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Днепр

Днепр [a] — четвёртый по величине город Украины с населением около миллиона человек. [4] [5] [6] [7] Расположен в восточной части Украины, в 391 км (243 мили) [8] к юго-востоку от столицы Украины Киева на реке Днепр , от которой и произошло его название. Днепр — административный центр Днепропетровской области . Здесь находится администрация городской общины Днепра . [9] Население Днепра составляет 968 502 человека (оценка 2022 года). [10]

Археологические данные свидетельствуют о том, что место нынешнего города было заселено казацкими общинами по крайней мере с 1524 года. Екатеринослав («слава Екатерины») [11] был основан указом русской императрицы Екатерины Великой в ​​1787 году как административный центр Новороссии . С конца 19 века город привлекал иностранный капитал и международную, многонациональную рабочую силу, разрабатывавшую железную руду Кривбасса и уголь Донбасса .

Переименованный в Днепропетровск в 1926 году в честь лидера Украинской коммунистической партии Григория Петровского , он стал центром сталинской приверженности быстрому развитию тяжелой промышленности. После Второй мировой войны сюда вошли ядерная , военная и космическая промышленность, стратегическое значение которой привело к обозначению Днепропетровска как закрытого города .

После событий Евромайдана 2014 года город политически отошел от пророссийских партий и деятелей в сторону тех, кто выступает за более тесные связи с Европейским союзом. В результате декоммунизации город был переименован в Днепр в 2016 году. После вторжения России в Украину в феврале 2022 года Днепр быстро развился как логистический центр для гуманитарной помощи и пункт приема людей, спасающихся от различных фронтов. [12] [13]

Имя

Текущее имя

Прежние названия

Первоначальное название украинского казацкого города на территории современного Днепра было Новый Кодак ( укр .: Новий Кодак [noˈʋɪj koˈdɑk] , Новый Кодак). [19] Также на территории современного Днепра Российская империя основала Екатеринослав ( слава Екатерины ). [11] Это название впервые упоминается в донесении азовского губернатора Василия Черткова Григорию Потемкину от 23 апреля 1776 года. Он писал: «Губернский город, именуемый Екатеринославом, должен быть наилучшим удобством на правой стороне реки Днепра близ Кайдака ...» (где имелся в виду Новый Кодак  [uk] ). Строительство было официально перенесено на правый берег указом императрицы России Екатерины II от 23 января 1784 года. [15]

В XVII веке город также был известен как Половица . [20]

В 1918 году Центральная Рада Украины Украинской Народной Республики предложила изменить название города на Сичеслав , однако это предложение так и не было принято. [21]

В 1926 году город был переименован в честь лидера коммунистов Григория Петровского . [22] [23] В некоторых англоязычных СМИ Днепр во время Холодной войны называли « Городом ракет» . [24]

Закон о декоммунизации 2015 года требовал переименования города. [22] 29 декабря 2015 года городской совет официально изменил ссылку на название города с Петровского на название в честь Святого Петра , [25] таким образом приведя название в соответствие с законом, но фактически не изменив само название.

3 февраля 2016 года в Верховной Раде (украинский парламент) был зарегистрирован законопроект об изменении названия города на Днепр . [26] 19 мая 2016 года украинский парламент принял законопроект об официальном переименовании города (в Днепр ). Постановление одобрили 247 из 344 депутатов, 16 выступили против. [27] [nb 1] [nb 2]

После переименования города ссылка на Петровский была удалена из названий учреждений, названных в честь города. Заметным исключением является название прилегающей провинции, которая указана в территориальной структуре Украины в Конституции . [31] Таким образом, пока не будет проведен длительный и сложный процесс внесения поправок, она официально сохраняет название Днепропетровская область .

История

Ранняя история

Часть коллекции половецких скульптур Национального исторического музея имени Дмитрия Яворницкого в Днепре.

Человеческие поселения на территории нынешней Днепропетровской области датируются эпохой палеолита . [32] Согласно археологическим находкам, в палеолитический период (7—3 тыс. Anno Domini ) человеческие поселения появляются вблизи ручья Аптекарского  [uk] на территории нынешнего Чечеловского района и на Монастырском острове . [33] В одном из городских парков Днепра был раскопан неолитический дом каменщика. [ 32] В бронзовом веке эта территория была заселена различными племенами. [32] Следы киммерийских поселений в бронзовом веке были обнаружены недалеко от сегодняшнего парка имени Тараса Шевченко . [33] Территория современного Днепра была частью Скифской империи примерно с I века до н. э . по III век до н. э. [34] [35] В эпоху великого переселения народов (300–800 гг.) кочевые племена гуннов , аваров , болгар и мадьяр проходили через земли Приднепровья , они вступили в контакт с местными земледельческими восточными славянами . [34]

Территория современного Днепра была частью Киевской Руси (882–1240). [34] В этом регионе происходили бои между армиями Киевской Руси и хазарами , печенегами , торками и половцами . [34] В XIII веке Днепровский регион был опустошен во время завоевания Киевской Руси Монгольской империей . [34] Территория современного города Днепр была включена в состав монгольского ханства Золотой Орды . [36]

В XV веке эта территория вошла в состав Киевского воеводства (1471–1565) Речи Посполитой . [36] Археологические находки в Самарском районе современного Днепра свидетельствуют о том, что важная переправа через реку была торговым поселением по крайней мере с 1524 года. [37] В 1635 году Речь Посполитая построила крепость Кодак над Днепровскими порогами в Кодаках на юго-восточной окраине современного Днепра, недалеко от нынешнего Кайдатского моста , [19] только для того, чтобы через несколько месяцев ее разрушили казаки Ивана Сулимы . [ 38] Восстановленный в 1645 году, [19] он был захвачен Запорожской Сечью в 1648 году. [37]

Вокруг крепости возникло поселение, которое стало городом в Кодак Паланке  [uk; pl] (провинции) Запорожской Сечи под названием Новый Кодак  [uk] . [19] Казаки часто скрывали истинную численность населения, чтобы уменьшить налоги и другие повинности, но согласно документальным свидетельствам, можно предположить, что население Нового Кодака составляло не менее 3000 человек. [19] Крепость была занята казаками до тех пор, пока Сечь, в союзе с Османской империей и ее татарскими вассалами , не изгнала вторгающееся Российское царство . В соответствии с условиями вывода русских войск — Прутским миром 1711 года — крепость Кодак была снесена. [37] [39]

В середине 1730-х годов крепость и русские вернулись, живя в нелегком сосуществовании с местными казаками. [37] С середины века они сосуществовали с Запорожской слободой (или «вольным поселением») Половицы, расположенной на месте сегодняшнего Центрального вокзала и фермерского рынка Озерка . [40] [15]

В русско-турецкой войне (1768–1774) запорожские казаки объединились с императрицей Екатериной II . Едва они помогли русским одержать победу, как столкнулись с имперским ультиматумом о роспуске своей конфедерации. Ликвидация Сечи уничтожила их политическую автономию и привела к включению их земель в новые губернии Новороссии . [41] В 1784 году Екатерина приказала основать новый город, который в то время обычно называли Екатеринославом. [19]

В 2001 году печать Kodak Palanka стала центральным элементом герба Днепра  [uk] и официального флага Днепра  [uk] . [19]

Имперский город

Историческая принадлежность

 Российская империя 1776–1917 Украинская Народная Республика 1917–1918 ∟ автономная часть Российской Республики Украинское государство 1918 Украинская Народная Республика 1918–1920 Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика 1920–1941 ∟ часть Советского Союза с 1922 Рейхскомиссариат Украина 1941–1944 ∟ часть оккупированной Германией Европы Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика 1944–1991 ∟ часть Советского Союза Украина 1991–настоящее время
 


 
 



 

 

Основание города Екатерины

Первое письменное упоминание о городе в Российской империи под названием Екатеринослав можно найти в донесении азовского губернатора Василия Черткова Григорию Потемкину от 23 апреля 1776 года. Он писал: «Губернский город, именуемый Екатеринославом, должен быть самым удобным на правой стороне реки Днепра близ Кайдака ...» (где имелся в виду Новый Кодак  [uk] ). В 1777 году к северу от нынешнего города при слиянии рек Самара и Кильчень был построен город, названный Екатеринославом ( слава Екатерины ) [11] . Место было выбрано неудачно — весенние воды превратили город в болото. [40] [15] Сохранившееся поселение впоследствии было переименовано в Новомосковск . [19] [42]

Территория современного Днепра, несмотря на размеры современного города, до сих пор не расширилась, чтобы охватить территорию Екатеринослава (Черткова) 1776 года. [37] 22 января 1784 года российская императрица Екатерина Великая подписала императорский указ, предписывающий «перенести губернаторский город под названием Екатеринослав на правый берег реки Днепра около Кодака». Новый город должен был служить Григорию Потемкину в качестве наместнической резиденции для объединенных Новороссийской и Азовской губерний . [15]

20 мая [ по старому стилю 9 мая] 1787 года, во время своего знаменитого путешествия в Крым , императрица заложила первый камень в фундамент Преображенского собора в присутствии австрийского императора Иосифа II , польского короля Станислава Августа Понятовского , а также французского и английского послов. [43] [44] Грандиозные планы Потемкина относительно третьей российской имперской столицы наряду с Москвой и Санкт-Петербургом включали вице-королевский дворец, университет (Потемкин представлял Екатеринослав как « Афины юга России» [45] ), суды и ботанический сад, [46] но были сорваны возобновлением русско-турецкой войны в 1787 году, бюрократическими проволочками, некачественной работой и воровством, смертью Потемкина в 1791 году и смертью его императорской покровительницы пять лет спустя. [45]

В 1815 году правительственный чиновник описал город как «больше похожий на какую-то голландскую [меннонитскую] колонию, чем на провинциальный административный центр». [47] Собор, значительно уменьшенный в размерах, был достроен в 1835 году. [15]

Спорный год основания

Научные исследования, касающиеся основания города, были предметом политических соображений и споров. [37] [48] В 1976 году, чтобы двухсотлетие города совпало с 70-летием со дня рождения советского партийного деятеля и уроженца региона Леонида Брежнева , дата основания города была перенесена с визита русской императрицы Екатерины II в 1787 году на 1776 год. [37]

После обретения Украиной независимости местные историки начали продвигать идею возникновения города в XVII веке из казацких поселений, подход, направленный на продвижение украинской идентичности города. [48] [49] Они ссылались на летописца запорожских казаков Дмитрия Яворницкого , чья «История города Екатеринослава», завершенная в 1940 году, была разрешена к публикации только в 1989 году, в эпоху гласности . [50] [49]

Рост как промышленного центра

Карта Екатеринослава, 1885 г. [nb 3]
Главное почтовое отделение, 1870 г.
Памятник Екатерине Великой в ​​Екатеринославе (1840–1920 [ требуется ссылка ] ). Этот памятник, стоявший перед Горным институтом, был заменен советскими властями на памятник русскому академику Михаилу Ломоносову . [51]

Хотя в конце девятнадцатого века основным занятием города оставалась переработка сельскохозяйственного сырья, [15] были предприняты ранние спонсируемые государством усилия по развитию производства. В 1794 году правительство поддержало две фабрики: текстильную фабрику, которая была переведена из города Дубровный Могилевской губернии , и фабрику шелковых чулок, которая была перенесена из деревни Купавна под Москвой. В 1797 году на текстильной фабрике работало 819 постоянных рабочих, 378 из которых были женщины и 115 детей. Работники шелковых чулок, большинство из которых были женщины, были крепостными, купленными на аукционе за 16 000 рублей. Условия, как сам Потемкин был вынужден признать, были суровыми, многие рабочие умирали от недоедания и истощения. [15]

С 1797 по 1802 год, будучи при императоре Павле I административным центром Новороссийской губернии , поселение официально именовалось Новороссийском. [14] [15]

Несмотря на строительство моста через Днепр в 1796 году, торговля развивалась медленно. В 1832 году был основан небольшой Заславский чугунолитейный завод, первое металлургическое предприятие города. [15] Индустриализация быстро набирала обороты в 1880-х годах с установлением первых железнодорожных сообщений. [52] Строительство железных дорог было ответом на инициативу двух человек: Джона Хьюза , валлийского бизнесмена, который построил металлургический завод в Юзовке в 1869–72 годах и разрабатывал угольные месторождения Донбасса; [40] и русского геолога Александра Поля , который в 1866 году открыл Криворожский железорудный бассейн, Кривбасс , во время археологических исследований. [40]

В 1884 году железная дорога, снабжавшая чугунолитейные заводы Кривого Рога углем Донбасса, пересекла Днепр у Екатеринослава [14] . Это дало толчок дальнейшему развитию промышленности [14] и созданию новых пригородов Амура и Нижнеднепровска .

В 1897 году Екатеринослав стал третьим городом в Российской империи, где появились электрические трамваи. Екатеринославское высшее горное училище , сегодня Днепровский политехнический институт , было основано в 1899 году. [53] В течение двадцати лет население увеличилось более чем втрое, достигнув 157 000 человек в 1904 году. [54] Иммигранты, прибывавшие в город, в основном были этническими или культурными русскими и евреями , а украинское население оставалось сельским на этом этапе промышленной революции . [55]

Еврейская община и погром 1905 года

С 1792 года Екатеринослав входил в черту оседлости , бывшие польско-литовские территории, на которых Екатерина и ее преемники не устанавливали никаких ограничений на передвижение и проживание своих еврейских подданных. [56] Менее чем за столетие еврейская община, в основном говорящая на идише, насчитывала 40 000 человек и составляла более трети населения города, внося значительную долю в его деловой капитал и промышленную рабочую силу. [57]

Такая очевидная сила не защитила общину, члены которой имели непопулярную задачу сбора государственных налогов и вербовки молодых людей для армии [58] , от общинного насилия. [59] В 1883 году три дня беспорядков уничтожили еврейский бизнес и убедили многих временно покинуть город. В 1904 году антисемитское подстрекательство среди христианской общественности возобновилось, но нападения на общину в то время были подавлены по приказу либерального губернатора. [58]

В широкомасштабных социальных волнениях, последовавших за поражением в русско-японской войне 1905 года , политическая жизнь города находилась во власти революционной оппозиции (включая Еврейскую рабочую социалистическую партию и Бунд ) [58] и повстанческого духа зарождающегося рабочего движения. Местным царским властям удалось пережить волну политических протестов и забастовок, отчасти играя на разногласиях между еврейскими рабочими, которые преобладали как клерки и ремесленники в городе, и русскими рабочими, занятыми на крупных пригородных фабриках. [60] Была волна антисемитских нападений. Когда армия вмешалась против еврейских групп самообороны, около 100 евреев были убиты и двести ранены. [58]

По словам местного историка Андрея Портнова , в годы, предшествовавшие Первой мировой войне, 40% местного населения Екатеринослава составляли евреи . [61]

Советская эпоха

Война и революция

Памятник в Днепре бронепоезду , построенному рабочими Брянского завода в Екатеринославе в 1918 году, который использовался Красной Армией при завоевании Украины и Поволжья .

Сразу после Февральской революции в России , в ночь с 3 марта по старому стилю (16 марта по новому стилю ) на 4 марта 1917 года в Екатеринославе было организовано временное правительство во главе с (с 1913 года) председателем губернского земельного управления Константином фон Гесбергом  [uk] . [62] Также 4 марта был образован Совет рабочих депутатов. [62] 6 марта премьер-министр Временного правительства России Георгий Львов сместил губернатора и вице-губернатора Екатеринославской губернии , временно передав эти полномочия Гесбергу. [62] 9 марта был образован Екатеринославский совет рабочих и солдатских депутатов. [62]

16 мая Совет рабочих депутатов и Совет рабочих и солдат объединились, став в ноябре 1917 года Революционным советом. [62] Все эти властные структуры существовали в двойственном положении, причем временное правительство Хесберга часто оказывалось в невыгодном положении. [ 62] В 1917 году в городе прошли многочисленные собрания, митинги, встречи, конференции, съезды и демонстрации политических партий всего политического спектра. [62] Из-за интенсивной политической агитации вновь образованные фабрично-заводские комитеты и профессиональные союзы к осени 1917 года в основном поддержали большевиков , значительно укрепив их позиции. [62]

В июне 1917 года Центральная Рада ( Центральная Рада ) украинских партий в Киеве объявила Екатеринослав частью автономной Украинской Народной Республики (УНР). [14] 13 августа 1917 года состоялись первые демократические выборы в Екатеринославскую городскую Думу на 120 мест. [62] Большевики получили 24 места, меньшевики — 16, а проукраинские партии — 6 мест. [62] Василий Осипов  [uk] был избран городским головой города. [62] Осипов был городским головой до роспуска городской Думы в мае 1918 года. [62] 10 ноября 1917 года состоялся парад украинских войск, организованный Екатеринославской украинской военной радой в поддержку Третьего Универсала Украинской Центральной Рады , провозглашения Украинской Народной Республики. [14]

На выборах в Учредительное собрание России в ноябре 1917 года большевики получили чуть менее 18 процентов голосов в губернии , по сравнению с 46 процентами у украинских эсеров и их союзников. [63] 22 ноября 1917 года Революционный совет и городская Дума присягнули на верность Центральной раде. [62] Затем большевики вышли из этих организаций. [62] В декабре ситуация в городе ухудшилась, обе стороны готовились к военным действиям. [62]

26 декабря большевики проигнорировали ультиматум Центральной Рады и после трех дней боев укрепили свой контроль над городом. [62] 12 февраля они объявили Екатеринослав частью Донецко-Криворожской Советской Республики , но в следующем месяце, в соответствии с условиями Брест-Литовского договора , уступили территорию УНР, союзной Германии и Австрии . [64] [14] 5 апреля 1918 года имперская германская армия вошла в город. Пятьсот оставшихся большевистских красногвардейцев были публично казнены. [62]

Немецкий военный парад в Екатеринославе весной 1918 года.

Формальное пребывание УНР было недолгим: 29 апреля 1918 года вмешательство Центральных держав привело к замене УНР более сговорчивым Украинским государством или Гетманщиной . 18 мая 1918 года гетман Украинского государства Павел Скоропадский приказал вернуть ранее национализированные предприятия их бывшим владельцам, а при содействии австро-венгерских войск новые власти подавили протест трудящихся. [62]

23 декабря 1918 года, после поражения от западных союзников и после четырех дней мятежа в городе, немецкие и австро-венгерские оккупационные войска отступили. Четыре дня спустя Екатеринослав был взят штурмом анархистской Революционной повстанческой армией Украины ( махновщиной ), обратившей в бегство силы, верные новому Директорату УНР . В течение следующего года город еще несколько раз переходил из рук в руки, оспариваемый УНР, белыми ( вооруженными силами юга России ), крестьянскими повстанцами Никифора Григорива , махновщиной (которая возвращалась дважды) [65] и большевиками, которые реорганизовались в Красную армию, окончательно овладев городом 30 декабря 1919 года. [62] [66] [67]

Город был сильно разрушен, а население, составлявшее в 1917 году около 268 000 человек, сократилось до менее 190 000 человек. [68]

Сталинская индустриализация

Мальчик слева убил 8-летнего ребенка из-за его 4 фунтов хлеба в Екатеринославе в 1922 году, во время местного голода 1921–1923 годов . [69]

В конце мая 1920 года снабжение Екатеринослава продовольствием ухудшилось, что привело к волне забастовок. [68] В июне 1920 года советские власти подавили один такой протест, арестовав 200 железнодорожников, из которых 51 был приговорен к немедленному расстрелу. [68]

В 1922 году регион был включен в состав Украинской ССР , союзной республики Советского Союза . В 1922 году советское правительство постановило, что «все национализированные предприятия, названия которых связаны с Обществом или Фамилией старых владельцев, должны быть переименованы в память революционных событий , в память международных , общероссийских или местных лидеров пролетарской революции ». [70] В 1922 и 1923 годах были переименованы заводы, а также десятки улиц, переулков, проездов, площадей и парков. [70] В 1923 году городской совет принял постановление об организации конкурса на переименование самого города. [70]

В 1924 году губернский съезд Советов принял постановление о переименовании города Екатеринослава в город Красноднепровск (и Екатеринославской губернии в Красноднепровск). После этого многие организации и учреждения в официальных документах стали называть Екатеринослав Красноднепровском, а в печати им напоминали, что переименование населенных пунктов может быть решено только Президиумом Верховного Совета . [70] В 1926 году временный окружной съезд рабочих, крестьянских и солдатских депутатов принял постановление о переименовании Екатеринослава в Днепропетровск в честь председателя Всеукраинского съезда Советов Григория Петровского . [ 23] [71] [70]

Петровский присутствовал на этом съезде и «с большой благодарностью принял эту честь». [70] Решение съезда было утверждено постановлением Президиума Верховного Совета от 20 июля 1926 года. [70] В 1920-е и 1930-е годы в городе продолжали переименовывать десятки улиц, переулков, проездов, площадей и парков , это продолжалось и в 1940-е , и в последующие годы. [70]

Днепровский академический театр драмы и комедии был построен в сталинский период.

К 1927 году промышленность Днепропетровска была полностью восстановлена ​​и по некоторым показателям превысила довоенный уровень. [68] Из-за аграрного перенаселения, притока безработных из других населенных пунктов, высокой рождаемости и других причин в Днепропетровске росли как занятость, так и безработица. [68] В конце двадцатых годов властям пришлось бороться с растущим рабочим недовольством. «Не душите нас, наши дети умирают от голода, нас поставили в худшие условия, чем при старом режиме», — гласил один из протестов. [72]

Город занимал видное место в сталинских пятилетних планах индустриализации. В 1932 году Днепропетровские областные металлургические заводы производили 20 процентов всего чугуна и 25 процентов стали, производимой в Украинской ССР. К концу тридцатых годов Днепропетровская область стала самой урбанизированной в Советской Украине с более чем 2 273 000 человек, проживающих в области, и более полумиллиона в самом городе. Днепропетровск стал важным культурным и образовательным центром с десятью колледжами и государственным университетом. [73]

Окружающая сельская местность была опустошена политикой принудительной коллективизации и изъятия зерна. Крестьяне массово умирали во время Голодомора 1932–33 годов. [74] Днепропетровская область в 1932–33 годах потеряла от 3,5 до 9,8 миллионов человек, [75] что сделало ее одним из наиболее пострадавших от голода регионов. [75]

Привлеченные занятостью в расширяющейся тяжелой промышленности, выжившие изменили этнический состав города. Процент жителей, зарегистрированных как украинцы, вырос с 36 процентов населения в 1926 году до 54,6 процента в 1939 году. Процент русских упал с 31,6 до 23,4, а доля евреев упала с 26,8 до 17,9. [76] [77] Население города в межвоенный период быстро росло. В 1932 году в Днепропетровске проживало 368 000 человек. По данным советской переписи 1939 года это число выросло до более чем полумиллиона (500 662 человека). [68]

В Днепропетровске были реализованы советская украинизация и коренизация . [68] Коммунистическая партия Украины организовала специальные курсы по украиноведению. [68] Советская власть значительно увеличила количество школ, и к середине 1930-х годов ликвидировала неграмотность в городе. [68] Были открыты новые университеты. [78] В конце 1930-х годов в Днепропетровске было 10 высших и 19 специальных учебных заведений. [78] В 1930-е годы в городе было построено значительное количество новых средних школ и больниц, благоустроены городские парки. [78]

Великая чистка , последовавшая за убийством Сергея Кирова , также достигла Днепропетровска. [68] В 1935 году Днепропетровский НКВД арестовал 182 « троцкиста ». [68] В 1935 году было казнено 235 предполагаемых «внутренних врагов», в том числе несколько ректоров университетов. [68] В 1936 году было казнено 526 человек. [68] В 1937 году областное управление НКВД убило 16 421 человека. [68]

нацистская оккупация

Памятник 20 000 евреев, расстрелянных немцами в 1943 году в Днепропетровске. Надпись на памятнике (на русском языке) не идентифицирует жертв как евреев, но говорит о «20 000 мирных жителей». [79]

Днепропетровск находился под немецкой оккупацией с 26 августа 1941 года [80] по 25 октября 1943 года . [81] Город был частью Рейхскомиссариата Украина . Холокост в Днепропетровске сократил оставшееся еврейское население города, оценки которого колеблются от 55 000 до 30 000 человек, до всего лишь 702 человек. [82] [83] Всего за два дня, 13–14 октября 1941 года, немцы убили 15 000 человек. [84]

С октября 1941 года по февраль 1943 года Германия управляла тремя лагерями для военнопленных в городе, главным образом, Шталагом 348 с несколькими подлагерями в регионе, после его перемещения из Жешува в оккупированной немцами Польше [85] , в котором оккупанты, по оценкам, убили свыше 30 000 советских военнопленных [86], а также недолгое время лагерями Шталаг 310 и Шталаг 387. [87]

В ноябре 1941 года население Днепропетровска составляло 233 000 человек. В марте 1942 года это число сократилось до 178 000 человек. [78] 25 октября 1943 года население правобережной части города насчитывало не более 5 000 человек. [78] Согласно официальной статистике, в 1945 году население Днепропетровска увеличилось до 259 000 человек. [78]

Послевоенный закрытый город

Ракета «Циклон-3» производства « Южмаша» в окружении РТ-20П и Р-11 «Земля» на выставке в «Ракетном парке» в Днепре.

Еще в июле 1944 года Государственный Комитет Обороны в Москве принял решение о строительстве крупного военного машиностроительного завода в Днепропетровске на месте довоенного авиационного завода. В декабре 1945 года тысячи немецких военнопленных начали строительство и построили первые участки и цеха нового завода. Это было основанием Днепропетровского автомобильного завода. В 1954 году администрация этого автомобильного завода открыла секретное конструкторское бюро, обозначенное как ОКБ-586 , для создания военных ракет и ракетных двигателей. [88]

К проекту высокой секретности присоединились сотни физиков, инженеров и конструкторов машин из Москвы и других крупных советских городов. В 1965 году секретный завод № 586 был передан Министерству общего машиностроения СССР , которое переименовало его в «Южный машиностроительный завод» (Южный машиностроительный завод) или сокращенно просто Южмаш . Южмаш стал значимым фактором в гонке вооружений холодной войны ( Никита Хрущев хвастался в 1960 году, что он производил ракеты «как сосиски»). [88]

В 1959 году Днепропетровск был официально закрыт для иностранных посетителей. [89] Ни одному иностранному гражданину, даже гражданину социалистического государства, не разрешалось посещать город или район. Коммунистические власти требовали от его граждан более высокого уровня идеологической чистоты, чем от остального населения, и их свобода передвижения была строго ограничена. Только в 1987 году, во время перестройки , Днепропетровск был открыт для иностранных посетителей, и гражданские ограничения были сняты. [90]

Население Днепропетровска увеличилось с 259 000 человек в 1945 году до 845 200 человек в 1965 году. [78]

Несмотря на режим строгой безопасности, в сентябре и октябре 1972 года рабочие остановили работу на нескольких заводах в Днепропетровске, требуя повышения заработной платы, улучшения условий питания и жизни, а также права выбора работы. [91] Боеспособность рабочих вернулась в конце 1980-х годов, в период, когда обещания Перестройки и Гласности повысили ожидания населения. [92] В 1990 году две тысячи заключенных устроили бунт в женском следственном изоляторе, что стало еще одним признаком растущих беспорядков. [93]

Инакомыслие и молодежный бунт

Днепропетровский горный институт , 1972.

В 1959 году 17,4% учащихся Днепропетровска обучались в школах с украинским языком обучения, а 82,6% — с русским. 58% жителей города идентифицировали себя как украинцы. [94] По сравнению с другими тремя крупнейшими городами Украины в Днепропетровске была довольно большая доля образования, проводимого на украинском языке. В Киеве 26,8% учеников учились на украинском языке и 73,1% на русском, в то время как 66% жителей Киева считали себя украинцами, в Харькове эти цифры составляли 4,9%, 95,1% и 49%. В Одессе эти цифры составляли 8,1%, 91,9% и 40%. [94] [nb 4]

Как и в целом по Украинской ССР , в Днепропетровске наблюдался приток молодых иммигрантов из сельской Украины. [96] В Днепропетровской области наблюдался самый высокий приток сельской молодежи по всей Украине. [96]

Согласно отчетам КГБ , в 1960-х годах « Самиздат » и издания украинской диаспоры начали распространяться через Западную Украину в Днепропетровске. Они попали в подпольные студенческие кружки, где они поощряли интерес к « украинским шестидесятникам », к украинской истории , особенно украинских казаков , и к возрождению украинского языка . Иногда в знак протеста разворачивался сине-желтый флаг независимой Украины. [97] Власти ответили репрессиями: арестовывая и заключая в тюрьму членов подпольных дискуссионных групп за «националистическую пропаганду». [98]

The growing evidence of dissent in the city coincided from the late 1960s with what the KGB referred to as "radio hooliganism". Thousands of high-school and college students had become ham radio enthusiasts, recording and rebroadcasting western popular music. Annual KGB reports regularly drew a connection between enthusiasm for western pop culture and anti-Soviet behaviour.[99] In the 1980s, by which time the KGB had conceded that their raids against "hippies" had failed suppress the youth rebellion,[100][nb 5] such behaviour was reportedly found in an admixture of Anglo-American" heavy metal, punk rock and Banderism—the veneration of Stepan Bandera, and of other Ukrainian nationalists, who in the Soviet narrative were denounced and discredited as Nazi collaborators.[102]

In an attempt to provide Dnipropetrovsk youth with an ideologically safe alternative, beginning in 1976 the local Komsomol set up approved discotheques. Some of the activists involved in this "disco movement" went on in the 1980s to engage in their own illicit tourist and music enterprises, and several later became influential figures in Ukrainian national politics, among them Yulia Tymoshenko, Victor Pinchuk, Serhiy Tihipko, Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Oleksandr Turchynov.[101]

The "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia"

Reflecting Dnipropetrovsk's special strategic importance for the entire Soviet Union, party cadres from the "rocket city" played an outsized role not only in republican leadership in Kyiv, but also in the Union leadership in Moscow.[103] During Stalin's Great Purge, Leonid Brezhnev rose rapidly within the ranks of the local nomenklatura,[104] from director of the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute in 1936 to regional (Obkom) Party Secretary in charge of the city's defence industries in 1939.[105]

Here, he took the first steps toward building a network of supporters which came to be known as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia". They spearheaded the internal party coup that in 1964 saw Brezhnev replace Nikita Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and call a halt to further reform.[104]

Independent Ukraine

In a national referendum on 1 December 1991, 90.36% of Dnipropetrovsk's voters approved the declaration of independence that had been made by the Ukrainian parliament on 24 August.[106] Amidst the economic dislocation and soaring inflation that accompanied the collapse of the Soviet Union, output declined.[107] Although its economic contraction was at a rate below the national average,[108] the Dnipropetrovsk city and oblast witnessed one of the largest population declines of all the regions of Ukraine.[109] By 2021, the city's population, which had stood at over 1.2 million in 1991, had been reduced to 981,000.[110] Young people from Dnipropetrovsk were among the millions of Ukrainians who left the country to find work and opportunity abroad.[111]

The continuation into the new century of the chaotic fallout from the collapse of the Soviet Union was symbolized for many in Dnipropetrovsk by two violent episodes. In June and July 2007, Dnipropetrovsk experienced a wave of random video-recorded serial killings that were dubbed by the media as the work of the "Dnipropetrovsk maniacs".[112] In February 2009, three youths were sentenced for their part in 21 murders, and numerous other attacks and robberies.[113] On 27 April 2012, four bombs exploded near four tram stations in Dnipropetrovsk, injuring 27 people.[114] No one was convicted. Opposition politicians claimed to see the hand of President Viktor Yanukovych intent on disrupting the October 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election and installing a presidential regime.[115][116]

Euromaidan

Lenin Square in Dnipropetrovsk on 22 February 2014 with the demolished monuments to Vladimir Lenin.

On 26 January 2014, 3,000 anti-Viktor Yanukovych (Ukrainian President) and pro-Euromaidan activists attempted but failed to capture the Regional State Administration building.[117][118][119][120][121] There were street disturbances[122] and Euromaidan protesters were reported to be beaten up by paid pro-Yanukovych supporters (the so-called Titushky).[123][124] Dnipropetrovsk Governor Kolesnikov called them "extreme radical thugs from other regions".[125]

Two days later about 2,000 public sector employees called an indefinite rally in support of the Yanukovych government.[126] Meanwhile, the government building was reinforced with barbed wire.[126][127][128] On 19 February 2014 there was an anti-Yanukovych picket near the Regional State Administration.[129] On 22 February 2014, after a further anti-Yanukovych demonstration, Dnipropetrovsk Mayor Ivan Kulichenko, for the sake of "peace in the city" left Yanukovych's Party of Regions.[130]

Simultaneously the Dnipropetrovsk City Council vowed to support "the preservation of Ukraine as a single and indivisible state", although some members had called for separatism and for federalization of Ukraine.[130] On the same day, after street fighting in Kyiv, 22 February 2014, Yanukovych left Ukraine and went into Russian exile.[131]

2014 to 2022

A destroyed monument to Vladimir Lenin on Dnipro's Kalinin Avenue (now Prospekt Serhiy Nigoyan) in October 2014.

Dnipropetrovsk remained relatively quiet during the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, with pro-Russian Federation protestors outnumbered by those opposing outside intervention.[132][133] In March 2014 the city's Lenin Square was renamed "Heroes of Independence Square" in honor of the people killed during Euromaidan.[133][134] The statue of Lenin on the square was removed.[133][135] In June 2014 another Lenin monument was removed and replaced by a monument to the Ukrainian military fighting the Russo-Ukrainian War.[136][137]

Memorial to the victims of the Russian-Ukrainian War (ATO zone) in Dnipro's city centre in 2018.

To comply with the 2015 decommunization law the city was renamed Dnipro in May 2016, after the river that flows through the city.[27][22] By summer 2016 not only was the city renamed, but so were more than 350 streets, alleys, driveways, squares and parks.[138] For example, Karl Marx Avenue, the main street, was renamed Yavornytskyi Avenue in honour of the once neglected city and cossack historian.[139] This was 12 per cent of all of the city's toponymies.[138] Five of the eight urban districts of the city received new names.[138]

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

The slogan "Russian warship, go fuck yourself" displayed on a bus stop in Dnipro in February 2022.

In the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, and with developing military fronts near Kyiv and to the north, east and south, Dnipro has become a logistical hub for humanitarian aid and a reception point for people fleeing the war. Roughly equidistant from the war's major theatres in the east and the south, the city's location is proving critical for supplying the Ukrainian defence effort.[citation needed] At the same time, its control of a Dnieper River crossing and the opportunity it would provide to cut off Ukrainian forces in the Donbas makes the city a high-value target for the Russians.[12][140]

Dnipro is reported as the only city in Ukraine where a volunteer formation has been created under direct City Council control. It is called the "Dnieper Guard" (Варти Дніпра, Varty Dnipra). The mayor of Dnipro, Borys Filatov has dismissed suggestions that the group remained Ihor Kolomoyskyi's "private army". Kolomoyskyi has helped with some equipment purchases, but the force performs defence and law and order functions under the leadership of the national police.[141]

Dnipro city after Russian shelling in the night on 29 September 2022.

The Russians first hit Dnipro on 11 March. Three air strikes close to a kindergarten and an apartment building killed at least one person.[142] On 15 March, Russian missiles hit Dnipro International Airport, destroying the runway and damaging the terminal.[143] In the early hours of 6 April, an air strike destroyed an oil depot.[144] On 10 April, a Ukrainian government spokesperson said that the airport in Dnipro had been "completely destroyed" as the result of a Russian attack.[145] On 15 July, a Russian missile attack killed four people and injured sixteen others in Dnipro.[146]

As part of the derussification campaign that swept through Ukraine following the February 2022 invasion 110 toponyms in the city were "de-Russified" from February to September 2022.[147] The renaming started on 21 April when 31 streets connected to Russia were renamed. In May another 20 streets were renamed, followed by 21 more streets and alleys in June 2022.[148] According to Dnipro's Mayor Borys Filatov (speaking on 21 September 2022) "this is not the end."[147] Among other renamings, the Schmidt Street (the street was originally the Gymnasium Street but it was renamed to Otto Schmidt Street by Soviet authorities in 1934[70]) in the center of Dnipro was renamed to Stepan Bandera Street.[147][nb 6] In May 2022 (also) several outdoor objects related to the USSR were dismantled in Dnipro.[150][151] In December 2022 Dnipro removed from the city all monuments to figures of Russian culture and history.[152][nb 7] On 22 February 2023 26 more streets were renamed.[153]

Dnipro was hit during the autumn 2022 Russian missile strikes on critical infrastructure.[154] On 10 October three civilians were killed.[155] On 18 October 2022 Russian missile strikes targeted the energy infrastructure of Dnipro.[156] On 17 November 2022 23 people were injured.[157] The attacks continued in 2023.[158] The most deadly of these attacks being the 14 January 2023 missile strike on an apartment building that killed 40 people, injured 75 and with 46 people reported missing.[159]

Government and politics

Government

The City of Dnipro is governed by the Dnipro City Council. It is a city municipality that is designated as a separate district within its oblast.

Administratively, the city is divided into urban districts. Presently, there are 8 of them. Aviatorske, a rural settlement located near the Dnipro International Airport, is also a part of Dnipro urban hromada.

The City Council Assembly makes up the administration's legislative branch, thus effectively making it a city 'parliament' or rada. The municipal council is made up of 12 elected members, who are each elected to represent a certain district of the city for a four-year term. The council has 29 standing commissions which play an important role in the oversight of the city and its merchants.

Until 18 July 2020, Dnipro was incorporated as a city of oblast significance, the centre of Dnipro Municipality and extraterritorial administrative centre of Dnipro Raion. The municipality was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to seven. The area of Dnipro Municipality was merged into Dnipro Raion.[160][161]

Dnipro is also the seat of the oblast's local administration controlled by the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Rada. The Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast is appointed by the President of Ukraine.

Subdivisions

Area map
Dnipro City Hall
The Dnipropetrovsk Regional Administration building
The Dnipro central post office
Vokzalna square
Modern buildings on the right bank
The Prydniprovsk Power Plant
Amurskyi Bridge

Five of the eight urban districts were renamed late November 2015 to comply with decommunization laws.[162]

Politics

In the first decades of Ukrainian independence the city's voters generally favoured the proponents of continued close ties to Russia: in the 1990s the Communist Party of Ukraine, and in the new century, the Party of Regions.[163][164] After the 2014 events of Euromaidan, which included demonstrations and clashes in the central city, the Party of Regions ceded influence to those parties and independents calling for closer ties to the European Union.

As in Soviet Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk was disproportionately represented among political leaders in Kyiv.[89] The principal representatives of the so-called "Dnipropetrovsk Faction" in the capital were Ukraine's second president Leonid Kuchma and Ukraine's 10th and 13th prime minister Yulia Tymoshenko.[165] Kuchma was a former senior manager of Yuzhmash[165] while Tymoshenko was president of United Energy Systems of Ukraine, a Dnipropetrovsk-based private company that from 1995 to 1997 was the main importer of Russian natural gas to Ukraine.[166]

Kuchma's 1994 presidential campaign had been financed by Dnipropetrovsk businessmen Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Gennadiy Bogolyubov. Kolomoyskyi and Bogolyubov were partners in Privat Group, a scandal-ridden financial-industrial conglomerate.[167] As prime Minister, Kuchma had granted their PrivatBank the unique privilege of opening overseas branches. These were later implicated in the wholesale defrauding of Ukrainian depositors, leading to the bank's nationalization in 2016.[168][169] Kuchma was also closely tied to another budding Dnipropetrovsk billionaire, his son-in-law Viktor Pinchuk whose assets included several giant steel and pipe plants in the region and the bank Kredit-Dnepr.[165]

Campaign activities of the Party of Regions in central Dnipropetrovsk on 25 December 2009 during the 2010 presidential election.

With Viktor Yushchenko, Tymoshenko co-led the Orange Revolution which annulled the declared victory of Viktor Yanukovych in the 2004 presidential election,[170] and under President Yuschenko served as prime minister from 24 January to 8 September 2005, and again from 18 December 2007 to 4 March 2010. Yanukovych narrowly defeated Tymoshenko in the 2010 presidential election, taking 41.7 per cent of the vote in the Dnipropetrovsk region.[171] The candidates accused one another of vote rigging.[172][173]

In the October 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election Yanukovych's Party of Regions, which promoted itself as the champion of the language rights and industrial interests of largely Russian-speaking eastern Ukraine, won 35.8 per cent of the vote in the Dnipropetrovsk region, compared to 18.4 per cent for Tymoshenko's Fatherland Party and 19.4 per cent for the Communists.[174] Tymoshenko mounted a hunger strike to once again protest election irregularities.[175]

On 2 March 2014, following the removal of Yanukovich as President, acting President Oleksandr Turchynov appointed Ihor Kolomoyskyi Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.[176] Kolomoyskyi initially dismissed suggestions of Russian-backed separatism in Dnipropetrovsk,[177][178] but then took vigorous measures. He posted bounties for the capture of Russian-backed militants and the surrender of weapons;[179][180] drafted thousands of Privat Group employees as auxiliary police officers;[181] and is said to have provided substantial funds to create the Dnipro Battalion,[182][183] and to support the Aidar, Azov, and Donbas volunteer battalions.[184][185]

In the Dnipropetrovsk region, Petro Poroshenko won the May 2014 presidential election with 45 per cent, but in the 2014 parliamentary election in October his political party Petro Poroshenko Bloc secured 19.4 per cent of the vote, 5 points behind the Opposition Bloc,[186] the successor to the disbanded Party of Regions.[187][188]

On 25 March 2015, following a struggle with Kolomoyskyi for control the state-owned oil pipeline operator,[189] President Poroshenko replaced Kolomoyskyi as governor with Valentyn Reznichenko.[190][191][192]

In the 2015 Ukrainian local elections Borys Filatov of the patriotic UKROP[193] was elected Mayor of Dnipro.[194]

In the March–April 2019 Ukrainian presidential election Dnipro voted overwhelmingly voted for the successful candidate, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, who advocated membership of European Union.[195][196] In the parliamentary election in October, his Servant of the People party swept the board, winning each of Dnipro's five single-mandate parliamentary constituencies.[197][198]

By the time of the October 2020 Ukrainian local elections, support for Zelenskyy's party had collapsed: it won just 8.7 per cent of the vote for the city council.[199] The Euromaidan trajectory was represented instead by Filatov's Proposition (the "Party of Mayors"),[200] with 60 per cent of the popular vote against 30 per cent for the pro-Russian the Opposition Platform – For Life.[201][nb 8]

Geography

An aerial view of Dnipro. The Dnieper River, city's left and right banks, and a number of bridges can be seen.

The city is built mainly upon both banks of the Dnieper, at its confluence with the Samara River. In the loop of a major meander, the Dnieper changes its course from the north west to continue southerly and later south-westerly through Ukraine, ultimately passing Kherson, where it finally flows into the Black Sea.[citation needed]

Nowadays both the north and south banks play home to a range of industrial enterprises and manufacturing plants. The airport is located about 15 km (9.3 mi) south-east of the city.

The centre of the city is constructed on the right bank which is part of the Dnieper Upland, while the left bank is part of the Dnieper Lowland. The old town is situated atop a hill that is formed as a result of the river's change of course to the south. The change of river's direction is caused by its proximity to the Azov Upland located southeast of the city.[citation needed]

One of the city's streets, Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, links the two major architectural ensembles of the city and constitutes an important thoroughfare through the centre, which along with various suburban radial road systems, provides some of the area's most vital transport links for both suburban and inter-urban travel.

Climate

Under the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system, Dnipro has a humid continental climate (Dfa/Dfb).[204] Snowfall is more common in the hills than at the city's lower elevations. The city has four distinct seasons: a cold, snowy winter; a hot summer; and two relatively wet transition periods. However, according to other schemes (such as the Salvador Rivas-Martínez bioclimatic one), Dnipro has a Supratemperate bioclimate, and belongs to the Temperate xeric steppic thermoclimatic belt, due to high evapotranspiration.[205]

During the summer, Dnipro is very warm (average day temperature in July is 24 to 28 °C (75 to 82 °F), even hot sometimes 32 to 36 °C (90 to 97 °F)). Temperatures as high as 36 °C (97 °F) have been recorded in May. Winter is not so cold (average day temperature in January is −4 to 0 °C (25 to 32 °F), but when there is no snow and the wind blows hard, it feels extremely cold. A mix of snow and rain happens usually in December.

The best time for visiting the city is in late spring (late April and May), and early in autumn: September, October, when the city's trees turn yellow. Other times are mainly dry with a few showers.[206]

"However, the city is characterized with significant pollution of air with industrial emissions."[207] The "severely polluted air and water" and allegedly "vast areas of decimated landscape" of Dnipro and Donetsk are considered by some to be an environmental crisis.[208] Though exactly where in Dnipropetrovsk these areas might be found is not stated.[208]

Cityscape

Stalinist architecture on the Dmytro Yavornytsky Avenue [uk; ru; de]

Dnipro is a primarily industrial city of around one million people. It has developed into a large urban centre over the past few centuries to become, today, Ukraine's fourth-largest city after Kyiv, Kharkiv and Odesa. Stalinist architecture (monumental soviet classicism) dominates in the city centre.[212]

Immediately after its foundation Yekaterinoslav, began to develop exclusively on the right bank of the Dnieper River. At first the city developed radially from the central point provided by the Transfiguration Cathedral, completed in 1835.[15] Neoclassical structures of brick and stone construction were preferred and the city began to take on the appearance of a typical European city of the era. Many of these buildings have been retained in the city's older Sobornyi District.[213] Among the most important buildings of this era are the Transfiguration Cathedral, and a number of buildings in the area surrounding Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, including the Khrennikov House.

Over the next few decades, until the final end of the Russian Empire with the October Revolution in 1917, the city did not change much in appearance. The predominant architectural style remained neo-classicism. Notable buildings built in the era before 1917 include the main building of the Dnipro Polytechnic, which was built in 1899–1901,[214] the art-nouveau inspired building of the city's former Duma (parliament),[215] the Dnipropetrovsk National Historical Museum, and the Mechnikov Regional Hospital. Other buildings of the era that did not fit the typical architectural style of the time in Dnipropetrovsk include,[216] the Ukrainian-influenced Grand Hotel Ukraine, the Russian revivalist style railway station (since reconstructed),[217] and the art-nouveau Astoriya building on Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt.

Once Yekaterinoslav became part of the Soviet Union (officially in 1922), and became Dnipropetrovsk in 1926,[23] the city was gradually purged of tsarist-era monuments. Monumental architecture was stripped of Imperial coats of arms and other non-socialist symbolism. Following the 1917 October Revolution, a monument to Catherine the Great that stood in front of the Mining Institute was replaced with one of Russian academic Mikhail Lomonosov.[51]

Later, due to damage from World War II, badly damaged buildings were, more often than not, demolished completely and replaced with new structures.[218] In the early 1950s, during the ongoing industrialisation of the city, much of Dnipropetrovsk's centre was rebuilt in the Stalinist style of Socialist Realism.[219] This is one of the main reasons why much of Dnipro's central avenue, Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt (formerly Karl Marx Prospect), is designed in the style of Stalinist Social Realism.[220] A number of large buildings were reconstructed. The main railway station, for example, was stripped of its Russian-revival ornamentation and redesigned in the style of Stalinist social-realism.[221]

Grand Hotel Ukraine in 2013 and in 1913.

The Grand Hotel Ukraine survived the war but was later simplified much in design, with its roof being reconstructed in a typical French mansard style as opposed to the ornamental Ukrainian Baroque of the pre-war era. Many pre-revolution buildings were reconstructed to suit new purposes. For example, the Emperor Nicholas II Commercial Institute in the city was reconstructed to serve as the administrative centre for the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, a function it fulfils to this day. Other buildings, such as the Potemkin Palace were given over to "the proletariat" (the working man), in this case as the students' union of the Oles Honchar Dnipro National University.

After the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 and the appointment of Nikita Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the industrialisation of Dnipropetrovsk became even more profound, with the Southern (Yuzhne) Missile and Rocket factory being set up in the city. However, this was not the only development and many other factories, especially metallurgical and heavy-manufacturing plants, were set up in the city.[222]

Khrushchyovkas on Science Avenue [uk; ru] (formerly Gagarin Avenue)[223]

As a result of all this industrialisation the city's inner suburbs became increasingly polluted and were gradually given over to large, industrial enterprises. At the same time the extensive development of the city's left bank and western suburbs as new residential areas began.[222] The low-rise tenant houses of the Khrushchev era (Khrushchyovkas) gave way to the construction of high-rise prefabricated apartment blocks (similar to German Plattenbaus). In 1976, in line with the city's 1926 renaming, a large monumental statue of Grigoriy Petrovsky was placed on the square in front of the city's railway station.[224][225]

Since the independence of Ukraine in 1991 and the economic development that followed, a number of large commercial and business centres have been built in the city's outskirts. To this day the city is characterised by its mix of architectural styles, with much of the city's centre consisting of pre-revolutionary buildings in a variety of styles, stalinist buildings and constructivist architecture, while residential districts are, more often than not, made up of aesthetically simple, technically outdated mid-rise and high-rise housing stock from the Soviet era. Despite this, the city has a large number of 'private sectors' where the tradition of building and maintaining individual detached housing has continued to this day.[citation needed]

The local statue of Lenin was toppled by protesters in February 2014 the day after Ukraine's president Viktor Yanukovych fled to Russia following months of protests against him.[226][227] The square were the statue had stood for some 50 years was soon renamed from "Lenin Square" to "Heroes of Maidan Square".[226]

In late November 2015 about 300 streets, 5 of the 8 city districts and one metro station were renamed to comply with decommunization laws.[162]

The 1976 Petrovsky statue was destroyed by an angry mob on 29 January 2016.[224]

As part of the derussification campaign that swept through Ukraine following the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, 110 toponyms in the city were renamed from February to September 2022.[147] On 3 May 2022 alone more than a dozen memorials erected during Soviet times were dismantled.[151][150] In December 2022 the Dnipro communal services (in accordance a decision of the City Council) removed from the city all monuments to figures of Russian culture and history.[152] This this meant that monuments to Alexander Pushkin, Alexander Matrosov, Volodia Dubinin, Maxim Gorky, Valery Chkalov, Yefim Pushkin and Mikhail Lomonosov were removed from the public space of the city.[152] On 16 November 2022 Pushkin Avenue in Dnipro had been renamed Lesya Ukrainka Avenue.[149] In January 2023 a T-34 tank on Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt that served as a monument to Hero of the Soviet Union Yefim Pushkin was removed after the Dnipro City Council had decided the monument "has no historical or artistic value."[228][229][nb 9] 26 more streets were renamed in Dnipro on 22 February 2023.[153] In December 2023 the renaming of streets continued with on 20 December 2023 again 53 city toponyms their names being changed by the Dnipro City Council.[231] Also on this day the Dnipro City Council renamed a part of Dnipro's central avenue, Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, in honor of commander of the 1st Mechanized Battalion of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and Hero of Ukraine Dmytro Kotsiubailo (who had perished on 7 March 2023 in battle near Bakhmut).[232] On 31 January 2024 92 other toponyms were renamed by the Dnipro City Council, including the avenue named after (Soviet cosmonaut and first human in space) Yuri Gagarin.[223][233]

A panoramic view of the city
A panoramic view of the city
A panoramic view of the city

Demographics

The population of the city is about 1 million people. In 2011, the average age of the city's resident population was 40 years. The number of males declined slightly more than the number of females. The natural population growth in Dnipro is slightly higher than growth in Ukraine in general.

Between 1923 and 1933 the Ukrainian proportion of the population of the city increased from 16% to 48%. This was part of a national trend.[243]

In a survey in June–July 2017, 9% of residents said that they spoke Ukrainian at home, 63% spoke Russian, and 25% spoke Ukrainian and Russian equally.[247]

The same survey reported the following results for the religion of adult residents.[247]

According to a survey conducted by the International Republican Institute in April–May 2023, 27% of the city's population spoke Ukrainian at home, and 66% spoke Russian.[248]

Economy

The Alexander Southern Russian Ironworks and Rolling Mill of the Bryansk Joint-Stock Compan (currently the Dniprovsky Metallurgical Plant) depicted in 1889.

Dnipro is a major industrial centre of Ukraine.[249] It has several facilities devoted to heavy industry that produce a wide range of products, including cast-iron, launch vehicles, rolled metal, pipes, machinery, different mining combines, agricultural equipment, tractors, trolleybuses, refrigerators, different chemicals and many others.[citation needed] The most famous and the oldest (founded in the 19th century) is the Dniprovsky Metallurgical Plant (from 1922 until the time of decommunization in Ukraine, the plant was named after the Soviet Union statesman Grigory Petrovsky[250]). Other notable industrial company of Dnipro is PA Pivdenmash, a heavy machinery and rocket manufacturer.

Metals and metallurgy is the city's core industry in terms of output. Employment in the city is concentrated in large-sized enterprises. Metallurgical enterprises are based in the city and account for over 47% of its industrial output. These enterprises are important contributors to the city's budget and, with 80% of their output being exported, to Ukraine's foreign exchange reserve. Dnipro serves as the main import hub for foreign goods coming into the oblast and, on average, accounted for 58% of the oblast's imports between 2005 and 2011. With economic conditions improving even further in 2010 and 2011, registered unemployment fell to about 4,100 by the end of 2011.

The city of Dnipro's economy is dominated by the wholesale and retail trade sector, which accounted for 53% of the output of non-financial enterprises in 2010.

Main office PrivatBank

Entrepreneur Ihor Kolomoyskyi's Privat Group, a global business group, is based in the city and grouped around the Privatbank. Privat Group controls thousands of companies of virtually every industry in Ukraine, European Union, Georgia, Ghana, Russia, Romania, United States and other countries. Steel, oil & gas, chemical and energy are sectors of the group's prime influence and expertise. Privat Group is in business conflict with the Interpipe, also based in Dnipro area. The influential metallurgical mill company founded and mostly owned by the local business oligarch Viktor Pinchuk.

Another company headquartered in Dnipro is ATB-Market. This company owns the largest national network of retail shops.

None of the group's capital is publicly traded on the stock exchange. Group's founding owners are natives of Dnipro and made their entire career here. Privatbank, the core of the group, is the largest commercial bank in Ukraine. In March 2014 was named by the American review magazine Global Finance as "the Best Bank in Ukraine for 2014" while British magazine The Banker in November 2013 named again the same bank as "the Bank of the year 2013 in Ukraine".

In 2018 a private Texas-based aerospace firm Firefly Aerospace opened a Research and Development (R&D) centre in Dnipro to develop small and medium-sized launch vehicles for commercial launches to orbit.[251]

Transport

Local transportation

Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, Dnipro's central avenue, features a green pedestrian boulevard and a tram line

The main forms of public transport used in Dnipro are trams, buses and electric trolley buses. In addition to this there are a large number of taxi firms operating in the city, and many residents have private cars.

The city's municipal roads also suffer from the same funding problems as the trams, with many of them in a very poor technical state.[citation needed] It is not uncommon to find very large potholes and crumbling surfaces on many of Dnipro's smaller roads. Major roads and highways are of better quality. In the early 2010s the situation was improving, with a number of new used trams bought from the German cities of Dresden and Magdeburg,[254] and a number of roads, including Schmidt Street (now Stepan Bandera Street[147]) and Moskovsky Street (now Volodymyr Monomakh Street[255]) were being reconstructed with modern road-building techniques.[256]

A scheme of the Dnipro Metro system in the city

Dnipro also has a metro system, opened in 1995, which consists of one line and 6 stations.[257] The 1980 official plans for four different lines were never made reality.[258] In 2011 the metro was transferred to municipal ownership in the hope that this will help it secure a loan from the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.[259] In 2011, plans envisioned an expansion of three station, Teatralna, Tsentralna and Muzeina, to be completed by 2015.[260] The opening of these three stations have been repeatedly delayed and they will not open until 2024 at the earliest.[261] The extension will increase the number of stations to nine, which would extend the line 4 km to a total of 11.8 km (7.3-mile).[261]

Suburban transportation

Bridges linking the city's right and left banks are heavily used

Dnipro has some highways crossing through the city. The most popular routes are from Kyiv, Donetsk, Kharkiv and Zaporizhzhia. Transit through the city is also available. As of 2011 the city is also seeing construction of a southern urban bypass, which will allow automobile traffic to proceed around the city centre. This is expected to both improve air quality and reduce transport issues from heavy freight lorries that pass through the city centre.[citation needed]

The largest bus station in eastern Ukraine is located in Dnipro, from where bus routes are available to all over the country, including some international routes to Poland, Germany, Moldova and Turkey. It is located near the city's central railway station. Since the start of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Ukraine's border crossings with Russia and Belarus are closed to regular traffic.[262]

In the summertime, there are some routes available by hydrofoils on the Dnieper River, while various tourist ships on their way down the river, (Kyiv–KhersonOdesa) tend to make a stop in the city. Dnipro's river port is located close to the area surrounding the central railway station, on the banks of the river.

Rail

The city is a large railway junction, with many daily trains running to and from Eastern Europe and on domestic routes within Ukraine.

Dnipro Railway station

There are two railway terminals, Dnipro Holovnyi (main station) and Dnipro Lotsmanska (south station).

Two express passenger services run each day between Kyiv and Dnipro under the name 'Capital Express'. Other daytime services include suburban trains to towns and villages in the surrounding Dnipropetrovsk Oblast. Most long-distance trains tend to run at night to reduce the amount of daytime hours spent travelling by each passenger.

Domestic connections exist between Dnipro and Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa, Ivano-Frankivsk, Truskavets, Kharkiv and many other smaller Ukrainian cities, while international destinations include, among others the Bulgarian seaside resort of Varna. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine all railway connection between Ukraine and Belarus were axed.[263] Meaning that the pre-war international destinations to Minsk in Belarus, Moscow's Kursky Station and Saint Petersburg's Vitebsky Station in Russia and Baku—the capital of Azerbaijan—are no longer in service.[263]

Aviation

The city is served by Dnipro International Airport (IATA: DNK) and is connected to European and Middle Eastern cities with daily flights. It is located 15 km (9.3 mi) southeast from the city centre. A Russian attack on 10 April 2022 completely destroyed the airport and the infrastructure nearby.[264]

Water transportation

The city has a river port located on the left bank of the Dnieper. There is also a railway freight station.

Education

Oles Honchar National University is one of the leading establishments of higher education in Ukraine. It was founded in 1918.

There are 163 educational institutions among them schools, gymnasiums and boarding schools. For children of pre-school age there are 174 institutions, also a lot of out-of -school institutions such as centre of out-of-school work. Eighty-seven institutions that are recognized on all Ukrainian and regional levels.

In a survey in June–July 2017, adult respondents reported the following educational levels:[247]

In 2006 Dnipropetrovsk hosted the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Information Technology; in 2008, that for Mathematics, and in 2009 the semi-final of the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Programming for the Eastern Region. In the same year as the latter took place, the youth group 'Eksperiment', an organisation promoting increased cultural awareness amongst Ukrainians, was founded in the city.

Higher education

Dnipro is a major educational centre in Ukraine and is home to two of Ukraine's top-ten universities; the Oles Honchar Dnipro National University and Dnipro Polytechnic National Technical University. The system of high education institutions connects 38 institutions in Dnipro, among them 14 of IV and ІІІ levels of accreditation, and 22 of І and ІІ levels of accreditation. In year 2012 National Mining Institute was on the 7th and National University named after O. Honchar was on the 9th place among the best high education institutions in "TOP-200 Ukraine" list.

The main building of the Dnipro Polytechnic

The list below is a list of all current state-organised higher educational institutions (not included are non-independent subdivisions of other universities not based in Dnipro).

In the 21st century annually around 55,000[citation needed] students studied in Dnipro, a significant number of whom students from abroad.[265]

Culture

Dnipropetrovsk House Of Organ And Chamber Music

Attractions

Synagogue and Menorah Center
Entrance to the Taras Shevchenko Park

Dnipro has a variety of theatres (Dnipro Academic Drama and Comedy Theatre, Taras Shevchenko Dnipro Academic Ukrainian Music and Drama Theatre and Dnipro Opera and Ballet Theatre), a circus (Dnipro State Circus) and several museums (Dmytro Yavornytsky National Historical Museum, Diorama "Battle of the Dnieper" and Dnipro Art Museum). There are also several restaurants, beaches and parks (Taras Shevchenko Park and Sevastopol Park).

The major streets of the city were renamed in honour of Marxist heroes during the Soviet era.[70] Following the 2015 law on decommunization these have been renamed.[22][162]

The central thoroughfare is known as Akademik Yavornytskyi Prospekt, a wide and long boulevard that stretches east to west through the centre of the city. It was founded in the 18th century and parts of its buildings are the actual decoration of the city. In the heart of the city is Soborna Square, which includes the Transfiguration Cathedral founded by order of Catherine the Great in 1787.[44] On the square, there are some remarkable buildings: the Museum of History, Diorama "Battle of the Dnieper" (World War II).

The Ukrposhta for the city was once housed at the Central Post Office, a 20th century building. Rising magnificently above the Dnieper, the building's tower has become one of the most identifiable features in the city.[266][267]

Further from the city centre and next to the Dnieper River (spelled "Dnipro" in Ukrainian) is the large Taras Shevchenko Park (which is on the right bank of the river) and Monastyrskyi Island. In the 9th century, Byzantine monks based a monastery here.[268]

The Governor's House is a 19th century building which formerly housed the Governor of Yekaterinoslav.[269][270] Since 2020, it became the home of the Museum of Dnipro City History.[271][272]

A few areas retain their historical character: all of Central Avenue, some street-blocks on the main hill (the Nagorna part) between Lesya Ukrainka Avenue and Embankment, and sections near Globa (formerly known as Chkalov park until it was renamed) and Shevchenko parks have been untouched for 150 years.[citation needed]

The river keeps the climate mild.[citation needed] It is visible from many points in Dnipro. From any of the three hills in the city, one can see a view of the river, islands, parks, outskirts, river banks and other hills.

There was no need to build skyscrapers in the city in Soviet times. The major industries preferred to locate their offices close to their factories and away from the centre of town. Most new office buildings are built in the same architectural style as the old buildings. A number, however, display more modern aesthetics, and some blend the two styles.

Religion

Ludwig Charlemagne-Bode and Pietro Visconti designed and erected the 19th century Holy Trinity Cathedral in Dnipro, which is an Eastern Orthodox cathedral of the UOC of the Moscow Patriarchate.[273] It was known as the Trinity Church for most of the 1800s until changing to the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit.[274] It is now a historical landmark within the city.[275]

The UOC's Dnipropetrovsk House Of Organ And Chamber Music is a performance hall and an Eastern Orthodox cathedral from the 20th century. In addition, the structure is a national architectural and historical landmark.[276][277]

The Saint Nicholas Church in Dnipro is a national monument and the Eastern Orthodox cathedral of the UOC from the 19th century. It is located on what was formerly Novi Kodaky property and is the oldest church in Dnipro.[278][279]

The German Evangelical-Lutheran Church in the Ukraine (GELCU) owns the 19th-century Evangelical Lutheran Church of St. Catherine. It is also known as the St. Catherine Evangelical Lutheran Church. It is the first church in Ukraine to open after independence.[280]

Sports

Dnipro-Arena

FC Dnipro is the most successful football club of the city.[281][282][283] It is a former second runner-up in the Ukrainian Premier League and in the UEFA Cup it reached and lost the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final.[282][281] It also was the only Soviet team to win the USSR Federation Cup twice. The club was owned by the Privat Group.[283] The club has been inactive since 2019.[281][284] Note: A bandy team, a basketball team and others use the same name.

Other local football clubs include: FC Lokomotyv Dnipropetrovsk and FC Spartak Dnipropetrovsk, both of which have large fan bases. SC Dnipro-1 is another team emerged in 2017.[285] SC Dnipro-1 established itself as the most successful club in town; playing in the Ukrainian Premier League, the UEFA Europa League and the UEFA Europa Conference League.[285]

In 2008 the city built a new soccer stadium; the Dnipro-Arena has a capacity of 31,003 people and was built as a replacement for Dnipro's old stadium, Stadium Meteor.[283] The Dnipro-Arena hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification game between Ukraine and England on 10 October 2009. The Dnipro Arena was initially chosen as one of the Ukrainian venues for their joint Euro 2012 bid with Poland. However, it was dropped from the list in May 2009 as the capacity fell short of the minimum 33,000 seats required by UEFA.[286] The city is home to BC Dnipro, champion of the 2019–20 Ukrainian Basketball SuperLeague. The team plays its home games at the Palace of Sports Shynnik.

The city is the centre of Ukrainian bandy. The Ukrainian Federation of Bandy and Rink-Bandy has its office in the city.[287] The foremost local bandy club is Dnipro, which won the Ukrainian championship in 2014.

Notable people

Helena Blavatsky, 1877
USSR stamp, centenary of Sergei Prokofiev, 1991
Yulia Tymoshenko, 2011
Igor Olshansky, 2011
Olesya Povh, 2011

Sport

Twin towns – sister cities

Dnipro is twinned with:[291][110]

Friendship cooperation cities

Dnipro also cooperates with:[292]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See §Name for former and native names
  1. ^ The city's mayor Borys Filatov described the renaming of the city as "controversial and irrelevant".[28] Oleksandr Vilkul (who stood against Filatov at the 2015 mayoral election) claimed that 90% of residents were opposed to the change in the city's name.[28]
  2. ^ On 1 June 2016 the Ukrainian parliament refused to support a resolution to cancel the renaming.[29] On 16 June 2016, 48 MPs appealed against the renaming in the Constitutional Court of Ukraine.[30] The Constitutional Court refused to consider this case on 12 October 2016.[29]
  3. ^ There is some confusion concerning the date of this map. According to the image file the map is by Schubert and dates from about 1860, but Ukrainian Wikipedia claims that it dates from 1885. The map shows the old (railway) Amur Bridge [uk] across the river, which was completed in 1884.
  4. ^ At the start of the 2018–2019 academic year, there were 31 Russian-speaking secondary schools left in the whole of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.[95] At the time the conversion of these 31 schools to Ukrainian language education was planned to be completed by 2023.[95]
  5. ^ In one of these cases in 1979, because the local Dnipropetrovsk perpetrator was Jewish, a KGB report linked Ukrainian nationalism with Jewish Zionism "by promoting dance music".[101] In this case the (according to the KGB employee "American") band the Bee Gees.[101]
  6. ^ On 16 November 2022 Pushkin Avenue in the city center of Dnipro was renamed Lesya Ukrainka Avenue.[149]
  7. ^ Monuments to Alexander Pushkin, Maxim Gorky, Valery Chkalov, Yefim Pushkin Volodia Dubinin, Alexander Matrosov and Mikhail Lomonosov were removed from the public space of the city in December 2022.[152]
  8. ^ In the wake of the Russian invasion, in March 2022 Opposition Platform – For Life, together with a number of other smaller parties, were banned by the Ukrainian National Security Council because of alleged ties to the Government of Russia.[202][203]
  9. ^ This monument of Yefim Pushkin was erected 1967 and was intended to symbolize the liberation of Dnipro from the Nazis by the Soviet army.[229] On 5 January 2023, the day after the monument was dismantled, Mayor of Dnipro Borys Filatov claimed that Yefim Pushkin "defended our city when the Soviet command was incompetent, in just a few days, surrendering a huge industrial centre to the advancing Nazis."[230] Filatov also claimed that the T-34 tank of the monument was of a modification of 1967 and so could have never been driven by Pushkin.[230]

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Sources

External links