Calculation commonly applied to engines and mobile power sources
Соотношение мощности к весу ( PWR , также называемое удельной мощностью или отношением мощности к массе ) — это расчет, обычно применяемый к двигателям и мобильным источникам энергии для сравнения одного блока или конструкции с другим. Соотношение мощности к весу — это измерение фактической производительности любого двигателя или источника энергии. Оно также используется в качестве измерения производительности транспортного средства в целом, при этом выходная мощность двигателя делится на вес (или массу ) транспортного средства, чтобы получить показатель, который не зависит от размера транспортного средства. Производители часто указывают пиковое значение отношения мощности к весу, но фактическое значение может меняться в процессе использования, и изменения будут влиять на производительность.
Обратное отношение мощности к весу, отношение веса к мощности (мощностная нагрузка) — это расчет, который обычно применяется к самолетам, автомобилям и транспортным средствам в целом, чтобы можно было сравнить производительность одного транспортного средства с другим. Отношение мощности к весу равно тяге на единицу массы, умноженной на скорость любого транспортного средства.
Мощность на единицу веса (удельная мощность)
Удельная мощность (мощность) определяется как мощность, вырабатываемая двигателем(ями), деленная на массу. В этом контексте термин «вес» можно считать некорректным, поскольку в разговорной речи он относится к массе. В условиях невесомости (невесомости) удельная мощность не будет считаться бесконечной.
Типичный дизельный двигатель V8 с турбонаддувом может иметь мощность 250 кВт (340 л. с.) и массу 380 кг (840 фунтов), [1] что дает ему соотношение мощности к массе 0,65 кВт/кг (0,40 л. с./фунт).
Примеры высокого отношения мощности к весу часто можно найти в турбинах. Это связано с их способностью работать на очень высоких скоростях. Например, главные двигатели космического челнока использовали турбонасосы (машины, состоящие из насоса, приводимого в действие турбинным двигателем) для подачи топлива (жидкого кислорода и жидкого водорода ) в камеру сгорания двигателя. Первоначальный турбонасос для жидкого водорода по размеру аналогичен автомобильному двигателю (весом приблизительно 352 кг (775 фунтов)) и выдает 72 000 л. с. (54 МВт) [2] при отношении мощности к весу 153 кВт/кг (93 л. с./фунт).
Физическая интерпретация
В классической механике мгновенная мощность — это предельное значение средней работы, совершаемой за единицу времени, когда интервал времени Δt стремится к нулю (т.е. производная по времени от совершаемой работы).
Обычно используемая метрическая единица отношения мощности к весу — это , которая равна . Этот факт позволяет выразить отношение мощности к весу исключительно с помощью основных единиц СИ . Отношение мощности к весу транспортного средства равно его ускорению, умноженному на его скорость; таким образом, при удвоенной скорости оно испытывает половину ускорения, при прочих равных условиях.
Пропульсивная мощность
Если работа, которую необходимо выполнить, представляет собой прямолинейное движение тела с постоянной массой , центр масс которого должен быть ускорен вдоль (возможно, непрямолинейной) линии до скорости и угла относительно центра и радиала гравитационного поля с помощью бортовой силовой установки , то соответствующая кинетическая энергия равна
где:
- масса тела
- — скорость центра масс тела, изменяющаяся со временем.
Принцип работы и энергии гласит, что работа, совершаемая над объектом за определенный период времени, равна разнице его полной энергии за этот период времени, поэтому скорость, с которой совершается работа, равна скорости изменения кинетической энергии (при отсутствии изменений потенциальной энергии).
Работа, совершаемая от времени t до времени t + Δ t по пути C, определяется как линейный интеграл , поэтому основная теорема исчисления гласит, что мощность вычисляется по формуле .
где:
- — ускорение центра масс тела, изменяющееся со временем.
- это линейная сила (или тяга), приложенная к центру масс тела и изменяющаяся со временем.
- — скорость центра масс тела, изменяющаяся со временем.
- — это крутящий момент , приложенный к центру масс тела, изменяющийся со временем.
- — угловая скорость центра масс тела, изменяющаяся со временем.
В движении мощность подается только в том случае, если силовая установка находится в движении, и передается, чтобы заставить тело двигаться. Обычно здесь предполагается, что механическая трансмиссия позволяет силовой установке работать на пиковой выходной мощности. Это предположение позволяет настраивать двигатель, чтобы пожертвовать шириной диапазона мощности и массой двигателя ради сложности и массы трансмиссии. Электродвигатели не страдают от этого компромисса, вместо этого пожертвовав своим высоким крутящим моментом ради тяги на низкой скорости. Преимущество мощности или отношение мощности к весу тогда
где:
- — линейная скорость центра масс тела.
Мощность двигателя
Полезная мощность двигателя с выходной мощностью на валу может быть рассчитана с помощью динамометра для измерения крутящего момента и скорости вращения , при этом максимальная мощность достигается, когда крутящий момент, умноженный на скорость вращения, является максимальным. Для реактивных двигателей полезная мощность равна скорости полета самолета, умноженной на силу, известную как чистая тяга, требуемую для того, чтобы заставить его двигаться с этой скоростью. Она используется при расчете пропульсивной эффективности .
Примеры
Двигатели
Тепловые двигатели и тепловые насосы
Тепловая энергия состоит из молекулярной кинетической энергии и энергии латентной фазы . Тепловые двигатели способны преобразовывать тепловую энергию в виде температурного градиента между горячим источником и холодным стоком в другую желаемую механическую работу . Тепловые насосы используют механическую работу для регенерации тепловой энергии в температурном градиенте. При интерпретации того, как тяговая мощность реактивного или ракетного двигателя передается его транспортному средству, следует использовать стандартные определения.
-
Полное отношение мощности к массе автомобиля показано ниже.
Электродвигатели и электрогенераторы
Электродвигатель использует электрическую энергию для выполнения механической работы , обычно посредством взаимодействия магнитного поля и проводников с током . В результате взаимодействия механической работы на электрическом проводнике в магнитном поле может быть получена электрическая энергия .
-
Полное отношение мощности к массе автомобиля показано ниже.
Жидкостные двигатели и жидкостные насосы
Жидкости (жидкости и газы) могут использоваться для передачи и/или хранения энергии с использованием давления и других свойств жидкости. Гидравлические (жидкостные) и пневматические (газовые) двигатели преобразуют давление жидкости в другую желаемую механическую или электрическую работу . Жидкостные насосы преобразуют механическую или электрическую работу в движение или изменение давления жидкости или хранение в сосуде под давлением .
Термоэлектрические генераторы и электротермические приводы
Различные эффекты могут быть использованы для получения термоэлектричества , термоионной эмиссии , пироэлектричества и пьезоэлектричества . Электрическое сопротивление и ферромагнетизм материалов могут быть использованы для получения термоакустической энергии из электрического тока.
Электрохимические (гальванические) и электростатические системы ячеек
(Закрытые) батареи
Все электрохимические батареи выдают изменяющееся напряжение, когда их химия меняется с «заряженной» на «разряженную». Номинальное выходное напряжение и напряжение отсечки обычно указываются для батареи ее производителем. Выходное напряжение падает до напряжения отсечки, когда батарея становится «разряженной». Номинальное выходное напряжение всегда меньше напряжения холостого хода, создаваемого, когда батарея «заряжена». Температура батареи может влиять на мощность, которую она может выдать, где более низкие температуры снижают мощность. Общая энергия, выдаваемая за один цикл зарядки, зависит как от температуры батареи, так и от мощности, которую она выдает. Если температура понижается или потребность в мощности увеличивается, общая энергия, выдаваемая в точке «разрядки», также уменьшается.
Профили разряда батареи часто описываются в терминах фактора емкости батареи . Например, батарея с номинальной емкостью, указанной в ампер-часах (Ач), при номинальном токе разряда C/10 (выведенном в амперах) может безопасно обеспечивать более высокий ток разряда – и, следовательно, более высокое отношение мощности к весу – но только с более низкой энергетической емкостью. Поэтому отношение мощности к весу для батарей менее значимо без ссылки на соответствующее отношение энергии к весу и температуру элемента. Это соотношение известно как закон Пейкерта . [53]
Электростатические, электролитические и электрохимические конденсаторы
Конденсаторы хранят электрический заряд на двух электродах, разделенных полуизолирующей ( диэлектрической ) средой электрического поля. Электростатические конденсаторы имеют плоские электроды, на которых накапливается электрический заряд. Электролитические конденсаторы используют жидкий электролит в качестве одного из электродов, а эффект двойного электрического слоя на поверхности границы диэлектрик-электролит увеличивает количество заряда, хранящегося на единицу объема. Электрические двухслойные конденсаторы расширяют оба электрода нанопористым материалом, таким как активированный уголь , чтобы значительно увеличить площадь поверхности, на которой может накапливаться электрический заряд, уменьшая диэлектрическую среду до нанопор и очень тонкого сепаратора с высокой диэлектрической проницаемостью .
Хотя конденсаторы, как правило, не столь чувствительны к температуре, как батареи, они существенно ограничены по емкости и без прочности химических связей страдают от саморазряда. Отношение мощности к весу конденсаторов обычно выше, чем у батарей, поскольку единицы переноса заряда внутри ячейки меньше (электроны, а не ионы), однако отношение энергии к весу, наоборот, обычно ниже.
Топливные батареи и батареи проточных элементов
Топливные элементы и проточные элементы , хотя, возможно, и используют химию, похожую на аккумуляторы, не содержат среду хранения энергии или топливо . При непрерывном потоке топлива и окислителя имеющиеся топливные элементы и проточные элементы продолжают преобразовывать среду хранения энергии в электрическую энергию и отходы. Топливные элементы отчетливо содержат фиксированный электролит, тогда как проточные элементы также требуют непрерывного потока электролита. Проточные элементы обычно имеют топливо, растворенное в электролите.
-
Полное отношение мощности к массе автомобиля показано ниже.
Фотоэлектричество
Транспортные средства
Коэффициент мощности к весу для транспортных средств обычно рассчитывается с использованием снаряженной массы (для автомобилей) или мокрой массы (для мотоциклов), то есть без учета веса водителя и любого груза. Это может быть немного обманчивым, особенно в отношении мотоциклов, где водитель может весить от 1/3 до 1/2 веса самого транспортного средства. В соревновательном велоспорте производительность спортсмена все чаще выражается в VAM и, таким образом, как коэффициент мощности к весу в Вт/кг. Это можно измерить с помощью велосипедного измерителя мощности или рассчитать, измерив уклон подъема дороги и время, затраченное гонщиком на подъем. [103]
Локомотивы
Локомотив обычно должен быть тяжелым, чтобы развить достаточное сцепление с рельсами для запуска поезда. Поскольку коэффициент трения между стальными колесами и рельсами в большинстве случаев редко превышает 0,25, улучшение соотношения мощности к весу локомотива часто оказывается контрпродуктивным. Однако выбор системы передачи мощности, такой как частотно -регулируемый привод вместо привода постоянного тока , может поддерживать более высокое соотношение мощности к весу за счет лучшего управления тяговой мощностью.
Утилитарные и практичные транспортные средства
Большинство транспортных средств разработаны для удовлетворения потребностей в комфорте пассажиров и перевозке грузов. Конструкции транспортных средств обеспечивают компромисс между мощностью и весом для повышения комфорта, грузового пространства, экономии топлива , контроля выбросов , энергетической безопасности и выносливости. Сниженное сопротивление и низкое сопротивление качению в конструкции транспортного средства могут способствовать увеличению грузового пространства без увеличения (нулевого груза) соотношения мощности и веса. Это увеличивает ролевую гибкость транспортного средства. Соображения энергетической безопасности могут обеспечить компромисс между мощностью (обычно уменьшенной) и весом (обычно увеличенным), а следовательно, и соотношением мощности и веса для топливной гибкости или гибридизации трансмиссии . Некоторые утилитарные и практичные варианты транспортных средств, такие как горячие хэтчбеки и внедорожники, перенастраивают мощность (обычно увеличенную) и вес, чтобы обеспечить восприятие производительности спортивного автомобиля или для других психологических выгод .
Заметно низкое соотношение
Общая сила
Повышенная производительность двигателя является соображением, но также и другие особенности, связанные с роскошными автомобилями . Продольные двигатели являются обычным явлением. Кузова варьируются от горячих хэтчбеков , седанов (салонов) , купе , кабриолетов и родстеров . Мотоциклы среднего класса dual-sport и круизеры, как правило, имеют схожее соотношение мощности к весу.
Спортивные автомобили
Удельная мощность на единицу массы является важной характеристикой транспортного средства, влияющей на ускорение спортивных автомобилей.
Ранние автомобили
Aircraft
Propeller aircraft depend on high power-to-weight ratios to generate sufficient thrust to achieve sustained flight, and then for speed.
Thrust-to-weight ratio
Jet aircraft produce thrust directly.
Human
Power-to-weight ratio is important in cycling, since it determines acceleration and the speed during hill climbs. Since a cyclist's power-to-weight output decreases with fatigue, it is normally discussed with relation to the length of time that he or she maintains that power. A professional cyclist can produce over 20 W/kg (0.012 hp/lb) as a five-second maximum.[647]
See also
References
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