Tehuana traditional dress in solidarity with these women and depict Tehuana traditional dress in paintings such as Memory, the Heart.[18] Much of the Tehuanas' dominance, however, seems to be limited today to the market and to household finances.[19] They earn money primarily through commerce and have the right to use this income as they wish, regardless of what their husbands or other family members say.[20] Men dominate municipal politics, however, in Tehuantepec and other areas in the southern Isthmus. Women may participate in strikes, protests and other political movements but do not generally hold positions of power such as municipal president or council member. Even when they do, they hold less powerful portfolios usually related to education and health.[21][22]
The role model for Tehuana women was a woman by the name of Juana Cata Romero who lived in the late 19th and early 20th century. She began as a humble candy seller, but rose to become a local power broker and one of the most revered figures in the city.[23] Romero rose to prominence by befriending a young soldier, then Lieutenant Colonel Porfirio Díaz. Díaz was charged with guarding the town against plots and rebellions by Conservatives during the Reform War. Juana Cata allied herself with Díaz's cause by signaling opportune times to attack Conservative forces. Juana became head of Díaz's intelligence service as well as his lover for four decades, although both married others. The alliance made Juana the richest and most powerful woman in Tehuantepec, owning various sugar and coconut plantations and even the Isthmus of Tehuantepec railroad was built to pass by her house.[24]
Romero's house remains in Tehuantepec, which was the only two-story structure in the town when it was built. It was designed to look like a French chalet with north and west wings that come off of a circular entryway. The structure stands out from the surrounding 18th-century Spanish architecture around it.[25]
The city constructed a bronze statue of Romero but it is controversial. The statue depicts a stern, conservatively dressed woman holding an open book. Many claim the statue is a misrepresentation. The plinth notes her works of charity in her later years, but the real reason she is admired is that she amassed her wealth and power using her looks and shrewdness, considered a Tehuana trait.[25]
The rest of the city is divided into fifteen neighborhoods called barrios, each of which has its own church. Each of these churches have their own patron saint, which is celebrated each year during an event called a "vela."[26] Velas are celebrations of pre-Hispanic origin which occur in each neighborhood in the Isthmus area which consist of processions in the main streets and the offering of a ceremonial candle to the patron saint.[27] Each of the "velas" are organized by a mayordomo and includes a "queen" who is crowned with flowers.[12] These velas became annual events starting in the 19th century with European elements such as balls or dances added. These dances have fabrics for decoration, like in Europe in the 19th century, but these have been modified with include indigenous designs, many laboriously embroidered by hand.[27] For these and other special events, women may wear traditional Tehuana dress, which consists of heavily embroidered garments accessorized with large amounts of gold jewelry. This jewelry often contains old, gold bearing coins and gold filigree earrings.[3][5] In addition, local specialties such as various mole sauces such as negro, rojo, amarillo, coloradito, chichilo as well as tasajo, fresh corn quesadillas and tamales are served.[12] While they began as religious festivals, today, most have lost their religious basis.[28] Most of these velas occur in the summer.[26] The vela of Santa María Reoloteca occurs between 13 and 18 August. The Vela of Guiexoba occurs at the beginning of the year. The neighborhood is divided into north and south into a friendly rivalry of who can bring the best musicians from various parts of the state. In addition there are citywide velas such as the Vela Tehuantepec on 26 December, but the most important is the Vela Sandunga at the end of May.[12]
The Vela Sandunga celebrates a song called La Sandunga, which is considered to be the region's anthem, learned by all in the region.[3][5][12] The lyrics were written by Maximo Ramon Ortiz in 1853, and honors Tehuantepec women. Ortiz supported the separation of the Isthmus area from the Mexican government to form the Territorio Libre del Tehuantepec and wrote the song in part to promote the idea of a separate Tehuantepec identity.[3] The music is thought to be based on a melody from Andalucia and rearranged by Zapotec musician Andres Gutierrez or Ndre Sa’a, his name in Zapotec. It is considered to be a "mestizo"song because it contains both European and indigenous elements.[3][27]
To commemorate the song’s creation, there is a large festival that lasts a week. It includes parties, and presentations of musicians from the Conservatoire de Paris, which has a similar festival in honor of the opening of the opera La Traviata by Giuseppe Verdi. It also includes the election of a festival queen and a parade dedicated to the evolution of Tehuantepec traditional dress. The event ends with a procession in honor of Saint Dominic, the patron saint of the Isthmus.[27]
As the municipal seat, the city of Tehuantepec is the local governing authority for about 120 communities,[29] which together cover an area of 965.8 km2.[12] The main communities of the municipality outside the city proper are Concepción Bamba, Morro Mazatán, San José El Paraíso, Santa Cruz Bamba, Santa Isabel de la Reforma, Aguascalientes de Mazatán, Buenos Aires, Colonia Jordán, Guelaguechi, Las Cruces, Potrero de Carballo, Potrero de San Miguel Tenango, Rincón Moreno, San Francisco, San Juan Zaragoza, Santa Gertrudis Miramar, Zanjón y Garrapatero, Cajón de Piedra, Pishishi, San Vicente Mazatán, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz Hidalgo, Colonia San Luis, El Limón, La Noria, San Andrés Villa Zapata, Santa Rita and Ejido El Jordán. It borders the municipalities of Santa María Jalapa de Marqués, Santa María Mixtequilla, Magdalena Tlacotepec, San Pedro Huamelula, San Miguel Tenango, Magdalena Tequisistlán, San Pedro Comitancillo, San Blas Atempa and Salina Cruz with the Pacific Ocean to the south. The municipal government consists of a municipal president, two "sindicos" and 17 officials called regidores.[12]
As of 2005, the municipality had a total of 13,555 homes, with almost all owned by their residents. Flooring varies from packed earth to brick and cement with walls of adobe, brick and block and with roofs of tiles or concrete slabs. As of 2005, there were just over 5,300 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total population of just over 55,000. The Pan-American Highway passes through the municipality, connecting it to Salina Cruz. Another highway connects it to Coatzacoalcos.[12]
Major elevations include El Zacatal (1,040 masl), Cerro de la Marimba (1,257 masl), Guiengola (1,257) and Tecuani (700 masl). Within the city proper there are a number of hills which carry names such as El Tigre (Dani’i Guie Be’edxe in Zapotec), Crux Padre López, El Zopilote, Vixhana and La Cueva. All of these are under 425 meters above sea level. There one river with the same name, whi