Армия обороны Израиля ( ЦАХАЛ ; иврит : צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל , букв. « Армия обороны Израиля » ), также называемая аббревиатурой на иврите ЦАХАЛ ( צה״ל ), является национальной армией Государства Израиль . Она состоит из трех родов войск: Сухопутных войск Израиля , Военно-воздушных сил Израиля и Военно-морских сил Израиля . [3] Это единственное военное крыло израильского аппарата безопасности . ЦАХАЛ возглавляет начальник Генерального штаба , который подчиняется министру обороны Израиля .
По приказу первого премьер-министра Давида Бен-Гуриона , Армия обороны Израиля была сформирована 26 мая 1948 года и начала действовать как призывная армия , набирая своих первых рекрутов из уже существующих военизированных формирований Ишува — а именно Хаганы , Иргуна и Лехи . Она была сформирована вскоре после провозглашения независимости Израиля и участвовала во всех вооруженных конфликтах с участием Израиля . После мирного договора между Египтом и Израилем 1979 года и мирного договора между Израилем и Иорданией 1994 года , Армия обороны Израиля претерпела значительную стратегическую перестройку. Ранее распределенная по различным фронтам — Ливан и Сирия на севере, Иордания и Ирак на востоке и Египет на юге — Армия обороны Израиля переориентировала свое внимание на Южный Ливан и оккупацию им палестинских территорий ( сектор Газа и Западный берег , включая Восточный Иерусалим ). В 2000 году Армия обороны Израиля вывела свои войска из Южного Ливана, а в 2005 году — из Газы . Конфликт между Израилем и исламистскими группировками, базирующимися в секторе Газа, в частности, ХАМАС , продолжается с тех пор. Более того, с 2011 года часто происходили заметные инциденты на израильско-сирийской границе из-за региональной нестабильности, вызванной гражданской войной в Сирии .
С 1967 года Армия обороны Израиля поддерживала тесные отношения безопасности с Соединенными Штатами , [4] включая сотрудничество в области исследований и разработок, совместные усилия по F-15I и оборонительной системе Arrow , среди прочего. Считается, что Армия обороны Израиля поддерживала оперативный ядерный потенциал с 1967 года , возможно, обладая от 80 до 400 ядерными боеголовками . [5] Контроль Армии обороны Израиля над оккупированными Израилем палестинскими территориями посредством репрессий , институционализированной дискриминации и систематических нарушений прав палестинцев получил широкую критику. [6] [7] [8]
Израильский кабинет министров утвердил название «Силы обороны Израиля» ( ивр . : צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל ), Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el , буквально «армия для защиты Израиля», 26 мая 1948 года. Другим главным претендентом была Tzva Yisra'el ( ивр. : צְבָא יִשְׂרָאֵל ). Название было выбрано потому, что оно передавало идею о том, что роль армии — оборона, и включало в себя название Хагана , догосударственная оборонительная организация, на которой базировалась новая армия. [9] Среди основных противников названия были министр Хаим-Моше Шапира и партия «Хацоар» , оба выступавшие за «Цва Исраэль» . [9]
Армия обороны Израиля берет свое начало от еврейских военизированных организаций Нового ишува , возникших во время Второй алии (1904–1914). [10] Существовало несколько таких организаций, или частично даже более ранних, таких как конная гвардейская рота «Махане Йехуда», основанная Майклом Гальпериным в 1891 году [11] (см. Нес-Циона ), Ха-Маген (1915–17), [12] Ха-Нотер [12] (1912–13; см. Сионизм: догосударственная самооборона ) и гораздо более значимая (но ложно заявленная как «первая» такая организация) Бар-Гиора , основанная в сентябре 1907 года. Бар-Гиора была преобразована в Ха-Шомер в апреле 1909 года, которая действовала до вступления в силу Британского мандата в Палестине в 1920 году. Ха-Шомер была элитарной организацией с узкой сферой деятельности и была создана в основном для защиты от преступных банд, стремящихся к хищению собственности. Корпус мулов Сиона и Еврейский легион , оба входящие в состав британской армии Первой мировой войны , еще больше укрепили ишув военным опытом и рабочей силой, сформировав основу для последующих военизированных формирований. [13]
После палестинских беспорядков против евреев в апреле 1920 года руководство ишува осознало необходимость общенациональной подпольной организации обороны, и в июне 1920 года была основана Хагана . [13] Хагана стала полномасштабной силой обороны после арабского восстания в Палестине 1936–1939 годов с организованной структурой, состоящей из трех основных подразделений — полевого корпуса , корпуса охраны и Пальмаха . Во время Второй мировой войны ишув участвовал в британских военных действиях, что привело к формированию Еврейской бригады . Они в конечном итоге составили костяк Армии обороны Израиля и обеспечили ее первоначальной численностью и доктриной.
После провозглашения независимости Израиля премьер-министр и министр обороны Давид Бен-Гурион издал приказ о формировании Армии обороны Израиля 26 мая 1948 года. Хотя у Бен-Гуриона не было законных полномочий отдавать такой приказ, 31 мая кабинет министров сделал этот приказ законным . Тот же приказ призывал к роспуску всех других еврейских вооруженных сил. [14] Две другие еврейские подпольные организации, Иргун и Лехи , согласились присоединиться к Армии обороны Израиля, если они смогут сформировать независимые подразделения, и согласились не делать независимые закупки оружия. Это было фоном для дела Альталены , конфронтации вокруг оружия, приобретенного Иргун, которая привела к противостоянию между членами Иргуна и недавно созданной Армией обороны Израиля. Дело закончилось, когда Альталена , судно, перевозившее оружие, было обстреляно Армией обороны Израиля. После этого дела все независимые подразделения Иргуна и Лехи были либо расформированы, либо объединены в Армию обороны Израиля. Пальмах, ведущая структура Хаганы, также присоединилась к Армии обороны Израиля , поставляя продовольствие , и Бен-Гурион ответил расформированием ее состава в 1949 году, после чего многие старшие офицеры Пальмаха ушли в отставку, в частности, его первый командир Ицхак Саде .
Новая армия организовалась, когда гражданская война 1947–48 годов в подмандатной Палестине переросла в арабо-израильскую войну 1948 года , в ходе которой соседние арабские государства атаковали. Было сформировано двенадцать пехотных и бронетанковых бригад: «Голани » , «Кармели » , «Александрони» , « Кирьяти » , «Гивати » , «Этциони» , 7-я и 8-я бронетанковые бригады, «Одед » , «Харель» , «Йифтах » и «Негев» . [15] После войны некоторые бригады были преобразованы в резервные подразделения, а другие были расформированы. Из корпусов и служб «Хаганы» были созданы управления и корпуса, и эта базовая структура в Армии обороны Израиля существует и по сей день.
Сразу после войны 1948 года израильско-палестинский конфликт перешел в конфликт низкой интенсивности между Армией обороны Израиля и палестинскими федаинами . В Суэцком кризисе 1956 года , первом серьезном испытании сил Армии обороны Израиля после 1949 года, новая армия захватила Синайский полуостров у Египта, который впоследствии был возвращен. В Шестидневной войне 1967 года Израиль отвоевал Синайский полуостров, сектор Газа , Западный берег (включая Восточный Иерусалим ) и Голанские высоты у окружающих арабских государств, изменив баланс сил в регионе, а также роль Армии обороны Израиля. В последующие годы, предшествовавшие Войне Судного дня , Армия обороны Израиля участвовала в Войне на истощение против Египта на Синае и в пограничной войне против Организации освобождения Палестины (ООП) в Иордании , кульминацией которой стала битва при Караме .
Неожиданность войны Судного дня и ее последствия полностью изменили процедуры и подход Армии обороны Израиля к ведению войны. Были проведены организационные изменения, и больше времени было уделено обучению ведению обычных боевых действий . Однако в последующие годы роль армии медленно снова сместилась к конфликтам низкой интенсивности, городским боям и борьбе с терроризмом . Примером последнего был успешный рейд коммандос в 1976 году в Энтеббе по освобождению пассажиров угнанных самолетов, удерживаемых в плену в Уганде . В этот период Армия обороны Израиля также провела успешную бомбардировку Ирака , чтобы уничтожить его ядерный реактор. Она участвовала в гражданской войне в Ливане , инициировав операцию «Литани» , а затем и Ливанскую войну 1982 года , в ходе которой Армия обороны Израиля вытеснила палестинские партизанские организации из Ливана .
В течение двадцати пяти лет Армия обороны Израиля поддерживала зону безопасности внутри Южного Ливана со своими союзниками из Южно-Ливанской армии . С тех пор палестинская воинственность была главным направлением деятельности Армии обороны Израиля, особенно во время Первой и Второй интифады , операции «Оборонительный щит» , войны в Газе (2008-2009) , войны в Газе 2012 года , войны в Газе 2014 года и израильско-палестинского кризиса 2021 года , в результате чего Армия обороны Израиля изменила многие из своих ценностей и опубликовала Кодекс этики Армии обороны Израиля . Ливанская шиитская организация «Хезболла» также представляла собой растущую угрозу, [16] против которой Армия обороны Израиля вела асимметричный конфликт между 1982 и 2000 годами, а также полномасштабную войну в 2006 году.
Армия обороны Израиля обвинялась в совершении различных военных преступлений с момента основания Израиля в 1948 году. Израиль ратифицировал Женевские конвенции 6 июля 1951 года, [17] а 2 января 2015 года Государство Палестина присоединилось к Римскому статуту , предоставив Международному уголовному суду (МУС) юрисдикцию в отношении военных преступлений, совершенных на оккупированных палестинских территориях (ОПТ). [18] В докладе Human Rights Watch за 2017 год ЦАХАЛ обвинялся в незаконных убийствах , применении чрезмерной силы в полицейских ситуациях , принудительном перемещении , чрезмерном использовании задержаний и чрезмерных ограничениях на передвижение , а также критиковал поддержку и защиту ЦАХАЛом израильских поселений на оккупированной палестинской территории . [6] Эксперты по правам человека утверждают, что действия, предпринятые ЦАХАЛом во время вооруженных конфликтов на ОПТ, подпадают под категорию военных преступлений. [19] Различные специальные докладчики ООН , а также организации по правам человека и оказанию помощи, включая Human Rights Watch , Médecins Sans Frontières , Amnesty International , обвиняли Израиль в военных преступлениях. [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]
Все подразделения Армии обороны Израиля подчиняются единому Генеральному штабу . Начальник Генерального штаба — единственный действующий офицер, имеющий звание генерал-лейтенанта ( Рав Алуф ). Он подчиняется непосредственно министру обороны и косвенно премьер-министру Израиля и кабинету министров. Начальники штабов официально назначаются кабинетом министров по рекомендации министра обороны на три года. Правительство может проголосовать за продление их службы до четырех, а в редких случаях даже до пяти лет. Действующий начальник штаба — Герци Халеви . [25]
В состав Армии обороны Израиля входят следующие органы. Те, чьи руководители являются членами Генерального штаба, выделены жирным шрифтом:
В отличие от большинства армий, в Армии обороны Израиля используются одинаковые наименования званий во всех корпусах, включая военно-воздушные силы и военно-морской флот.
С момента формирования Армии обороны Израиля и до конца 1980-х годов звание старшего сержанта было особенно важным званием уорент-офицера , в соответствии с использованием в других армиях. В 1980-х и 1990-х годах множащиеся звания старшего сержанта стали обесцениваться, и теперь все профессиональные унтер-офицерские звания являются вариацией на тему старшего сержанта ( рав самал ), за исключением рав нагад .
Все представленные здесь переводы являются официальными переводами веб-сайта Армии обороны Израиля. [26]
Призывники ( Хогрим ) (звания призывников можно получить исключительно за отработанное время)
Прапорщики ( Нагадим )
Академические сотрудники ( Ktzinim Akadema'im )
Офицеры ( Ктзиним )
В Армии обороны Израиля имеется несколько видов униформы:
Первые два похожи друг на друга, но Madei Alef сделан из более качественных материалов золотисто-оливкового цвета, а Madei Bet — оливково-серого . [28] [29] Парадная форма также может иметь поверхностный блеск [29] [30]
Униформа для всех военнослужащих сухопутных войск оливково-зеленого цвета ; военно-морская и военно-воздушная форма бежево - коричневого цвета (также когда-то носили сухопутные войска). Униформа состоит из рубашки с двумя карманами, боевых брюк , свитера , куртки или блузки и ботинок или сапог. Военно-морской флот также имеет полностью белую парадную форму. Зеленая униформа одинакова для зимы и лета, а тяжелое зимнее снаряжение выдается по мере необходимости. Женская одежда параллельна мужской, но может заменять брюки юбкой, а рубашку — блузкой.
Головные уборы включали фуражку для парадной и полупарадной формы и полевую фуражку или шляпу «Kova raful», которую носили с камуфляжной формой. Многие военнослужащие ЦАХАЛа когда-то носили тембел в качестве полевой шляпы. Военнослужащие ЦАХАЛа обычно носят береты вместо фуражки, и существует множество цветов беретов, выдаваемых военнослужащим ЦАХАЛа. Парашютистам выдаются береты темно-бордового цвета, коричневого цвета «Голани» , фиолетового цвета «Гивати» , лаймово-зеленого цвета «Нахал» , камуфляжного цвета «Кфир» , серого цвета для саперов, темно-синего цвета для военно-морских сил ЦАХАЛа и темно-серого цвета для военно-воздушных сил ЦАХАЛа.
В боевой униформе шлем Orlite заменил британский шлем Brodie Mark II/Mark III , модифицированный шлем RAC Mk II с подбородочной стропой (используемый парашютистами и похожий на шлемы парашютистов HSAT Mk II/Mk III ), [31] американский шлем M1 , [32] и французский шлем Modèle 1951 — ранее носившийся израильской пехотой и воздушно-десантными войсками с конца 1940-х до середины 1970-х и начала 1980-х годов. [33]
Некоторые корпуса или подразделения имеют небольшие различия в своей униформе — например, военная полиция носит белый пояс и полицейскую фуражку , военнослужащие ВМС носят белую парадную форму для парадов, десантникам выдается китель с четырьмя карманами (yarkit/yerkit), который носят навыпуск с пистолетным ремнем, туго затянутым вокруг талии поверх рубашки. [34] Воздушный корпус Армии обороны Израиля имеет парадную форму, состоящую из бледно-голубой рубашки и темно-синих брюк.
Большинству солдат Армии обороны Израиля выдаются черные кожаные ботинки , некоторые подразделения выдают красновато-коричневые кожаные ботинки по историческим причинам — десантники, [34] военные медики, бригады Нахаль и Кфир, а также некоторые подразделения спецназа ( Сайерет Маткаль , Окец , Дувдеван , Маглан и Школа контртеррора). Женщинам также раньше выдавались сандалии , но эта практика прекратилась.
У солдат Армии обороны Израиля есть три типа знаков различия (кроме знаков различия званий), которые идентифицируют их корпус, конкретное подразделение и должность. Значок, прикрепленный к берету, идентифицирует корпус солдата. Отдельные подразделения идентифицируются по наплечной бирке, прикрепленной к левому погону . Должность/должность солдата затем можно определить по аксельбанту , прикрепленному к левому погону и карману рубашки, и значку, указывающему тип работы солдата.
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Военная служба проходит по трем направлениям:
Иногда Армия обороны Израиля также проводила подготовительные курсы (קורס קדם צבאי или קד"צ) для будущих солдат регулярной службы.
Израильское управление кадровых ресурсов ( ивр . אגף משאבי אנוש ) при Генеральном штабе Израиля является органом, который координирует и организует деятельность, связанную с контролем за человеческими ресурсами и их размещением.
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Национальная военная служба является обязательной для всех граждан Израиля старше 18 лет, хотя арабские (но не друзы ) граждане освобождаются от нее, если они того пожелают, и могут быть сделаны другие исключения по религиозным, физическим или психологическим причинам (см. Профиль 21 ). Закон Таля освободил ультраортодоксальных евреев от службы. В июне 2024 года Верховный суд Израиля единогласно постановил, что евреи-харедим имеют право на обязательную службу, положив конец почти восьмидесятилетнему освобождению. [35] Армия начала призывать мужчин-харедим в следующем месяце. [36]
До призыва в июле 2015 года мужчины служили в Армии обороны Израиля три года. Мужчины, призванные с июля 2015 года, служат два года и восемь месяцев (32 месяца), а некоторые должности требуют дополнительных четырех месяцев постоянной службы. Женщины служат два года. Женщины Армии обороны Израиля, которые добровольно идут на несколько боевых должностей, часто служат три года из-за более длительного периода обучения. Женщины на других должностях, таких как программисты, которые также требуют длительного времени обучения, также могут служить три года.
Многие религиозные сионисты (и многие современные ортодоксы , которые совершают алию ) выбирают Хесдер , пятилетнюю программу, задуманную раввином Йеудой Амиталом, которая сочетает изучение Торы и военную службу . [37]
Некоторые выдающиеся новобранцы отбираются для обучения, чтобы в конечном итоге стать членами подразделений специального назначения . Каждая бригада в Армии обороны Израиля имеет свое подразделение специального назначения.
Кадровым солдатам платят в среднем 23 000 шекелей в месяц, что в пятьдесят раз больше, чем 460 шекелей, выплачиваемых призывникам. [38]
В 1998–2000 годах освобождение получили лишь около 9% тех, кто отказался служить в израильской армии . [39]
Постоянная служба предназначена для солдат, которые решили продолжить службу в армии после своей регулярной службы, в течение короткого или длительного периода, и во многих случаях делают военную карьеру. Постоянная служба основана на контрактном соглашении между Армией обороны Израиля и постоянным держателем должности.
After personnel complete their regular service, they are either granted permanent exemption from military service or assigned a position in the reserve forces. No distinction is made between the assignment of men and women to reserve service.
The IDF may call up reservists for:
All Israelis who served in the IDF and are under the age of 40, unless otherwise exempt, are eligible for reserve duty. Only those who completed at least 20 days of reserve duty within the past three years are considered active reservists.[40]
Other than the civil, i.e. non-military "National Service" (Sherut Leumi), IDF conscripts may serve in bodies other than the IDF in several ways.
The combat option is Israel Border Police (Magav – the exact translation from Hebrew means "border guard") service, part of the Israel Police. Some soldiers complete their IDF combat training and later undergo additional counter terror and Border Police training. These are assigned to Border Police units. The Border Police units fight side by side with the regular IDF combat units though to a lower capacity. They are also responsible for security in heavy urban areas such as Jerusalem and security and crime fighting in rural areas.
Non-combat services include the Mandatrory Police Service (Shaham, שח"מ) program, where youth serve in the Israeli Police, Israel Prison Service, or other wings of the Israeli Security Forces instead of the regular army service.
Israel is one of only a few nations that conscript women or deploy them in combat roles, although in practice, women can avoid conscription through a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[41] As of 2010, 88% of all roles in the IDF are open to female candidates, and women could be found in 69% of all IDF positions.[42]
According to the IDF, 535 female Israeli soldiers were killed during service in the period 1962–2016,[43] and dozens before then. The IDF says that fewer than 4 percent of women are in combat positions. Rather, they are concentrated in "combat-support" positions which command a lower compensation and status than combat positions.[44]
Civilian pilot and aeronautical engineer Alice Miller successfully petitioned the High Court of Justice to take the Israeli Air Force pilot training exams, after being rejected on grounds of gender. Though president Ezer Weizman, a former IAF commander, told Miller that she would be better off staying home and darning socks, the court eventually ruled in 1996 that the IAF could not exclude qualified women from pilot training. Even though Miller would not pass the exams, the ruling was a watershed, opening doors for women in new IDF roles. Female legislators took advantage of the momentum to draft a bill allowing women to volunteer for any position if they could qualify.[45]
In 2000, the Equality Amendment to the Military Service law stated that the right of women to serve in any role in the IDF is equal to the right of men.[46] Women have served in the military since before the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.[47] Women started to enter combat support and light combat roles in a few areas, including the Artillery Corps, infantry units and armoured divisions. A few platoons named Karakal were formed for men and women to serve together in light infantry. By 2000, Karakal became a full-fledged battalion, with a second mixed-gender battalion, Lions of the Jordan (אריות הירדן, Arayot Ha-Yarden) formed in 2015. Many women also joined the Border Police.[45]
In June 2011, Maj. General Orna Barbivai became the first female major general in the IDF, replacing the head of the directorate Maj. General Avi Zamir. Barbivai stated, "I am proud to be the first woman to become a major general and to be part of an organization in which equality is a central principle. Ninety percent of jobs in the IDF are open to women and I am sure that other women will continue to break down barriers."[48][49]
In 2013, the IDF announced they would, for the first time, allow a (MTF) transgender woman to serve in the army as a female soldier.[50]
Elana Sztokman notes it would be "difficult to claim that women are equals in the IDF". "And tellingly, there is only one female general in the entire IDF," she adds.[44] In 2012, religious soldiers claimed they were promised they would not have to listen to women sing or lecture, but IAF Chief Rabbi Moshe Raved resigned because male religious soldiers were being required to do so.[51] In January 2015, three women IDF singers performed in one of the IDF's units. The performance was first disrupted by fifteen religious soldiers, who left in protest and then the Master Sergeant forced the women to end the performance because it was disturbing the religious soldiers. An IDF spokesperson announced an investigation of the incident: "We are aware of the incident and already begun examining it. The exclusion of women is not consistent with the values of the IDF."[52]
Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon has also arranged for women to be excluded from recruitment centres catering to religious males.[53] As the IDF recruits more religious soldiers, the rights of male religious soldiers and women in the IDF come into conflict. Brig. Gen. Zeev Lehrer, who served on the chief of staff's panel of the integration of women, noted "There is a clear process of 'religionization' in the army, and the story of the women is a central piece of it. There are very strong pressures at work to halt the process of integrating women into the army, and they are coming from the direction of religion."[54]
Sex segregation is allowed in the IDF, which reached what it considers a "new milestone" in 2006, creating the first company of soldiers segregated in an all-female unit, the Nachshol (Hebrew for "giant wave") Reconnaissance Company. "We are the only unit in the world made up entirely of female combat soldiers," said Nachshol Company Commander Cpt. Dana Ben-Ezra. "Our effectiveness and the dividends we earn are the factors by which we are measured, not our gender."[55]
With the rise of social media platforms such as TikTok and Twitter, some critics claim that women in the IDF are frequently used as tools of propaganda, with official military accounts frequently posting attractive young women to create a sympathetic social media presence.[56]
Non-Jewish minorities tended to serve in one of several special units: the Sword Battalion, also known as Unit 300 or the Minorities Unit, until it was disbanded in 2015;[57] the Druze Reconnaissance Unit; and the Trackers Unit, composed mostly of Negev Bedouins. In 1982, the IDF general staff decided to integrate the armed forces by opening up other units to minorities, while placing some Jewish conscripts in the Minorities Unit. Until 1988, the Intelligence Corps and the Air Force remained closed to minorities.
Although Israel has a majority of Jewish soldiers, all citizens including large numbers of Druze and Circassian men are subject to mandatory conscription.[58] Originally, they served in the framework of a special unit called "The Minorities' Unit", which operated until 2015 in the form of the independent Herev Gdud ("Sword") battalion. However, since the 1980s Druze soldiers have increasingly protested this practice, which they considered a means of segregating them and denying them access to elite units (like sayeret units). The army has increasingly admitted Druze soldiers to regular combat units and promoted them to higher ranks from which they had been previously excluded.
In 2015, Rav Aluf Gadi Eizenkot ordered the unit's closure to assimilate the Druze soldiers no differently than Jewish soldiers, as part of an ongoing reorganization of the army. Several Druze officers reached ranks as high as Major General, and many received commendations for distinguished service. In proportion to their numbers, the Druze people achieve much higher—documented—levels in the Israeli army than other soldiers. Nevertheless, some Druze still charge that discrimination continues, such as exclusion from the Air Force, although the official low-security classification for Druze has been abolished for some time. The first Druze aircraft navigator completed his training course in 2005. Like all Air Force pilots, his identity is not disclosed. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, many Druze who had initially sided with the Arabs deserted their ranks to either return to their villages or side with Israel in various capacities.[59]
Since the late 1970s, the Druze Initiative Committee, centred at the village of Beit Jan and linked to Maki, has campaigned to abolish Druze conscription.
Military service is a tradition among some of the Druze population, with most opposition in Druze communities of the Golan Heights. 83 per cent of Druze boys serve in the army, according to the IDF's statistics.[60] According to the Israeli army in 2010, 369 Druze soldiers had been killed in combat operations since 1948.[61]
By law, all Israeli citizens are subject to conscription. The Defense Minister has complete discretion to grant exemption to individual citizens or classes of citizens. A long-standing policy dating to Israel's early years extends an exemption to all other Israeli minorities (most notably Israeli Arabs). However, there is a long-standing government policy of encouraging Bedouins to volunteer and of offering them various inducements, and in some impoverished Bedouin communities a military career seems one of the few means of (relative) social mobility available. Also, Muslims and Christians are accepted as volunteers, even if older than 18.[62]
From among non-Bedouin Arab citizens, the number of volunteers for military service—some Christian Arabs and even a few Muslim Arabs—is minute, and the government makes no special effort to increase it. Six Israeli Arabs have received orders of distinction as a result of their military service; of them the most famous is a Bedouin officer, Lieutenant Colonel Abd el-Majid Hidr (also known as Amos Yarkoni), who received the Order of Distinction. Vahid el Huzil was the first Bedouin to be a battalion commander.[63][64]
Until the second term of Yitzhak Rabin as Prime Minister (1992–1995), social benefits given to families in which at least one member (including a grandfather, uncle, or cousin) had served at some time in the armed forces were significantly higher than to "non-military" families, which was considered a means of blatant discrimination between Jews and Arabs. Rabin led the abolition of the measure, in the teeth of strong opposition from the Right. At present, the only official advantage of military service is the attaining of security clearance and serving in some types of government positions (in most cases, security-related), as well as some indirect benefits.
Rather than perform army service, Israeli Arab youths have the option to volunteer to national service and receive benefits similar to those received by discharged soldiers. The volunteers are generally allocated to Arab populations, where they assist with social and community matters. As of 2010[update], 1,473 Arabs were volunteering for national service. According to sources in the national service administration, Arab leaders are counselling youths to refrain from performing services to the state. According to a National Service official, "For years the Arab leadership has demanded, justifiably, benefits for Arab youths similar to those received by discharged soldiers. Now, when this opportunity is available, it is precisely these leaders who reject the state's call to come and do the service, and receive these benefits."[65]
Although Arabs are not obliged to serve in the IDF, any Arab can volunteer. In 2008, a Muslim Arab woman was serving as a medic with unit 669.[66]
Cpl. Elinor Joseph from Haifa became the first female Arab combat soldier for IDF.[67]
Other Arab-Muslim officers who have served in the IDF are Second Lieutenant Hisham Abu Varia[68] and Major Ala Wahib, the highest ranking Muslim officer in the IDF in 2013.[69]
In October 2012, the IDF promoted Mona Abdo to become the first female Christian Arab to the rank of combat commander. Abdo had voluntarily enlisted in the IDF, which her family had encouraged, and transferred from the Ordnance Corps to the Caracal Battalion, a mixed-gender unit with both Jewish and Arab soldiers.[70]
In 2014, an increase in Israeli Christian Arabs joining the army was reported.[71]
Muslim Arabs have also been drafted into the Israel Defense Forces in increasing numbers in recent years. In 2020, 606 Muslim Arabs were drafted, compared to 489 in 2019 and 436 in 2018. More than half of those who have drafted have gone into combat roles.[72][73][74]
The IDF carried out extended missions in Ethiopia and neighbouring states, whose purpose was to protect Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) and to help their immigration to Israel.[75] The IDF adopted policies and special activities for the absorption and integration of Ethiopian immigrant soldiers, reported to have much improved the achievements and integration of those soldiers in the army, and Israeli society in general.[76][77] Statistical research showed that the Ethiopian soldiers are esteemed as excellent soldiers and many aspire to be recruited to combat units.[78]
Under a special arrangement called Torato Umanuto, Haredi men could choose to defer service while enrolled in yeshivot and many avoided conscription altogether. This has given rise to tensions between the Israeli religious and secular communities. In 2024, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that Haredi men were eligible for compulsory service and the army began drafting them.[35][36]
Haredi males have the option of serving in the 97th "Netzah Yehuda" Infantry Battalion. This unit is a standard IDF infantry battalion focused on the Jenin region. To facilitate Haredi soldiers to serve, the Netzah Yehuda military bases follow the standards of Jewish dietary laws. The only women permitted on these bases were wives of soldiers and officers. Some Haredim serve in the IDF via the Hesder system, principally designed for the Religious Zionist sector. It is a 5-year program which includes 2 years of religious studies, 1½ years of military service and 1½ years of religious studies during which the soldiers can be recalled to active duty at any moment. Haredi soldiers may join other units of the IDF but rarely do. Although the IDF claims it will not discriminate against women, it is offering Haredim "women free and secular free" recruitment centres. Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon expressed his willingness to relax regulations to meet the demands of ultra-Orthodox rabbis. Regulations regarding gender equality had already been relaxed so that Haredim could be assured that men would not receive physical exams from female medical staff.[79]
Since the early 1990s, sexual identity has presented no formal barrier in terms of soldiers' military specialization or eligibility for promotion.[80][81]
Until the 1980s, the IDF tended to discharge soldiers who were openly gay. In 1983, the IDF permitted homosexuals to serve but banned them from intelligence and top-secret positions. A decade later, professor Uzi Even,[82] an IDF reserves officer and chairman of Tel Aviv University's Chemistry Department, revealed that his rank had been revoked and that he had been barred from researching sensitive topics in military intelligence, solely because of his sexual orientation. His testimony to the Knesset in 1993 raised a political storm, forcing the IDF to remove such restrictions against gays.[80]
The chief of staff's policy states that it is strictly forbidden to harm or hurt anyone's dignity or feeling based on their gender or sexual orientation in any way, including signs, slogans, pictures, poems, lectures, any means of guidance, propaganda, publishing, voicing, and utterance. Moreover, gays in the IDF have additional rights, such as the right to take a shower alone if they want to. According to a University of California, Santa Barbara study,[82] a brigadier general stated that Israelis show a "great tolerance" for gay soldiers. Consul David Saranga at the Israeli Consulate in New York, who was interviewed by the St. Petersburg Times, said, "It's a non-issue. You can be a very good officer, a creative one, a brave one, and be gay at the same time."[80]
A study published by the Israel Gay Youth (IGY) Movement in January 2012 found that half of the homosexual soldiers who serve in the IDF suffer from violence and homophobia, although the head of the group said "I am happy to say that the intention among the top brass is to change that."[83]
Israel is the only country in the world that requires deaf and hard-of-hearing people to serve in the military.[84] Sign language interpreters are provided during training, and many of them serve in non-combat capacities such as mapping and office work. The major language spoken by the deaf and hard-of-hearing in Israel is Israeli Sign Language (also called Shassi)–a language related to German Sign Language but not Hebrew or any other local language–though Israel and Palestine are home to numerous sign languages spoken by various populations like Bedouins' Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language.
According to a Care2 report, vegans in the IDF may refuse vaccination if they oppose animal testing.[85] They are given artificial leather boots and a black fleece beret.[86] Until 2014, vegan soldiers in the IDF received special allowances to buy their own food, when this policy was replaced with vegan food being provided in all bases, as well as vegan combat rations being offered to vegan combat soldiers.[87]
Non-immigrating foreign volunteers typically serve with the IDF in one of five ways:
In 1992, the IDF drafted a Code of Conduct that combines international law, Israeli law, Jewish heritage and the IDF's traditional ethical code—the IDF Spirit (Hebrew: רוח צה"ל, Ru'ah Tzahal).[88]
The document defines four core values for all IDF soldiers to follow, including "defense of the state, its citizens and its residents", "love of the homeland and loyalty to the country", "human dignity" and "stateliness, as well as ten secondary values.[88][89][90][91]
"The Spirit of the IDF" (cf. supra) is still considered the only binding moral code that formally applies to the IDF troops. In 2009, Amos Yadlin (then head of Military Intelligence) suggested that the article he co-authored with Asa Kasher be ratified as a formal binding code, arguing that "the current code ['The Spirit of the IDF'] does not sufficiently address one of the army's most pressing challenges: asymmetric warfare against terrorist organizations that operate amid a civilian population".[92]
Details of the IDF's rules of engagement remain classified.[93]
Targeted killing, targeted prevention[94][95] or assassination[96] is a tactic that has been repeatedly used by the IDF and other Israeli organisations in the course of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the Iran–Israel proxy conflict or other conflicts.[96]
In 2005, Asa Kasher and Amos Yadlin co-authored a noticed article published in the Journal of Military Ethics under the title: "Military Ethics of Fighting Terror: An Israeli Perspective". The article was meant as an "extension of the classical Just War Theory", and as a "[needed] third model" or missing paradigm besides which of "classical war (army) and law enforcement (police).", resulting in a "doctrine (...) on the background of the IDF fight against acts and activities of terror performed by Palestinian individuals and organizations."[97]
In this article, Kasher and Yadlin concluded that targeted killings of terrorists were justifiable, even at the cost of hitting nearby civilians. In a 2009 interview to Haaretz, Asa Kasher later confirmed, pointing to the fact that in an area in which the IDF does not have effective security control (e.g., Gaza, vs. East-Jerusalem), soldiers' lives protection takes priority over avoiding injury to enemy civilians.[98] Some, along with Avishai Margalit and Michael Walzer, have disputed this argument, arguing that such a position was "contrary to centuries of theorizing about the morality of war as well as international humanitarian law",[99] since drawing "a sharp line between combatants and noncombatants" would be "the only morally relevant distinction that all those involved in a war can agree on."[100]
The Hannibal Directive is a controversial procedure that the IDF has used to prevent the capture of Israeli soldiers by enemy forces. It was introduced in 1986, after some abductions of IDF soldiers in Lebanon and the subsequent controversial prisoner exchanges. The full text of the directive has never been published and until 2003 Israeli military censorship even forbade any discussion of the subject in the press. The directive has been changed several times. At one time the formulation was that "the kidnapping must be stopped by all means, even at the price of striking and harming our own forces."[101]
The Hannibal directive has, at times, apparently existed in two different versions, one top-secret written version, accessible only to the upper echelon of the IDF, and one "oral law" version for division commanders and lower levels. In the latter versions, "by all means" was often interpreted literally, as in "an IDF soldier was better dead than abducted". In 2011, IDF Chief of Staff Benny Gantz stated the directive does not permit the killing of IDF soldiers.[102]
The Dahiya doctrine[103] is a military strategy of asymmetric warfare, outlined by former IDF Chief of General Staff Gadi Eizenkot, which encompasses the use of aerial and artillery fire against civilian infrastructure used by terrorist organizations[104] and endorses the employment of "disproportionate power" to secure that end.[105][106] The doctrine is named after the Dahieh neighborhood of Beirut, where Hezbollah was headquartered during the 2006 Lebanon War, which were heavily damaged by the IDF.[104]
During 1950–66, Israel spent an average of 9% of its GDP on defense. Defence expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. They reached a high of about 30% of GDP in 1975, but have since come down significantly, following the signing of peace agreements with Jordan and Egypt.[107]
In September 2009, Defense Minister Ehud Barak, Finance Minister Yuval Steinitz and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu endorsed an additional NIS 1.5 billion for the defense budget to help Israel address problems regarding Iran. The budget changes came two months after Israel had approved its two-year budget. The defence budget in 2009 stood at NIS 48.6 billion and NIS 53.2 billion for 2010 – the highest amount in Israel's history. The figure constituted 6.3% of expected gross domestic product and 15.1% of the overall budget, even before the planned NIS 1.5 billion addition.[108]
In 2011, the prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu reversed course and moved to make significant cuts in the defence budget to pay for social programs.[109] The General Staff concluded that the proposed cuts endangered the battle readiness of the armed forces.[110] In 2012, Israel spent $15.2 billion on its armed forces, one of the highest ratios of defense spending to GDP among developed countries ($1,900 per person). However, Israel's spending per capita is below that of the US.[111]
The IDF possesses various foreign and domestically produced weapons and computer systems. Some gear comes from the US (with some equipment modified for IDF use) such as the M4A1 and M16 assault rifles, the M24 SWS 7.62 mm bolt action sniper rifle, the SR-25 7.62 mm semi-automatic sniper rifle, the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets, and the AH-1 Cobra and AH-64D Apache attack helicopters. Israel has also developed its own independent weapons industry, which has developed weapons and vehicles such as the Merkava battle tank series, Nesher and Kfir fighter aircraft, and various small arms such as the Galil and Tavor assault rifles, and the Uzi submachine gun. Israel has also installed a variant of the Samson RCWS, a remote controlled weapons platform, which can include machine guns, grenade launchers, and anti-tank missiles on a remotely operated turret, in pillboxes along the Gaza–Israel barrier intended to prevent Palestinian militants from entering its territory.[112][113]
Israel has developed observation balloons equipped with sophisticated cameras and surveillance systems used to thwart terror attacks from Gaza.[114] The IDF also possesses advanced combat engineering equipment which includes the IDF Caterpillar D9 armoured bulldozer, IDF Puma CEV, Tzefa Shiryon and CARPET minefield breaching rockets, and a variety of robots and explosive devices.
The IDF has several large internal research and development departments, and it purchases many technologies produced by the Israeli security industries including IAI, IMI, Elbit Systems, Rafael, and dozens of smaller firms. Many of these developments have been battle-tested in Israel's numerous military engagements, making the relationship mutually beneficial, the IDF getting tailor-made solutions and the industries a good reputation.[citation needed]
In response to the price overruns on the US Littoral Combat Ship program, Israel is considering producing their own warships, which would take a decade[115] and depend on diverting US financing to the project.[116]
Israel's military technology is famous for its firearms,[117][118] armoured fighting vehicles (tanks, tank-converted armoured personnel carriers (APCs), armoured bulldozers, etc.),[119] unmanned aerial vehicles,[120] and rocketry (missiles and rockets).[121] Israel also has manufactured aircraft including the Kfir (reserve), IAI Lavi (cancelled), and the IAI Phalcon Airborne early warning System, and naval systems (patrol and missile ships). Much of the IDF's electronic systems (intelligence, communication, command and control, navigation etc.) are Israeli-developed, including many systems installed on foreign platforms (esp. aircraft, tanks and submarines), as are many of its precision-guided munitions. Israel is the world's largest exporter of drones.[122]
Israel Military Industries (IMI), as well as its former subsidiary Israel Weapon Industries, are known for their firearms.[118] The IMI Galil, the Uzi, the IMI Negev light machine gun and the new Tavor TAR-21 Bullpup assault rifle are used by the IDF. The Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Spike missile is one of the most widely exported ATGMs in the world.[123]
Israel's Arrow anti-ballistic missile system, jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States, has successfully conducted combat intercepts of incoming ballistic missile attacks.[124] The Iron Dome system against short-range rockets is operational and proved to be successful, intercepting hundreds of Qassam, 122 mm Grad and Fajr-5 artillery rockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.[125][126] David's Sling, an anti-missile system designed to counter medium range rockets, became operational in 2017. Israel has also worked with the US on the development of a tactical high energy laser system against medium-range rockets (called Nautilus or THEL). Iron Beam is a short-range laser beam air defence system, created to eliminate rockets, artillery, and mortar bombs. With a range of several kilometres, it complements the Iron Dome system, which is specifically designed for intercepting missiles launched from greater distances.[127]
Israel has the independent capability of launching reconnaissance satellites into orbit, a capability shared with Russia, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, South Korea, Italy, Germany, the People's Republic of China, India, Japan, Brazil and Ukraine. Israeli security industries developed both the satellites (Ofeq) and the launchers (Shavit).[128][129]
Israel is known to have developed nuclear weapons.[130] Israel does not officially acknowledge its nuclear weapons program. It is thought Israel possesses between one hundred and four hundred nuclear warheads.[130][131] It is believed that Jericho intercontinental ballistic missiles are capable of delivering nuclear warheads with a superior degree of accuracy and a range of 11,500 km.[132] Israeli F-15I and F-16 fighter-bomber aircraft also have been cited as possible nuclear delivery systems (these aircraft types are nuclear capable in the US Air Force).[133][134][135] The U.S. Air Force F-15E has tactical nuclear weapon (B61 and B83 bombs) capability.[136] It has been asserted that Dolphin-class submarines have been adapted to carry Popeye Turbo Submarine-launched cruise missiles with nuclear warheads, so as to give Israel a second strike capacity.[137][138]
From 2006, Israel deployed the Wolf Armoured Vehicle APC for use in urban warfare and to protect VIPs.
Field rations, called manot krav, usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit-flavoured drink powder are provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze-dried MREs served in water-activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations.[140]
One staple of these rations was loof, a type of Kosher spam made from chicken or beef that was phased out around 2008.[141] Food historian Gil Marks has written that: "Many Israeli soldiers insist that Loof uses all the parts of the cow that the hot dog manufacturers will not accept, but no one outside of the manufacturer and the kosher supervisors know what is inside."[142]
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The IDF is planning several technological upgrades and structural reforms for the future of its land, air, and sea branches. Training has been increased, including cooperation between ground, air, and naval units.[143]
The Israeli Army is phasing out the M-16 rifle from all ground units in favor of the IMI Tavor variants, most recently the IWI Tavor X95 flat-top ("Micro-Tavor Dor Gimel").[144] The IDF is replacing its outdated M113 armored personnel carriers in favor of new Namer APCs, with 200 ordered in 2014, the Eitan AFV, and is upgrading its IDF Achzarit APCs.[145][146] The IDF announced plans to streamline its military bureaucracy so as to better maintain its reserve force, which a 2014 State Comptroller report noted was under-trained and may not be able to fulfill wartime missions. As part of the plans, 100,000 reservists will be discharged, and training for the remainder will be improved. The officer corps will be slashed by 5,000. Infantry and light artillery brigades will be reduced to increase training standards among the rest.[147]
The IDF is planning a future tank to replace the Merkava. The new tank will be able to fire lasers and electromagnetic pulses, run on a hybrid engine, run with a crew as small as two, will be faster, and will be better protected, with emphasis on protection systems such as the Trophy over armour.[148][149] The Combat Engineering Corps assimilated new technologies, mainly in tunnel detection and unmanned ground vehicles and military robots, such as remote-controlled IDF Caterpillar D9T "Panda" armoured bulldozers, Sahar engineering scout robot and improved Remotec ANDROS robots.
The Israeli Air Force will purchase as many as 100 F-35 Lightning II fighter jets from the United States. The aircraft will be modified and designated F-35I. They will use Israeli-built electronic warfare systems, outer wings, guided bombs, and air-to-air missiles.[150][151][152] As part of a 2013 arms deal, the IAF will purchase KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft and V-22 Osprey multi-mission aircraft from the United States, as well as advanced radars for warplanes and missiles designed to take out radars.[153] In April 2013, an Israeli official stated that within 40–50 years, piloted aircraft would be phased out of service by unmanned aerial vehicles capable of executing nearly any operation that can be performed by piloted combat aircraft. Israel's military industries are reportedly on the path to developing such technology in a few decades. Israel will also manufacture tactical satellites for military use.[154]
The Israeli Navy is currently expanding its submarine fleet, with a planned total of six Dolphin class submarines. Currently, five have been delivered, with the sixth, INS Drakon, expected to be delivered in 2020.[155] It is also upgrading and expanding its surface fleet. It is planning to upgrade the electronic warfare systems of its Sa'ar 5-class corvettes and Sa'ar 4.5 class missile boats,[156] and has ordered two new classes of warship: the Sa'ar 6-class corvette (a variant of the Braunschweig-class corvette) and the Sa'ar 72-class corvette, an improved and enlarged version of the Sa'ar 4.5-class. It plans to acquire four Saar 6-class corvettes and three Sa'ar 72-class corvettes. Israel is also developing marine artillery, including a gun capable of firing satellite-guided 155mm rounds between 75 and 120 kilometres.[157]
Starting on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708), when Israel became a sovereign state, a strong military, commercial and political relationship was established between France and Israel, which lasted until 1969. Between 1956 and 1966, the two countries had the highest level of military collaboration.[158]
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In 1983, the United States and Israel established a Joint Political Military Group, which convenes twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises and have collaborated on military research and weapons development. Additionally the U.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positioned War Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493 million.[citation needed] Israel has the official distinction of being an American Major non-NATO ally. Since 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense.[159] All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies only.[159]
In October 2012, the United States and Israel began their biggest joint air and missile defence exercise, known as Austere Challenge 12, involving around 3,500 U.S. troops in the region along with 1,000 IDF personnel.[160] Germany and Britain also participated.[161]
Since mid-2017, the United States has operated an anti-missile system in the Negev region of Southern Israel, which is manned by 120 US Army personnel. It is a facility used by the U.S. inside a larger Mashabim Israeli Air Force base.[162]
India and Israel enjoy strong military and strategic ties.[163] Israeli authorities consider Indian citizens to be the most pro-Israel people in the world.[164][165][166][167][168] Apart from being Israel's second-largest economic partner in Asia,[169] India is also the largest customer of Israeli arms in the world.[170] In 2006, annual military sales between India and Israel stood at US$900 million.[171] Israeli defense firms had the largest exhibition at the 2009 Aero India show, during which Israel offered several state-of-the art weapons to India.[172]
The first major military deal between the two countries was the sale of Israeli Phalcon airborne warning and control system (AWACS) radars to the Indian Air Force in 2004.[173][174] In March 2009, India and Israel signed a US$1.4 billion deal under which Israel would sell India an advanced air-defense system.[175] India and Israel have also embarked on extensive space cooperation. In 2008, India's ISRO launched Israel's most technologically advanced spy satellite TecSAR.[176] In 2009, India reportedly developed a high-tech spy satellite RISAT-2 with significant assistance from Israel.[177] The satellite was successfully launched by India in April 2009.[178]
According to a Los Angeles Times news story, the 2008 Mumbai attacks were an attack on the growing India-Israel partnership. It quotes retired Indian Vice Admiral Premvir S. Das thus "Their aim was to... tell the Indians clearly that your growing linkage with Israel is not what you should be doing..."[179] In the past, India and Israel have held numerous joint anti-terror training exercises[180]
Germany developed the Dolphin submarine and supplied it to Israel. Two submarines were donated by Germany.[181] The military co-operation has been discreet but mutually profitable: Israeli intelligence, for example, sent captured Warsaw Pact armor to West Germany to be analyzed. The results aided the German development of an anti-tank system.[182] Israel also trained members of GSG 9, a German counter-terrorism and special operations unit.[183] The Israeli Merkava MK IV tank uses a German V12 engine produced under license.[184]
In 2008, the website DefenseNews revealed that Germany and Israel had been jointly developing a nuclear warning system, dubbed Operation Bluebird.[185][186]
United Kingdom has supplied equipment and spare parts for Sa'ar 4.5-class missile boats and F-4 Phantom fighter-bombers, components for small-calibre artillery ammunition and air-to-surface missiles, and engines for Elbit Hermes 450 Unmanned aerial vehicles. British arms sales to Israel mainly consist of light weaponry, and ammunition and components for helicopters, tanks, armoured personnel carriers, and combat aircraft.[187][188]
On 19 October 1999, the Defense Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria, to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, then flew directly to Israel and met with Ehud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defense Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1 billion Israeli–Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.[189]
Russia has bought drones from Israel.[190][191][192][193][194]
Israel is the second-largest foreign supplier of arms to the People's Republic of China, only after the Russian Federation. China has purchased a wide array of military hardware from Israel, including Unmanned aerial vehicles and communications satellites. China has become an extensive market for Israel's military industries and arms manufacturers, and trade with Israel has allowed it to obtain "dual-use" technology which the United States and European Union were reluctant to provide.[195] In 2010 Yair Golan, head of IDF Home Front Command visited China to strengthen military ties.[196] In 2012, IDF Chief of Staff Benny Gantz visited China for high-level talks with the Chinese defence establishment.[197]
As closely neighbouring countries, Israel and Cyprus have enjoyed greatly improving diplomatic relations since 2010. During the Mount Carmel Forest Fire, Cyprus dispatched two aviation assets to assist fire-fighting operations in Israel – the first time Cypriot Government aircraft were permitted to operate from Israeli airfields in a non-civil capacity.[198] Israel and Cyprus have closely cooperated in maritime activities relating to Gaza, since 2010, and have reportedly begun an extensive sharing program of regional intelligence to support mutual security concerns. In May 2012, it was widely reported that the Israeli Air Force had been granted unrestricted access to the Nicosia Flight Information Region of Cyprus and that Israeli aviation assets may have operated over the island itself.[199]
Since 2010, the Israeli and Greek air forces trained jointly in Greece, indicating a boost in ties due in large part to Israel's rift with Turkey.[200] Recent purchases include 100 million euro deal between Greece and Israel for the purchase of SPICE 1000 and SPICE 2000 pound bomb kits.[201] In November 2011, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greece's Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise at the Uvda base.[202][203] Similar training was held in 2012 by the IAF in cooperation with the Hellenic Air Force in the Peloponnese and parts of southern Greece in a response to the need of the IAF training of pilots in unfamiliar areas.[204][205] On March 14, 2013, the navies of Israel, Greece and the US held a two-week joint military exercise for the third year in a row. The annual operation is nicknamed Noble Dina and was established in 2011. Similar to Noble Dina in 2012, the exercise in 2013 included defending offshore natural gas platforms and simulated air-to-air combat and anti-submarine warfare.[206][207][208] In March 2017, Israel participated in the large-scale "Iniochus 2017" military exercise, which is organized annually by Greece, along with USA, Italy and the United Arab Emirates.[209][210]
Israel has provided extensive military assistance to Turkey. Israel sold Turkey IAI Heron Unmanned aerial vehicles, and modernized Turkey's F-4 Phantom and Northrop F-5 aircraft at the cost of $900 million. Turkey's main battle tank is the Israeli-made Sabra tank, of which Turkey has 170. Israel later upgraded them for $500 million. Israel has also supplied Turkey with Israeli-made missiles, and the two nations have engaged in naval cooperation. Turkey allowed Israeli pilots to practice long-range flying over mountainous terrain in Turkey's Konya firing range, while Israel trains Turkish pilots at Israel's computerized firing range at Nevatim Airbase.[211][212] Until 2009, the Turkish military was one of Israel's largest defence customers. Israel defence companies have sold unmanned aerial vehicles and long-range targeting pods.[213]
However, relations have been strained in recent times. SInce 2010 the Turkish military has declined to participate in the annual joint naval exercise with Israel and the United States.[214][215] The exercise, known as "Reliant Mermaid" was started in 1998 and included the Israeli, Turkish and American navies.[216] The objective of the exercise is to practice search-and-rescue operations and to familiarize each navy with international partners who also operate in the Mediterranean Sea.[217]
Azerbaijan and Israel have engaged in intense cooperation since 1992.[218] Israeli military have been a major provider of battlefield aviation, artillery, antitank, and anti-infantry weaponry to Azerbaijan.[219][220] In 2009, Israeli President Shimon Peres made a visit to Azerbaijan where military relations were expanded further, with the Israeli company Aeronautics Defense Systems Ltd announcing it was going to build a factory in Baku.[221]
In 2012, Israel and Azerbaijan signed an agreement according to which state-run Israel Aerospace Industries would sell $1.6 billion in drones and anti-aircraft and missile defense systems to Azerbaijan.[222] In March 2012, the magazine Foreign Policy reported that the Israeli Air Force may be preparing to use the Sitalchay Military Airbase, located 500 km (310 mi) from the Iranian border, for air strikes against the nuclear program of Iran,[223] later backed up by other media.[224]
Israel has also sold to or received supplies of military equipment from the Czech Republic, Argentina, Portugal, Spain, Slovakia, Italy, South Africa, Canada, Australia, Poland, Slovenia, Romania, Hungary, Belgium, Austria, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina,[225] Georgia,[226] Vietnam and Colombia,[227] among others.
Israel Defense Forces parades took place on Independence Day, during the first 25 years of the State of Israel's existence. They were cancelled after 1973 due to financial and security concerns. The Israel Defense Forces still have weapon exhibitions country-wide on Independence Day, but they are stationary.
Yom Hazikaron, Israel's day of remembrance for fallen soldiers, is observed on the 4th day of the month of Iyar of the Hebrew calendar, the day before the celebration of Independence Day.
The main museum for Israel's armoured corps is the Yad La-Shiryon in Latrun, which houses one of the largest tank museums in the world. Other significant military museums are the Israel Defense Forces History Museum (Batei Ha-Osef) in Tel Aviv, the Palmach Museum, and the Beit HaTotchan of artillery in Zikhron Ya'akov. The Israeli Air Force Museum is located at Hatzerim Airbase in the Negev Desert, and the Israeli Clandestine Immigration and Naval Museum, is in Haifa.
Israel's National Military Cemetery is at Mount Herzl. Other Israeli military cemeteries include Kiryat Shaul Military Cemetery in Tel Aviv, and Sgula military cemetery at Petah Tikva.
The IDF's three service branches (ground forces, air force, and navy) function under a unified command, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is responsible to the minister of defence.
The Haganah ("defense") was founded in June 1920...
The details of the rules of engagement — the conditions under which soldiers are permitted to open fire — are classified because publicizing them would enable enemy forces to take advantage of them, said Mr. Dinar, adding that they were consistent with international law.
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![The LITENING targeting pod, which is today used by more than 20 international air forces [139]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Litening_Pod_on_FA-18.jpg/1280px-Litening_Pod_on_FA-18.jpg)
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