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Международные отношения Соединенного Королевства

Дипломатические внешние сношения Соединенного Королевства осуществляются Министерством иностранных дел, по делам Содружества и развития , возглавляемым министром иностранных дел . Премьер-министр и многочисленные другие агентства играют роль в определении политики, а многие учреждения и предприятия имеют голос и роль.

Соединенное Королевство было ведущей мировой державой в 19-м и начале 20-го веков, особенно во время так называемого « Pax Britannica » — периода непревзойденного превосходства и беспрецедентного международного мира в середине-конце 1800-х годов. Страна продолжала широко считаться сверхдержавой до Суэцкого кризиса 1956 года и распада Британской империи, что привело к постепенному уменьшению доминирующей роли Великобритании в мировых делах. Тем не менее, Соединенное Королевство остается великой державой и постоянным членом Совета Безопасности Организации Объединенных Наций , одним из основателей AUKUS , Содружества , Совета Европы , G7 , G20 , НАТО , ОЭСР , ОБСЕ и ВТО . Великобритания была государством-членом Европейского союза (и членом его предшественников) с 1973 года. Однако из-за результатов референдума о членстве 2016 года процедура выхода из ЕС началась в 2017 году и завершилась, когда Великобритания официально вышла из ЕС 31 января 2020 года, а переходный период 31 декабря 2020 года завершился торговым соглашением с ЕС . После голосования и завершения торговых переговоров с ЕС политики начали добиваться новых торговых соглашений с другими глобальными партнерами.

История

Битва при Нивеле — сражение Пиренейской войны между французской и британской армиями во Франции в 1813 году.

После образования Королевства Великобритании (объединившего Англию и Шотландию) в 1707 году британские внешние связи в значительной степени продолжали отношения Королевства Англии . Британская внешняя политика изначально была сосредоточена на достижении баланса сил в Европе, при этом ни одна страна не достигала доминирования в делах континента. Эта политика оставалась главным оправданием войн Великобритании против Наполеона и участия Великобритании в Первой и Второй мировых войнах . Во-вторых, Британия продолжала расширение своей колониальной « Первой Британской империи » путем миграции и инвестиций.

Франция была главным врагом до поражения Наполеона в 1815 году. У нее было гораздо большее население и более мощная армия, но более слабый флот. Британцы в целом были успешны в своих многочисленных войнах . Заметным исключением была Американская война за независимость (1775–1783), в которой Британия, не имея крупных союзников, потерпела поражение от американских колонистов, которых поддерживали Франция, Нидерланды и (косвенно) Испания. Излюбленная британская дипломатическая стратегия заключалась в субсидировании армий континентальных союзников (таких как Пруссия ), тем самым превращая огромную финансовую мощь Лондона в военное преимущество. Британия в значительной степени полагалась на свой Королевский флот в вопросах безопасности, стремясь сохранить свой самый мощный флот на плаву, в конечном итоге с полным комплектом баз по всему миру. Британское господство на морях имело жизненно важное значение для формирования и сохранения Британской империи, что было достигнуто за счет поддержки флота, превышающего по численности два следующих по величине флота вместе взятых, до 1920 года. Британия в целом держалась в одиночку до начала XX века, пока не подружилась с США и не заключила союзы с Японией, Францией, Россией и Германией, бывшими противниками, а теперь союзниками.

1814–1914

Карта Британской империи (по состоянию на 1910 год). В период своего расцвета она была крупнейшей империей в истории.

100 лет были в целом мирными — своего рода Pax Britannica , навязанный Королевским флотом. Было две важные войны, обе ограниченные по масштабу. Крымская война (1853–1856) ознаменовалась поражением России и ее угрозой Османской империи. Вторая англо-бурская война (1899–1902) ознаменовалась поражением двух бурских республик в Южной Африке и восстанием боксеров, произошедшим в том же году. Лондон стал мировым финансовым центром , и коммерческое предпринимательство распространилось по всему миру. « Вторая Британская империя » была построена с базой в Азии (особенно в Индии) и Африке.

Первая мировая война

1920-е годы

После 1918 года Британия была «беспокойным гигантом», который был менее доминирующей дипломатической силой в 1920-х годах, чем раньше. Ей часто приходилось уступать Соединенным Штатам, которые часто использовали свое финансовое превосходство. [1] Главные темы британской внешней политики включали ведущую роль на Парижской мирной конференции 1919–1920 годов, где Ллойд Джордж упорно трудился, чтобы смягчить французские требования мести Германии. [2] Он был частично успешен, но Британии вскоре пришлось еще больше смягчить французскую политику в отношении Германии, как в Локарнских договорах 1925 года. [3] [4] Более того, Британия получила «мандаты», которые позволяли ей и ее доминионам управлять большинством бывших немецких и османских колоний. [5]

Великобритания стала активным членом новой Лиги Наций , но список ее основных достижений был невелик. [6] [7]

Разоружение было на повестке дня, и Британия сыграла важную роль после США на Вашингтонской военно-морской конференции 1921 года, работая над морским разоружением основных держав. К 1933 году соглашения о разоружении были расторгнуты, и проблема стала заключаться в перевооружении для войны против Германии. [8]

Британия частично преуспела в переговорах с Соединенными Штатами о лучших условиях относительно крупных военных займов, которые Британия была обязана погасить. [9] Британия поддержала международное решение по германским репарациям через план Дауэса и план Янга . После того, как план Дауэса помог стабилизировать валюту Германии и снизить ее ежегодные платежи, Германия смогла выплачивать свои ежегодные репарации, используя деньги, взятые в долг у банков Нью-Йорка, а Британия использовала полученные деньги для выплат Вашингтону. [10] Великая депрессия, начавшаяся в 1929 году, оказала огромное давление на британскую экономику. Британия возродила Имперские преференции , что означало низкие тарифы внутри Британской империи и более высокие барьеры для торговли с внешними странами. Поток денег из Нью-Йорка иссяк, и система репараций и выплаты долгов умерла в 1931 году.

Во внутренней британской политике формирующаяся Лейбористская партия проводила отличительную и подозрительную внешнюю политику, основанную на пацифизме . Ее лидеры считали, что мир невозможен из-за капитализма , тайной дипломатии и торговли оружием . Лейбористы подчеркивали материальные факторы, которые игнорировали психологические воспоминания о Первой мировой войне и крайне эмоциональную напряженность в отношении национализма и границ стран. Тем не менее, лидер партии Рамсей Макдональд уделял много внимания европейской политике. [11]

1930-е годы

Чемберлен, Даладье, Гитлер и Муссолини перед подписанием Мюнхенского соглашения 1938 года , по которому Судетская область отошла нацистской Германии.

Яркие воспоминания об ужасах и смертях Первой мировой войны склонили многих британцев — и их лидеров во всех партиях — к пацифизму в межвоенную эпоху. Это напрямую привело к умиротворению диктаторов (в частности, Муссолини и Гитлера ), чтобы избежать их угроз войны. [12]

Вызов исходил от этих диктаторов, сначала от Бенито Муссолини , дуче Италии , затем от Адольфа Гитлера , фюрера гораздо более могущественной нацистской Германии . Лига Наций оказалась разочарованием для своих сторонников; она не смогла устранить ни одну из угроз, исходящих от диктаторов. Британская политика включала в себя «умиротворение» их в надежде, что они будут сыты. К 1938 году стало ясно, что война надвигается, и что у Германии самые мощные в мире военные силы. Последний акт умиротворения произошел, когда Великобритания и Франция пожертвовали Чехословакией в пользу требований Гитлера по Мюнхенскому соглашению в сентябре 1938 года. [13] Вместо умиротворения Гитлер угрожал Польше, и в конце концов премьер-министр Невилл Чемберлен отказался от умиротворения и твердо пообещал защищать Польшу (31 марта 1939 года). Однако Гитлер заключил сделку с Иосифом Сталиным о разделе Восточной Европы (23 августа 1939 года); Когда Германия вторглась в Польшу в сентябре 1939 года, Великобритания и Франция объявили войну, и Британское Содружество последовало примеру Лондона. [14]

Вторая мировая война

Подписав англо-польский военный союз в августе 1939 года, Великобритания и Франция объявили войну Германии в сентябре 1939 года в ответ на вторжение Германии в Польшу. Эта декларация включала колонии короны и Индию , которые напрямую контролировала Великобритания. Доминионы были независимы во внешней политике, хотя все они быстро вступили в войну против Германии. После поражения Франции в июне 1940 года Великобритания и ее империя в одиночку боролись с Германией до июня 1941 года. Соединенные Штаты оказывали дипломатическую, финансовую и материальную поддержку, начиная с 1940 года, особенно через ленд-лиз , который начался в 1941 году и достиг полной силы в течение 1943 года. В августе 1941 года Черчилль и Рузвельт встретились и согласовали Атлантическую хартию , которая провозгласила, что «права всех народов выбирать форму правления, при которой они живут», должны соблюдаться. Эта формулировка была двусмысленной и будет по-разному интерпретироваться британцами, американцами и националистическими движениями. [15]

Начиная с декабря 1941 года Япония захватила британские владения в Азии, включая Гонконг , Малайю и особенно ключевую базу в Сингапуре . Затем Япония вошла в Бирму , направляясь в Индию. Реакция Черчилля на вступление Соединенных Штатов в войну состояла в том, что Британия теперь была уверена в победе, а будущее империи было в безопасности, но быстрые поражения необратимо подорвали положение и престиж Великобритании как имперской державы . Осознание того, что Британия не сможет их защитить, подтолкнуло Австралию и Новую Зеландию к постоянным тесным связям с Соединенными Штатами. [16]

Послевоенный

Зарубежные военные базы в 2016 году (синий) и военные интервенции с 2000 года (красный).

Экономически в тяжелом положении в 1945 году (обремененная долгами и сталкиваясь с широкомасштабным разрушением своей инфраструктуры ), Британия систематически сокращала свои зарубежные обязательства. Она преследовала альтернативную роль активного участника Холодной войны против коммунизма , особенно как член-основатель НАТО в 1949 году. [17]

Британцы создали очень большую всемирную империю, которая достигла пика своих размеров в 1922 году, после более чем полувека бесспорного мирового господства. Однако совокупные расходы на ведение двух мировых войн легли тяжелым бременем на экономику страны, и после 1945 года Британская империя начала быстро распадаться, и все основные колонии обрели независимость. К середине-концу 1950-х годов статус Великобритании как сверхдержавы исчез перед лицом Соединенных Штатов и Советского Союза. Большинство бывших колоний присоединились к «Содружеству Наций», организации полностью независимых государств, теперь имеющих равный статус с Великобританией. Однако она не пыталась проводить какую-либо крупную коллективную политику. [18] [19] Последняя основная колония, Гонконг, была передана Китаю в 1997 году. [20] Четырнадцать британских заморских территорий сохраняют конституционную связь с Великобританией, но не являются частью страны как таковой. [21]

Великобритания сократила свое участие на Ближнем Востоке после унизительного Суэцкого кризиса 1956 года. Однако Великобритания установила тесные военные связи с Соединенными Штатами, Францией и Германией через военный альянс НАТО. После многих лет дебатов (и отказов) Великобритания присоединилась к Общему рынку в 1973 году; который стал Европейским союзом в 1993 году. [22] Однако она не объединилась в финансовом отношении и сохранила фунт отдельно от евро , что частично изолировало ее от финансового кризиса ЕС 2011 года . [23] В июне 2016 года Великобритания проголосовала за выход из ЕС . [24] [25]

21 век

Премьер-министр Великобритании Кейр Стармер с президентом США Джо Байденом в Белом доме , июль 2024 г.

Внешнеполитические инициативы правительств Великобритании с 1990-х годов включали военное вмешательство в конфликты и поддержание мира, программы гуманитарной помощи и увеличение расходов на помощь, поддержку создания Международного уголовного суда , списание задолженности развивающихся стран, определение приоритетов инициатив по борьбе с изменением климата и содействие свободной торговле . [26] Британский подход был описан как «распространение правильных норм и поддержка НАТО». [27]

Ланн и др. (2008) утверждают: [28]

Три ключевых мотива 10-летнего премьерства Тони Блэра — активистская философия «интервенционизма», поддержание прочного союза с США и приверженность идее размещения Великобритании в центре Европы. В то время как «особые отношения» и вопрос о роли Великобритании в Европе были центральными для британской внешней политики со времен Второй мировой войны... интервенционизм был действительно новым элементом.

Кампания GREAT 2012 года была одной из самых амбициозных национальных рекламных кампаний, когда-либо предпринятых какой-либо крупной страной. Она была запланирована с целью извлечь максимальную выгоду из всемирного внимания к летним Олимпийским играм в Лондоне . Цели состояли в том, чтобы сделать британскую культуру более заметной, чтобы стимулировать торговлю, инвестиции и туризм. Правительство сотрудничало с ключевыми лидерами в области культуры, бизнеса, дипломатии и образования. Кампания объединила множество тем и целей, включая деловые встречи; научные съезды; дилеров рекреационных транспортных средств; парки и кемпинги; бюро конференций и посетителей; отели; гостиницы типа «постель и завтрак»; казино; и отели. [29] [30]

В 2013 году правительство Дэвида Кэмерона описало свой подход к внешней политике следующим образом: [31]

Для любого вопроса внешней политики у Великобритании потенциально есть ряд возможностей для оказания влияния в наших национальных интересах. ... [У] нас есть сложная сеть альянсов и партнерств, через которые мы можем работать... К ним относятся, помимо ЕС, ООН и ее объединения, такие как пять постоянных членов Совета Безопасности («P5»); НАТО; Содружество; Организация экономического сотрудничества и развития; группы ведущих промышленно развитых стран «Большая восьмерка» и «Большая двадцатка» и так далее.

Великобритания начала создавать воздушные и военно-морские объекты в Персидском заливе , расположенные в Объединенных Арабских Эмиратах , Бахрейне и Омане в 2014–2015 годах. [32] [33] [34] [35] В Стратегическом обзоре обороны и безопасности 2015 года был отмечен ряд внешнеполитических инициатив правительства Великобритании. [36] [37] Эдвард Лонгинотти отмечает, что текущая британская оборонная политика сталкивается с проблемой того, как совместить два основных обязательства — перед Европой и глобальной военной стратегией «к востоку от Суэца » — в рамках скромного оборонного бюджета, который может финансировать только одно из них. Он указывает, что соглашение Великобритании от декабря 2014 года об открытии постоянной военно-морской базы в Бахрейне подчеркивает ее постепенное повторное обязательство к востоку от Суэца. [38] По некоторым показателям, Великобритания остается второй по мощи страной в мире благодаря своей мягкой силе и «логистическим возможностям для развертывания, поддержки и обеспечения [военных] сил за рубежом в большом количестве». [39] Хотя комментаторы и подвергали сомнению необходимость глобальной проекции силы, [40] концепция «Глобальной Британии», выдвинутая консервативным правительством в 2019 году, сигнализировала об усилении военной активности на Ближнем Востоке и в Тихоокеанском регионе за пределами традиционной сферы влияния НАТО. [41] [42]

В конце января 2020 года Соединенное Королевство вышло из Европейского союза , после чего с 1 января 2021 года вступило в силу торговое соглашение с ЕС, в котором излагаются условия экономических отношений между Великобританией и ЕС, а также полномочия Министерства иностранных дел, по делам Содружества и развития, которые оно может использовать в международных отношениях, связанных с торговлей.

Военная мощь

Британия вторгалась (хотя и не обязательно контролировала) территорию в современных границах 172 из 194 стран мира в то или иное время [43] [44] и сама подвергалась вторжениям 73 раза (по одному подсчету) с 1066 года. [45]

Крупные международные споры с 1945 года

Британский уличный патруль в Адене в 1967 году.
Вертолет Lynx британской армейской авиации готов к посадке на пустынной дороге к югу от аэропорта Басры , ноябрь 2003 г.

Споры о суверенитете

Празднование Национального дня Гибралтара в 2013 году

Содружество Наций

Члены Содружества Наций .

Великобритания имеет различные отношения со странами, входящими в Содружество Наций, которое возникло из Британской империи . Карл III из Соединенного Королевства является главой Содружества и королем 15 из 56 его государств-членов. Те, которые сохраняют короля в качестве главы государства, называются королевствами Содружества . Со временем несколько стран были отстранены от Содружества по разным причинам. Зимбабве была отстранена из-за авторитарного правления ее президента . [59]

Дипломатические отношения

Британские дипломатические отношения восходят к 13 веку. [60] Соединенное Королевство установило дипломатические отношения со всеми членами Организации Объединенных Наций , кроме Бутана , а также с 3 государствами, не являющимися членами ООН: Островами Кука , Святейшим Престолом и Косово . В следующей таблице указаны даты, с которых были установлены дипломатические отношения с зарубежными странами:

Кроме того, Соединенное Королевство поддерживает официальные отношения с Суверенным Военным Мальтийским Орденом с 9 октября 2024 года. [205]

Двусторонние отношения

Африка

Азия

Европа

North America

Oceania

South America

International organisations

The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:[549]

See also

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Bibliography

Primary sources

External links