Южнославянские языки — одна из трёх ветвей славянских языков . На нем говорят около 30 миллионов человек, в основном на Балканах . Они географически отделены от носителей двух других славянских ветвей ( западной и восточной ) поясом говорящих на немецком , венгерском и румынском языках.
История
Первым письменным южнославянским языком (а также первым подтвержденным славянским языком) была разновидность восточно-южнославянского языка, на котором говорили в Салониках , который теперь называется старославянским языком в девятом веке. Он сохраняется как богослужебный язык в славянских православных церквях в виде различных местных церковнославянских традиций. [ нужна цитата ]
Классификация
Южнославянские языки составляют диалектный континуум . [1] [2] Сербский, хорватский, боснийский и черногорский составляют один диалект в этом континууме. [3]
Сербский (код ISO 639-1: sr ; код ISO 639-2/3: srp ; код SIL: srp )
Хорватский (код ISO 639-1: hr ; код ISO 639-2/3: hrv ; код SIL: hrv )
Боснийский (код ISO 639-1: bs ; код ISO 639-2/3: bos ; код SIL: bos )
Черногорский (код ISO 639-2/3: cnr ; код SIL: cnr )
Лингвистическая предыстория
Славянские языки входят в балто-славянскую группу , принадлежащую к индоевропейской языковой семье. Южнославянские языки считаются генетическим узлом в славистике : они определяются набором фонологических, морфологических и лексических нововведений (изоглосс), которые отделяют их от западных и восточнославянских групп. Однако в последние десятилетия эта точка зрения была оспорена (см. ниже).
Некоторые нововведения, охватывающие все южнославянские языки, являются общими для восточнославянской группы, но не для западнославянской. К ним относятся: [4]
Слияние праславянского *ś (в результате второй и третьей палатализации) с *s
Это показано в следующей таблице:
Было идентифицировано несколько изоглосс , которые, как полагают, представляют собой исключительные общие инновации в южнославянской языковой группе. Они носят преимущественно фонологический характер, тогда как морфологических и синтаксических изоглосс гораздо меньше. Сассекс и Кабберли (2006: 43–44) перечисляют следующие фонологические изоглоссы:
Слияние yers со звуком, похожим на шва , который стал /a/ в сербско-хорватском языке или разделился в соответствии с сохраненным твердым/мягким качеством предыдущего согласного на /o e/ (македонский) или /ə e/ (болгарский)
Праславянский *ę > /e/
Праславянское *y > /i/ , сливающееся с рефлексом праславянского *i
Праславянские слоговые жидкости *r̥ и *l̥ были сохранены, но *l̥ впоследствии был утерян во всех дочерних языках с разными выходными данными (> /u/ в сербско-хорватском, > гласная+ /l/ или /l/ +гласная в словенском языке , болгарский и македонский), а *r̥ превратился в [ər/rə] в болгарском языке. Это развитие было идентично потере yer после жидкой согласной.
Упрочнение неба и зубных аффрикатов; например, š' > š, č' > č, c' > c.
Южнославянская форма жидкого метатезиса (CoRC > CRaC, CoLC > CLaC и т. д.)
Однако большинство из них не являются исключительными по своему характеру и являются общими с некоторыми языками восточно- и западнославянских языковых групп (в частности, среднесловацкими диалектами). На этом основании Матасович (2008) утверждает, что южнославянские языки существуют строго как географическая группа, не образуя настоящей генетической клады ; иными словами, никогда не существовало протоюжнославянского языка или периода, когда все южнославянские диалекты демонстрировали исключительный набор свойственных им обширных фонологических, морфологических или лексических изменений (изоглосс). Более того, утверждает Матасович, никогда не было периода культурного или политического единства, в котором мог существовать протоюжнославянский язык, во время которого могли произойти общеюжнославянские инновации. Было высказано предположение, что несколько предложенных только южнославянских лексических и морфологических моделей представляют собой общие славянские архаизмы или являются общими с некоторыми словацкими или украинскими диалектами. [ нужна цитата ]
Южнославянские диалекты образуют диалектный континуум , простирающийся от сегодняшней южной Австрии до юго-восточной Болгарии . [5] На уровне диалектологии они делятся на западно-южнославянские (словенский и сербско-хорватский диалекты) и восточно-южнославянские (болгарский и македонский диалекты); они представляют собой отдельные миграции на Балканы и когда-то были разделены промежуточным венгерским, румынским и албанским населением; по мере ассимиляции этих популяций восточные и западные южнославянские языки слились с торлакским языком как переходный диалект. [ нужна цитата ] С другой стороны, распад Османской и Австро -Венгерской империй , за которым последовало формирование национальных государств в 19 и 20 веках, привел к развитию и кодификации стандартных языков . Стандартный словенский, болгарский и македонский языки основаны на разных диалектах. [6] Боснийский, хорватский, черногорский и сербский стандартные варианты [7] плюрицентрического сербско-хорватского языка [ 8] основаны на одном и том же диалекте ( штокавском ). [9] Таким образом, в большинстве случаев национальные и этнические границы не совпадают с диалектными границами.
Примечание . Из-за различного политического статуса языков/диалектов и разных исторических контекстов классификации в некоторой степени произвольны.
Восточно-боснийский (иекавский, старо-штокавский), в центральной и северной Боснии.
Славянский (смешанный ят, староштокавский), в восточной Хорватии.
Младший икавский (икавский) с 3-мя поддиалектами — далматинским, дунайским ( буневацкий диалект ) и литорально-ликским: в Далмации, центральной Боснии, северной Сербии, южной Венгрии (включая Будапешт)
Призрен-Тимок (Екавский, Старо-Штокавский), на юго-востоке Сербии и юге Косово.
The dialects that form the eastern group of South Slavic, spoken mostly in Bulgaria and Macedonia and adjacent areas in neighbouring countries (such as the Bessarabian Bulgarians in Ukraine), share a number of characteristics that set them apart from other Slavic languages:[11][12]
the existence of a definite article (e.g. книга, book – книгата, the book, време, time – времето, the time)
the formation of comparative forms of adjectives formed with the prefix по- (e.g. добър, по-добър (Bulg.)/добар, подобар (Maced.) – good, better)
a future tense formed by the present form of the verb preceded by ще/ќе
the existence of a renarrative mood (e.g. Той ме видял. (Bulg.)/Тој ме видел. (Maced.) – He supposedly saw me. Compare with Той ме видя./Тој ме виде. – He saw me.)
Bulgarian and Macedonian share some of their unusual characteristics with other languages in the Balkans, notably Greek and Albanian (see Balkan sprachbund).[11]
Torlakian dialects are spoken in southeastern Serbia, northern North Macedonia, western Bulgaria, southeastern Kosovo, and pockets of western Romania; it is considered transitional between the Western and Eastern groups of South Slavic languages. Torlakian is thought to fit together with Bulgarian and Macedonian into the Balkan sprachbund, an area of linguistic convergence caused by long-term contact rather than genetic relation. Because of this some researchers tend to classify it as Southeast Slavic.[13]
Western South Slavic languages
History
Each of these primary and secondary dialectal units breaks down into subdialects and accentological isoglosses by region. In the past (and currently, in isolated areas), it was not uncommon for individual villages to have their own words and phrases. However, during the 20th century the local dialects have been influenced by Štokavian standards through mass media and public education and much "local speech" has been lost (primarily in areas with larger populations). With the breakup of Yugoslavia, a rise in national awareness has caused individuals to modify their speech according to newly established standard-language guidelines. The wars have caused large migrations, changing the ethnic (and dialectal) picture of some areas—especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in central Croatia and Serbia (Vojvodina in particular). In some areas, it is unclear whether location or ethnicity is the dominant factor in the dialect of the speaker. Because of this the speech patterns of some communities and regions are in a state of flux, and it is difficult to determine which dialects will die out entirely. Further research over the next few decades will be necessary to determine the changes made in the dialectical distribution of this language group.[citation needed]
Shtokavian dialects
The eastern Herzegovinian dialect is the basis of the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian.[14]
Chakavian dialects
Chakavian is spoken in the western, central, and southern parts of Croatia—mainly in Istria, the Kvarner Gulf, Dalmatia and inland Croatia (Gacka and Pokupje, for example). The Chakavian reflex of proto-Slavic yat is i or sometimes e (rarely as (i)je), or mixed (Ekavian–Ikavian). Many dialects of Chakavian preserved significant number of Dalmatian words, but also have many loanwords from Venetian, Italian, Greek and other Mediterranean languages.[citation needed]
Example: Ča je, je, tako je vavik bilo, ča će bit, će bit, a nekako će već bit!
Burgenland Croatian
This dialect is spoken primarily in the federal state of Burgenland in Austria and nearby areas in Vienna, Slovakia, and Hungary by descendants of Croats who migrated there during the 16th century. This dialect (or family of dialects) differs from standard Croatian, since it has been heavily influenced by German and Hungarian. It has properties of all three major dialectal groups in Croatia, since the migrants did not all come from the same area, but the linguistic standard is based on the Chakavian dialect.
Kajkavian dialects
Kajkavian is mostly spoken in northern and northwest Croatia near the Hungarian and Slovene borders—chiefly around the towns of Zagreb, Varaždin, Čakovec, Koprivnica, Petrinja, Delnice and so on. Its reflex of yat is primarily /e/, rarely diphthongal ije). This differs from that of the Ekavian accent; many Kajkavian dialects distinguish a closed e—nearly ae (from yat)—and an open e (from the original e). It lacks several palatals (ć, lj, nj, dž) found in the Shtokavian dialect, and has some loanwords from the nearby Slovene dialects and German (chiefly in towns).[citation needed]
Example: Kak je, tak je; tak je navek bilo, kak bu tak bu, a bu vre nekak kak bu!
Slovene dialects
Slovene is mainly spoken in Slovenia. Spoken Slovene is often considered to have at least 37 dialects.[15] The exact number of dialects is open to debate,[16] ranging from as many as 50 to merely 7.[17] However, this latter number usually refers to dialect groups, some of which are more heterogeneous than others. The various dialects can be so different from each other that a speaker of one dialect may have a very difficult time understanding a speaker of another,[18] particularly if they belong to different regional groups. Some dialects spoken in southern Slovenia transition into Chakavian or Kajkavian Serbo-Croatian, while the transition from eastern dialects to Kajkavian is general, with cases of essentially the same linguistic variety spoken on both sides of the border (this is particularly true for the upper course of the Kupa and Sutla rivers).[citation needed]
Comparison
The table below compares grammatical and phonological innovations. The similarity of Kajkavian and Slovene is apparent.[citation needed]
Grammar
Eastern–Western division
In broad terms, the Eastern dialects of South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian) differ most from the Western dialects in the following ways:
The Eastern dialects have almost completely lost their noun declensions, and have become entirely analytic.[19]
The Eastern dialects have developed definite-article suffixes similar to the other languages in the Balkan sprachbund.[20]
The Eastern dialects have lost the infinitive; thus, the first-person singular (for Bulgarian) or the third-person singular (for Macedonian) are considered the main part of a verb. Sentences which would require an infinitive in other languages are constructed through a clause in Bulgarian, искам да ходя (iskam da hodya), "I want to go" (literally, "I want that I go").
Apart from these three main areas there are several smaller, significant differences:
The Western dialects have three genders in both singular and plural (Slovene has dual—see below), while the Eastern dialects only have them in the singular—for example, Serbian on (he), ona (she), ono (it), oni (they, masc), one (they, fem), ona (they, neut); the Bulgarian te (they) and Macedonian тие (tie, 'they') covers the entire plural.
Inheriting a generalization of another demonstrative as a base form for the third-person pronoun which already occurred in late Proto-Slavic, standard literary Bulgarian (like Old Church Slavonic) does not use the Slavic "on-/ov-" as base forms like on, ona, ono, oni (he, she, it, they), and ovaj, ovde (this, here), but uses "to-/t-"based pronouns like toy, tya, to, te, and tozi, tuk (it only retains onzi – "that" and its derivatives). Western Bulgarian dialects and Macedonian have "ov-/on-" pronouns, and sometimes use them interchangeably.
All dialects of Serbo-Croatian contain the concept of "any" – e.g. Serbian neko "someone"; niko "no one"; iko "anyone". All others lack the last, and make do with some- or no- constructions instead.[21]
Divisions within Western dialects
While Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian Shtokavian dialects have basically the same grammar, its usage is very diverse. While all three languages are relatively highly inflected, the further east one goes the more likely it is that analytic forms are used – if not spoken, at least in the written language.[citation needed] A very basic example is:
Croatian – hoću ići – "I want – to go"
Serbian – hoću da idem – "I want – that – I go"
Slovene has retained the proto-Slavic dual number (which means that it has nine personal pronouns in the third person) for both nouns and verbs.[citation needed] For example:
verbs: hodim (I walk) → hodiva (the two of us walk) → hodimo (we walk)
Divisions within Eastern dialects
In Macedonian, the perfect is largely based on the verb "to have" (as in other Balkan languages like Greek and Albanian, and in English), as opposed to the verb "to be", which is used as the auxiliary in all other Slavic languages (see also Macedonian verbs):[citation needed]
Macedonian – imam videno – I have seen (imam – "to have")
Bulgarian – vidyal sum – I have seen (sum – "to be")
In Macedonian there are three types of definite article (base definite form, definite noun near the speaker and definite noun far from the speaker).[citation needed]
дете (dete, 'а child')
детето (deteto, 'the child')
детево (detevo, 'this child [near me]')
детено (deteno, 'that child [over there]')
Writing systems
Languages to the west of Serbia use the Latin script, whereas those to the east and south use Cyrillic. Serbian officially uses the Cyrillic script, though commonly Latin and Cyrillic are used equally. Most newspapers are written in Cyrillic and most magazines are in Latin; books written by Serbian authors are written in Cyrillic, whereas books translated from foreign authors are usually in Latin, other than languages that already use Cyrillic, most notably Russian. On television, writing as part of a television programme is usually in Cyrillic, but advertisements are usually in Latin. The division is partly based on religion – Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Macedonia (which use Cyrillic) are Orthodox countries, whereas Croatia and Slovenia (which use Latin) are Catholic.[22] The Bosnian language, used by the MuslimBosniaks, also uses Latin, but in the past used Bosnian Cyrillic. The Glagolitic alphabet was also used in the Middle Ages (most notably in Bulgaria, Macedonia and Croatia), but gradually disappeared.[citation needed]
^Friedman, Victor (1999). Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 8. OCLC 46734277.
^Alexander, Ronelle (2000). In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 2. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. p. 4. OCLC 47186443.
^Friedman, Victor (2003). "Language in Macedonia as an Identity Construction Site". In Brian, D. Joseph; et al. (eds.). When Languages Collide: Perspectives on Language Conflict, Language Competition, and Language Coexistence. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. pp. 261–262. OCLC 50123480.
^Kordić 2010, pp. 77–90.
^Bunčić, Daniel (2008). "Die (Re-)Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards" [The (Re-)Nationalisation of Serbo-Croatian Standards]. In Kempgen, Sebastian (ed.). Deutsche Beiträge zum 14. Internationalen Slavistenkongress, Ohrid, 2008. Welt der Slaven (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 93. OCLC 238795822.
^Gröschel, Bernhard (2009). Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit [Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics; vol 34 (in German). Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 265. ISBN 978-3-929075-79-3. LCCN 2009473660. OCLC 428012015. OL 15295665W.
^Кочев (Kochev), Иван (Ivan) (2001). Български диалектен атлас (Bulgarian dialect atlas) (in Bulgarian). София: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. ISBN 954-90344-1-0. OCLC 48368312.
^ a bFortson, Benjamin W. (2009-08-31). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. John Wiley and Sons. p. 431. ISBN 978-1-4051-8896-8. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
^van Wijk, Nicolaas (1956). Les Langues Slaves [The Slavic Languages] (in French) (2nd ed.). Mouton & Co - 's-Gravenhage.
^Balkan Syntax and Semantics, John Benjamins Publishing, 2004, ISBN 158811502X, The typology of Balkan evidentiality and areal linguistics, Victor Friedman, p. 123.
^Kordić, Snježana (2003). "Glotonim "srbohrvaški jezik" glede na "srbski, hrvaški, bosanski, črnogorski"" [The glotonym "Serbo-Croatian" vs. "Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin"] (PDF). Slavistična revija (in Slovenian). 51 (3): 355–364. ISSN 0350-6894. SSRN 3433071. CROSBI 430280. COBISS 23508578. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
^Logar, Tine & Jakob Rigler. 1986. Karta slovenskih narečij. Ljubljana: Geodetski zavod SRS.
^Sussex, Roland & Paul Cubberly. 2006. The Slavic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 502–503.
^Lencek, Rado L. 1982. The Structure and History of the Slovene Language. Columbus, OH: Slavica.
^Sussex, Roland & Paul V. Cubberley. 2006. The Slavic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 502.
^Note that some remnants of cases do still exist in Bulgarian – see here.
^In Macedonian, these are especially well-developed, also taking on a role similar to demonstrative pronouns:
Bulgarian : stol – "chair" → stolat – "the chair"
Macedonian : stol – "chair" → stolot – "the chair" → stolov – "this chair here" → stolon – "that chair there". As well as these, Macedonian also has a separate set of demonstratives: ovoj stol – "this chair"; onoj stol – "that chair".
^In Bulgarian, more complex constructions such as "koyto i da bilo" ("whoever it may be" ≈ "anyone") can be used if the distinction is necessary.
^This distinction is true for the whole Slavic world: the Orthodox Russia, Ukraine and Belarus also use Cyrillic, as does Rusyn (Eastern Orthodox/Eastern Catholic), whereas the Catholic Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia use Latin, as does Sorbian. Romania and Moldova, which are not Slavic but are Orthodox, also used Cyrillic until 1860 and 1989, respectively, and it is still used in Transdnistria.
Sources
Kordić, Snježana (2010). Jezik i nacionalizam [Language and Nationalism] (PDF). Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. p. 430. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3467646. ISBN 978-953-188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL 15270636W. CROSBI 475567. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
Edward Stankiewicz (1986). The Slavic Languages: Unity in Diversity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-009904-1.
Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova (1998). Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages. Linguistics Department, NTNU.
Mirjana N. Dedaic; Mirjana Miskovic-Lukovic (2010). South Slavic Discourse Particles. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-5601-0.
Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova; Lars Hellan (15 March 1999). Topics in South Slavic Syntax and Semantics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-8386-3.
Radovan Lučić (2002). Lexical norm and national language: lexicography and language policy in South-Slavic languages after 1989. Verlag Otto Sagner. ISBN 9783876908236.
Motoki Nomachi (2011). The Grammar of Possessivity in South Slavic Languages: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives. Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University. ISBN 978-4-938637-66-8.
Steven Franks; Brian D. Joseph; Vrinda Chidambaram (1 January 2009). A Linguist's Linguist: Studies in South Slavic Linguistics in Honor of E. Wayles Browne. Slavica Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89357-364-5.
A. A. Barentsen; R. Sprenger; M. G. M. Tielemans (1982). South Slavic and Balkan Linguistics. Rodopi. ISBN 90-6203-634-1.
Anita Peti-Stantic; Mateusz-Milan Stanojevic; Goranka Antunovic (2015). Language Varieties Between Norms and Attitudes: South Slavic Perspectives : Proceedings from the 2013 CALS Conference. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-66256-4.
Further reading
Тохтасьев, С.Р. (1998), "Древнейшие свидетельства славянского языка на Балканах. Основы балканского языкознания. Языки балканского региона", Ч, 2
Golubović, J. and Gooskens, C. (2015), "Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages", Russian Linguistics, 39 (3): 351–373, doi:10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9, S2CID 67848448{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Henrik Birnbaum (1976). On the significance of the second South Slavic influence for the evolution of the Russian literary language. Peter de Rider Press. ISBN 978-90-316-0047-2.
Masha Belyavski-Frank (2003). The Balkan conditional in South Slavic: a semantic and syntactic study. Sagner. ISBN 9783876908519.
Patrice Marie Rubadeau (1996). A descriptive study of clitics in four Slavic languages: Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Polish, and Czech. University of Michigan. ISBN 9780591195705.
External links
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