Портал:Экономика

Темы портала: Деятельность; Культура; География; Здоровье; История; Математика; Природа; Люди; Философия; Религия; Общество; Технологии; Случайный портал

Введение

Экономика ( / ˌ ɛ k ə ˈ n ɒ m ɪ k s , ˌ iː k ə - / ) — общественная наука , изучающая производство , распределение и потребление товаров и услуг .

Экономика фокусируется на поведении и взаимодействии экономических агентов и на том, как работают экономики . Микроэкономика анализирует то, что рассматривается как основные элементы в экономике , включая отдельных агентов и рынки , их взаимодействие и результаты взаимодействия. Отдельные агенты могут включать, например, домохозяйства, фирмы, покупателей и продавцов. Макроэкономика анализирует экономику как систему, в которой взаимодействуют производство, распределение, потребление, сбережения и инвестиционные расходы , а также факторы, влияющие на это: факторы производства , такие как труд , капитал , земля и предпринимательство , инфляция , экономический рост и государственная политика , которая влияет на эти элементы . Она также стремится анализировать и описывать мировую экономику . ( Полная статья... )

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Избранные общие статьи

Изображение 1

Джон Бейтс Кларк (26 января 1847 г. – 21 марта 1938 г.) был американским неоклассическим экономистом . Он был одним из пионеров маржиналистской революции и противником институциональной школы экономики , и провел большую часть своей карьеры в качестве профессора Колумбийского университета . ( Полная статья... )
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Генри Джордж (2 сентября 1839 г. – 29 октября 1897 г.) был американским политическим экономистом и журналистом. Его труды были чрезвычайно популярны в Америке 19 века и вызвали несколько реформаторских движений Прогрессивной эры . Он вдохновил экономическую философию, известную как джорджизм , убеждение, что люди должны владеть стоимостью, которую они производят сами, но что экономическая стоимость земли (включая природные ресурсы ) должна принадлежать в равной степени всем членам общества. Джордж, как известно, утверждал, что единый налог на стоимость земли создаст более производительное и справедливое общество.

Его самая известная работа, «Прогресс и бедность» (1879 г.), была продана миллионными тиражами по всему миру. Трактат исследует парадокс растущего неравенства и бедности на фоне экономического и технологического прогресса, деловой цикл с его циклической природой индустриальных экономик и использование изъятия ренты, такого как налогообложение стоимости земли и другие антимонопольные реформы, в качестве средства решения этих и других социальных проблем. ( Полная статья... )
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Sowell in 1964

Thomas Sowell (/soʊl/ SOHL; born June 30, 1930) is an American economist, social philosopher, and political commentator. He is a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution. With widely published commentary and books—and as a guest on TV and radio—he is a well-known voice in the American conservative movement as a prominent black conservative. He was a recipient of the National Humanities Medal from President George W. Bush in 2002.

Sowell was born in Gastonia, North Carolina, and grew up in Harlem, New York City. Due to poverty and difficulties at home, he dropped out of Stuyvesant High School and worked various odd jobs, eventually serving in the United States Marine Corps during the Korean War. Afterward, he took night classes at Howard University and then attended Harvard University, where he graduated magna cum laude in 1958. He earned a master's degree in economics from Columbia University the next year and a doctorate in economics from the University of Chicago in 1968. In his academic career, he held professorships at Cornell University, Brandeis University, and the University of California, Los Angeles. He has also worked at think tanks including the Urban Institute. Since 1977, he has worked at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, where he is the Rose and Milton Friedman Senior Fellow on Public Policy. (Full article...)
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Thomas Robert Malthus, after whom Malthusianism is named

Malthusianism is a theory that population growth is potentially exponential, according to the Malthusian growth model, while the growth of the food supply or other resources is linear, which eventually reduces living standards to the point of triggering a population decline. This event, called a Malthusian catastrophe (also known as a Malthusian trap, population trap, Malthusian check, Malthusian crisis, Point of Crisis, or Malthusian crunch) has been predicted to occur if population growth outpaces agricultural production, thereby causing famine or war. According to this theory, poverty and inequality will increase as the price of assets and scarce commodities goes up due to fierce competition for these dwindling resources. This increased level of poverty eventually causes depopulation by decreasing birth rates. If asset prices keep increasing, social unrest would occur, which would likely cause a major war, revolution, or a famine. Societal collapse is an extreme but possible outcome from this process. The theory posits that such a catastrophe would force the population to "correct" back to a lower, more easily sustainable level (quite rapidly, due to the potential severity and unpredictable results of the mitigating factors involved, as compared to the relatively slow time scales and well-understood processes governing unchecked growth or growth affected by preventive checks). Malthusianism has been linked to a variety of political and social movements, but almost always refers to advocates of population control.

These concepts derive from the political and economic thought of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, as laid out in his 1798 writings, An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus suggested that while technological advances could increase a society's supply of resources, such as food, and thereby improve the standard of living, the abundance of resources would enable population growth, which would eventually bring the supply of resources for each person back to its original level. Some economists contend that since the Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century, mankind has broken out of the trap. Others argue that the continuation of extreme poverty indicates that the Malthusian trap continues to operate. Others further argue that due to lack of food availability coupled with excessive pollution, developing countries show more evidence of the trap as compared to developed countries. A similar, more modern concept, is that of human overpopulation. (Full article...)
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Fisher photographed by George Grantham Bain in 1927

Irving Fisher (February 27, 1867 – April 29, 1947) was an American economist, statistician, inventor, eugenicist and progressive social campaigner. He was one of the earliest American neoclassical economists, though his later work on debt deflation has been embraced by the post-Keynesian school. Joseph Schumpeter described him as "the greatest economist the United States has ever produced", an assessment later repeated by James Tobin and Milton Friedman.

Fisher made important contributions to utility theory and general equilibrium. He was also a pioneer in the rigorous study of intertemporal choice in markets, which led him to develop a theory of capital and interest rates. His research on the quantity theory of money inaugurated the school of macroeconomic thought known as "monetarism". Fisher was also a pioneer of econometrics, including the development of index numbers. Some concepts named after him include the Fisher equation, the Fisher hypothesis, the international Fisher effect, the Fisher separation theorem and Fisher market. (Full article...)
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Simon c. 1981

Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001) was an American Scholar whose work also influenced the fields of computer science, economics, and cognitive psychology. His primary research interest was decision-making within organizations and he is best known for the theories of "bounded rationality" and "satisficing". He received the Turing Award in 1975 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1978. His research was noted for its interdisciplinary nature, spanning the fields of cognitive science, computer science, public administration, management, and political science. He was at Carnegie Mellon University for most of his career, from 1949 to 2001, where he helped found the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science, one of the first such departments in the world.

Notably, Simon was among the pioneers of several modern-day scientific domains such as artificial intelligence, information processing, decision-making, problem-solving, organization theory, and complex systems. He was among the earliest to analyze the architecture of complexity and to propose a preferential attachment mechanism to explain power law distributions. (Full article...)
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François Quesnay (French: [fʁɑ̃swa kɛnɛ]; 4 June 1694 – 16 December 1774) was a French economist and physician of the Physiocratic school. He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work attempting to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought. His Le Despotisme de la Chine, written in 1767, describes Chinese politics and society, and his own political support for enlightened despotism. (Full article...)
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Wilhelm Röpke

Wilhelm Röpke (10 October 1899 – 12 February 1966) was a German economist and social critic, one of the spiritual fathers of the social market economy. A Professor of Economics, first in Jena, then in Graz, Marburg, Istanbul, and finally Geneva, Röpke theorised and collaborated to organise the post-World War II economic re-awakening of the war-wrecked German economy, deploying a program referred to as ordoliberalism, a more conservative variant of German liberalism.

With Alfred Müller-Armack and Alexander Rüstow (sociological neoliberalism) and Walter Eucken and Franz Böhm (ordoliberalism) he elucidated the ideas, which then were introduced formally by Germany's post-World War II Minister for Economics Ludwig Erhard, operating under Konrad Adenauer's Chancellorship. Röpke and his colleagues' economic influence therefore is considered largely responsible for enabling Germany's post-World War II "economic miracle". Röpke was also a historian and was nominated to the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965. (Full article...)
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Friedrich Freiherr von Wieser (German: [ˈviːzɐ]; 10 July 1851 – 22 July 1926) was an early (so-called "first generation") economist of the Austrian School of economics. Born in Vienna, the son of Privy Councillor Leopold von Wieser, a high official in the war ministry, he first trained in sociology and law. In 1872, the year he took his degree, he encountered Austrian-school founder Carl Menger's Grundsätze and switched his interest to economic theory. Wieser held posts at the universities of Vienna and Prague until succeeding Menger in Vienna in 1903, where along with his brother-in-law Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk he shaped the next generation of Austrian economists including Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek and Joseph Schumpeter in the late 1890s and early 20th century. He was the Austrian Minister of Commerce from August 30, 1917, to November 11, 1918.

Wieser is renowned for two main works, Natural Value, which carefully details the alternative-cost doctrine and the theory of imputation; and his Social Economics (1914), an ambitious attempt to apply it to the real world. His explanation of marginal utility theory was decisive, at least terminologically. It was his term Grenznutzen (building on von Thünen's Grenzkosten) that developed into the standard term "marginal utility", not William Stanley Jevons's "final degree of utility" or Menger's "value". His use of the modifier "natural" indicates that he regarded value as a "natural category" that would pertain to any society, no matter what institutions of property had been established. (Full article...)
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Claude-Frédéric Bastiat (/bɑːstiˈɑː/; French: [klod fʁedeʁik bastja]; 30 June 1801 – 24 December 1850) was a French economist, writer and a prominent member of the French liberal school.

A member of the French National Assembly, Bastiat developed the economic concept of opportunity cost and introduced the parable of the broken window. He was described as "the most brilliant economic journalist who ever lived" by economic theorist Joseph Schumpeter. (Full article...)
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Thermoeconomics, also referred to as biophysical economics, is a school of heterodox economics that applies the laws of statistical mechanics to economic theory. Thermoeconomics can be thought of as the statistical physics of economic value and is a subfield of econophysics.

It is the study of the ways and means by which human societies procure and use energy and other biological and physical resources to produce, distribute, consume and exchange goods and services, while generating various types of waste and environmental impacts. Biophysical economics builds on both social sciences and natural sciences to overcome some of the most fundamental limitations and blind spots of conventional economics. It makes it possible to understand some key requirements and framework conditions for economic growth, as well as related constraints and boundaries. (Full article...)
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Socialist economics comprises the economic theories, practices and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. A socialist economic system is characterized by social ownership and operation of the means of production that may take the form of autonomous cooperatives or direct public ownership wherein production is carried out directly for use rather than for profit. Socialist systems that utilize markets for allocating capital goods and factors of production among economic units are designated market socialism. When planning is utilized, the economic system is designated as a socialist planned economy. Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind to value resources and goods.

Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism while neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models of socialism. During the 20th century, proposals and models for both socialist planned and market economies were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics. (Full article...)
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Rothbard in the 1970s

Murray Newton Rothbard (/ˈrɒθbɑːrd/; March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American economist of the Austrian School, economic historian, political theorist, and activist. Rothbard was a central figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, particularly its right-wing strands, and was a founder and leading theoretician of anarcho-capitalism. He wrote over twenty books on political theory, history, economics, and other subjects.

Rothbard argued that all services provided by the "monopoly system of the corporate state" could be provided more efficiently by the private sector and wrote that the state is "the organization of robbery systematized and writ large". He called fractional-reserve banking a form of fraud and opposed central banking. He categorically opposed all military, political, and economic interventionism in the affairs of other nations. (Full article...)
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From a legal point of view, a contract is an institutional arrangement for the way in which resources flow, which defines the various relationships between the parties to a transaction or limits the rights and obligations of the parties.

From an economic perspective, contract theory studies how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of information asymmetry. Because of its connections with both agency and incentives, contract theory is often categorized within a field known as law and economics. One prominent application of it is the design of optimal schemes of managerial compensation. In the field of economics, the first formal treatment of this topic was given by Kenneth Arrow in the 1960s. In 2016, Oliver Hart and Bengt R. Holmström both received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for their work on contract theory, covering many topics from CEO pay to privatizations. Holmström focused more on the connection between incentives and risk, while Hart on the unpredictability of the future that creates holes in contracts. (Full article...)
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Alfred Marshall FBA (26 July 1842 – 13 July 1924) was an English economist, and was one of the most influential economists of his time. His book Principles of Economics (1890) was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years. It brought the ideas of supply and demand, marginal utility, and costs of production into a coherent whole. He is known as one of the founders of neoclassical economics. (Full article...)
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The upper-left space $\Theta$ depicts the type space and the upper-right space X the space of outcomes. The social choice function $f(\theta )$ maps a type profile to an outcome. In games of mechanism design, agents send messages $M$ in a game environment $g$ . The equilibrium in the game $\xi (M,g,\theta )$ can be designed to implement some social choice function $f(\theta )$ .

Mechanism design, sometimes called implementation theory or institution design, is a branch of economics, social choice, and game theory that deals with designing game forms (or mechanisms) to implement a given social choice function. Because it starts with the end of the game (an optimal result) and then works backwards to find a game that implements it, it is sometimes described as reverse game theory.

Mechanism design has broad applications, including traditional domains of economics such as market design, but also political science (through voting theory) and even networked systems (such as in inter-domain routing). (Full article...)
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Samuelson between 1970 and 1975

Paul Anthony Samuelson (May 15, 1915 – December 13, 2009) was an American economist who was the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. When awarding the prize in 1970, the Swedish Royal Academies stated that he "has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory".

Samuelson was one of the most influential economists of the latter half of the 20th century. In 1996, when he was awarded the National Medal of Science. Samuelson considered mathematics to be the "natural language" for economists and contributed significantly to the mathematical foundations of economics with his book Foundations of Economic Analysis. He was author of the best-selling economics textbook of all time: Economics: An Introductory Analysis, first published in 1948. It was the second American textbook that attempted to explain the principles of Keynesian economics. (Full article...)
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Francis Ysidro Edgeworth FBA (8 February 1845 – 13 February 1926) was an Anglo-Irish philosopher and political economist who made significant contributions to the methods of statistics during the 1880s. From 1891 onward, he was appointed the founding editor of The Economic Journal. (Full article...)
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Frank Hyneman Knight (November 7, 1885 – April 15, 1972) was an American economist who spent most of his career at the University of Chicago, where he became one of the founders of the Chicago School.

Nobel laureates Milton Friedman, George Stigler and James M. Buchanan were all students of Knight at Chicago. Ronald Coase said that Knight, without teaching him, was a major influence on his thinking. F.A. Hayek considered Knight to be one of the major figures in preserving and promoting classical liberal thought in the twentieth century. (Full article...)
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The pluralism in economics movement is a campaign to change the teaching and research in economics towards more openness in its approaches, topics and standpoints it considers. The goal of the movement is to "reinvigorate the discipline ... [and bring] economics back into the service of society". Some have argued that economics had greater scientific pluralism in the past compared to the monist approach that is prevalent today. Pluralism encourages the inclusion of a wide variety of neoclassical and heterodox economic theories—including classical, Post-Keynesian, institutional, ecological, evolutionary, feminist, Marxist, and Austrian economics, stating that "each tradition of thought adds something unique and valuable to economic scholarship". (Full article...)
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Becker in 2008

Gary Stanley Becker (/ˈbɛkər/; December 2, 1930 – May 3, 2014) was an American economist who received the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He was a professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago, and was a leader of the third generation of the Chicago school of economics.

Becker was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1992 and received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007. A 2011 survey of economics professors named Becker their favorite living economist over the age of 60, followed by Kenneth Arrow and Robert Solow. Economist Justin Wolfers called him "the most important social scientist in the past 50 years." (Full article...)
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Walras in 1862 (age 27)

Marie-Esprit-Léon Walras (French: [valʁas]; 16 December 1834 – 5 January 1910) was a French mathematical economist and Georgist. He formulated the marginal theory of value (independently of William Stanley Jevons and Carl Menger) and pioneered the development of general equilibrium theory. Walras is best known for his book Éléments d'économie politique pure, a work that has contributed greatly to the mathematization of economics through the concept of general equilibrium. The definition of the role of the entrepreneur found in it was also taken up and amplified by Joseph Schumpeter.

For Walras, exchanges only take place after a Walrasian tâtonnement (French for "trial and error"), guided by the auctioneer, has made it possible to reach market equilibrium. It was the general equilibrium obtained from a single hypothesis, rarity, that led Joseph Schumpeter to consider him "the greatest of all economists". The notion of general equilibrium was very quickly adopted by major economists such as Vilfredo Pareto, Knut Wicksell and Gustav Cassel. John Hicks and Paul Samuelson used the Walrasian contribution in the elaboration of the neoclassical synthesis. For their part, Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu, from the perspective of a logician and a mathematician, determined the conditions necessary for equilibrium. (Full article...)
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Supply-side economics is a macroeconomic theory postulating that economic growth can be most effectively fostered by lowering taxes, decreasing regulation, and allowing free trade. According to supply-side economics theory, consumers will benefit from greater supply of goods and services at lower prices, and employment will increase. Supply-side fiscal policies are designed to increase aggregate supply, as opposed to aggregate demand, thereby expanding output and employment while lowering prices. Such policies are of several general varieties:
1. Investments in human capital, such as education, healthcare, and encouraging the transfer of technologies and business processes, to improve productivity (output per worker). Encouraging globalized free trade via containerization is a major recent example.
2. Tax reduction, to provide incentives to work, invest and take risks. Lowering income tax rates and eliminating or lowering tariffs are examples of such policies.
3. Investments in new capital equipment and research and development (R&D), to further improve productivity. Allowing businesses to depreciate capital equipment more rapidly (e.g., over one year as opposed to 10) gives them an immediate financial incentive to invest in such equipment.
4. Reduction in government regulations, to encourage business formation and expansion.
A basis of supply-side economics is the Laffer curve, a theoretical relationship between rates of taxation and government revenue. The Laffer curve suggests that when the tax level is too high, lowering tax rates will boost government revenue through higher economic growth, though the level at which rates are deemed "too high" is disputed. A 2012 poll of leading economists found none agreed that reducing the US federal income tax rate would result in higher annual tax revenue within five years. Critics also argue that several large tax cuts in the United States over the last 40 years have not increased revenue. (Full article...)
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Complexity economics is the application of complexity science to the problems of economics. It relaxes several common assumptions in economics, including general equilibrium theory. While it does not reject the existence of an equilibrium, it sees such equilibria as "a special case of nonequilibrium", and as an emergent property resulting from complex interactions between economic agents. The complexity science approach has also been applied to computational economics. (Full article...)
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Michał Kalecki (Polish pronunciation: [ˈmixaw kaˈlɛt͡skʲi]; 22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish Marxian economist. Over the course of his life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, and Warsaw School of Economics, and was an economic advisor to the governments of Poland, France, Cuba, Israel, Mexico, and India. He also served as the deputy director of the United Nations Economic Department in New York City.

Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century" and "likely the most original one". It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as John Maynard Keynes before Keynes but remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated class analysis of Marxism and the new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the neo-Marxian (Monopoly Capital) and post-Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. Being also a political economist and a person of left-wing convictions, Kalecki emphasized the social aspects and consequences of economic policies. (Full article...)

Вы знали...

... что Элизабет Уилкинс решила работать в Федеральной торговой комиссии в надежде, что теперь агентство сможет бороться с экономической несправедливостью?
... что Элеонора Хэдли , 29-летняя докторантка по экономике, была нанята Верховным главнокомандующим союзными державами для реализации антимонопольной политики в оккупированной Японии ?
... что Франсуа Массакуа , изучавший экономику в Нью-Йоркском университете , позднее возглавлял Силы обороны Лоффы во время Первой гражданской войны в Либерии ?
... что работа Селин-Мари Паскаль фокусируется на том, как раса и класс влияют на то, как «деловая практика и государственная политика создают, нормализуют и закрепляют экономическую борьбу» в интересах богатых?
... что Сумитро Джоджохадикусумо ожидал, что большинство бенефициаров его экономической политики могут оказаться «паразитами»?
... что Creative Commons назвала Открытый репозиторий знаний Всемирного банка « одним из важнейших центров экономической науки в мире» ?

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Избранные изображения

Image 1Марксистская критика политической экономии берет свое начало в трудах немецкого философа Карла Маркса .
Image 2Базовая иллюстрация делового цикла (из экономики )
Image 3Модель спроса и предложения описывает, как цены изменяются в результате баланса между доступностью продукта и спросом. График показывает увеличение спроса от D ₁ до D ₂ и результирующее увеличение цены и количества, требуемое для достижения новой точки равновесия на кривой предложения (S).
Image 4Загрязнение может быть простым примером сбоя рынка: если издержки производства несут не производители, а окружающая среда, жертвы несчастных случаев или другие лица, то цены искажаются.
Image 5Эколог берет пробы воды
Image 6Пример границы производственных возможностей с отмеченными иллюстративными точками (из Экономики )
Image 7Экономисты изучают решения в сфере торговли, производства и потребления, в том числе те, которые принимаются на традиционном рынке.
Image 8Публикация « Богатства народов » Адама Смита в 1776 году считается первой формализацией экономической мысли.
Image 9Картина 1638 года, изображающая французский морской порт в эпоху расцвета меркантилизма.
Image 10Уровень безработицы в США с 1990 по 2022 год (из журнала «Экономика» )
Image 11Карта, показывающая основные торговые пути для товаров в Европе позднего средневековья (из Economics )
Image 12Фондовая биржа Сан-Паулу в Бразилии , электронная торговая сеть, объединяющая покупателей и продавцов через электронную торговую платформу.
Image 13Список стран по валовому внутреннему продукту (ППС) на душу населения в апреле 2022 г. (из Economics )
Image 14Джон Мейнард Кейнс , ключевой теоретик экономики (из журнала «Экономика» )

В новостях

14 октября 2024 г. – Премия памяти Нобеля по экономике: В этом году Нобелевская премия по экономике присуждена турецко-американскому экономисту Дэрону Асемоглу , британо-американскому экономисту Саймону Джонсону и британскому экономисту Джеймсу А. Робинсону за их исследования « того, как формируются институты и как они влияют на процветание». (The New York Times) (Нобелевская премия)
1 октября 2024 г. –: Три человека погибли и пятнадцать получили ранения в результате массового нападения с ножом в супермаркете в районе Сунцзян , Шанхай , Китай . Полиция арестовала 37-летнего мужчину на месте происшествия, добавив, что мужчина приехал в Шанхай, чтобы «выплеснуть свой гнев из-за личного экономического спора». (Reuters) (BBC News)
25 сентября 2024 г. – Экономический кризис в Пакистане: Международный валютный фонд одобрил заем в размере 7 миллиардов долларов для Пакистана, чтобы помочь его экономике , при этом 1 миллиард долларов будет выплачен немедленно, а остальная часть — частями в течение 37 месяцев. (AP)
24 сентября 2024 г. –: Президент Аргентины Хавьер Милей предлагает «повестку дня свободы» с экономической , социальной и внешней политикой , которая напрямую противоречит «Пакту о будущем» Организации Объединенных Наций , который он называет моделью «подавления, ограничения и ущемления» свободы человечества и неэффективной для предотвращения конфликтов. (Reuters)
12 сентября 2024 г. – вторжение России в Украину: Украина обвиняет Россию в нанесении ракетных ударов по сухогрузу под флагом Сент-Китс и Невис , перевозившему зерно в Египет в исключительной экономической зоне Румынии в Черном море . О жертвах не сообщается. (Reuters)