stringtranslate.com

Джордж Буш-старший

Джордж Герберт Уокер Буш [a] (12 июня 1924 г. — 30 ноября 2018 г.) — американский политик, дипломат и бизнесмен, занимавший пост 41-го президента США с 1989 по 1993 год. Член Республиканской партии , он также занимал пост 43-го вице-президента с 1981 по 1989 год при Рональде Рейгане , а ранее занимал различные другие федеральные должности . [2]

Родившийся в богатой, состоятельной семье в Милтоне, штат Массачусетс , Буш вырос в Гринвиче, штат Коннектикут . Он учился в Академии Филлипса и служил пилотом в резерве ВМС США во время Второй мировой войны, прежде чем окончить Йельский университет и переехать в Западный Техас , где он основал успешную нефтяную компанию. После неудачной попытки баллотироваться в Сенат США в 1964 году он был избран представителем 7-го избирательного округа Техаса в 1966 году. Президент Ричард Никсон назначил Буша послом в Организации Объединенных Наций в 1971 году и председателем Национального комитета Республиканской партии в 1973 году. Президент Джеральд Форд назначил его начальником Управления по связям с Китайской Народной Республикой в ​​1974 году и директором Центральной разведки в 1976 году. Буш баллотировался на пост президента в 1980 году, но потерпел поражение на республиканских президентских праймериз от Рейгана, который затем выбрал Буша своим напарником на пост вице-президента. На президентских выборах 1988 года Буш победил демократа Майкла Дукакиса .

Внешняя политика была движущей силой президентства Буша , когда он управлял последними годами Холодной войны и играл ключевую роль в воссоединении Германии . Он руководил вторжением в Панаму и войной в Персидском заливе , положив конец иракской оккупации Кувейта в последнем конфликте. Хотя соглашение не было ратифицировано до тех пор, пока он не покинул свой пост, Буш провел переговоры и подписал Североамериканское соглашение о свободной торговле , которое создало торговый блок, состоящий из Соединенных Штатов, Канады и Мексики. Внутри страны Буш отказался от предвыборного обещания 1988 года , приняв законодательство о повышении налогов, чтобы оправдать сокращение бюджетного дефицита. Он отстаивал и подписал три двухпартийных законопроекта в 1990 году: Закон об американцах с ограниченными возможностями , Закон об иммиграции и поправки к Закону о чистом воздухе . Он также назначил Дэвида Саутера и Кларенса Томаса в Верховный суд. Буш проиграл президентские выборы 1992 года демократу Биллу Клинтону из-за экономического спада , отказа от своих налоговых обещаний и снижения акцента на внешней политике в политическом климате после окончания холодной войны. [3]

После ухода с поста в 1993 году Буш активно занимался гуманитарной деятельностью, часто работая вместе с Клинтоном. С победой его сына Джорджа Буша -младшего на президентских выборах 2000 года они стали второй парой отец-сын, которая была президентом страны, после Джона Адамса и Джона Куинси Адамса . Другой сын, Джеб Буш , безуспешно пытался стать кандидатом в президенты от Республиканской партии на праймериз 2016 года . Историки обычно оценивают Буша как президента выше среднего.

Ранняя жизнь и образование (1924–1948)

Буш в доме своего деда в Кеннебанкпорте, штат Мэн ,  1925 г.
Фотография из ежегодника Академии Филлипса Буша , 1942 г.

Джордж Герберт Уокер Буш родился 12 июня 1924 года в Милтоне, штат Массачусетс . [4] Он был вторым сыном Прескотта Буша и Дороти (Уокер) Буш, [5] и младшим братом Прескотта Буша-младшего. Его дед по отцовской линии, Сэмюэл П. Буш , работал руководителем в компании по производству железнодорожных деталей в Колумбусе, штат Огайо , [6] в то время как его дед по материнской линии и однофамилец Джордж Герберт Уокер возглавлял инвестиционный банк WA Harriman & Co на Уолл-стрит. [7] Уокер был известен как «Поп», а молодого Буша называли «Поппи» в знак уважения к нему. [8]

Семья Бушей переехала в Гринвич, штат Коннектикут , в 1925 году, и Прескотт занял должность в компании WA Harriman & Co., которая в следующем году объединилась в Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. [9] Буш провел большую часть своего детства в Гринвиче, в семейном загородном доме в Кеннебанкпорте, штат Мэн , [b] или на плантации своих бабушки и дедушки по материнской линии в Южной Каролине. [11]

Благодаря богатству семьи, Буш был в значительной степени не затронут Великой депрессией . [12] Он посещал Greenwich Country Day School с 1929 по 1937 год и Phillips Academy , элитную частную академию в Массачусетсе, с 1937 по 1942 год. [13] Во время учебы в Phillips Academy он был президентом выпускного класса, секретарем студенческого совета, президентом общественной группы по сбору средств, членом редакционной коллегии школьной газеты и капитаном университетских бейсбольной и футбольной команд. [14]

Вторая мировая война

Буш в своем Grumman TBM Avenger на борту USS San Jacinto в 1944 году во время Второй мировой войны .

В свой 18-й день рождения, сразу после окончания Академии Филлипса, он поступил на службу в ВМС США в качестве морского летчика . [15] После периода обучения 9 июня 1943 года он был назначен прапорщиком в Военно-морской резерв на военно-морской авиабазе Корпус-Кристи , став одним из самых молодых пилотов ВМС. [16] [c] Начиная с 1944 года Буш служил на Тихоокеанском театре военных действий, где он летал на Grumman TBM Avenger , торпедоносце, способном взлетать с авианосцев. [21] Его эскадрилья была приписана к USS  San Jacinto в качестве члена авиагруппы 51, где его долговязое телосложение принесло ему прозвище «Кожа». [22]

Буш совершил свой первый боевой вылет в мае 1944 года, бомбя удерживаемый японцами остров Уэйк [23] и был повышен до младшего лейтенанта 1 августа 1944 года. Во время атаки на японскую базу в Титидзиме самолет Буша успешно атаковал несколько целей, но был сбит вражеским огнем. [ 20] Хотя оба члена экипажа Буша погибли, Буш успешно выпрыгнул из самолета и был спасен подводной лодкой USS  Finback [24] [d] Несколько летчиков, сбитых во время атаки, были схвачены и казнены, а их печени были съедены их похитителями [25] Выживание Буша после столь близкого соприкосновения со смертью глубоко сформировало его, заставив его задаться вопросом: «Почему меня пощадили и что уготовил для меня Бог?» [26] Позже он был награжден Крестом за выдающиеся летные заслуги за свою роль в миссии [27]

Буш вернулся в Сан-Хасинто в ноябре 1944 года, участвуя в операциях на Филиппинах. В начале 1945 года он был назначен в новую боевую эскадрилью, VT-153, где он тренировался для участия во вторжении на материковую часть Японии . С марта по май 1945 года он тренировался в Оберне, штат Мэн , где он и Барбара жили в небольшой квартире. [28] 2 сентября 1945 года, еще до того, как произошло какое-либо вторжение, Япония официально капитулировала после атомных бомбардировок Хиросимы и Нагасаки . [29] Буш был освобожден от действительной службы в том же месяце, но официально не был уволен из ВМС до октября 1955 года, когда он достиг звания лейтенанта. [20] К концу своего периода активной службы Буш совершил 58 вылетов, совершил 128 посадок на авианосец и налетал 1228 часов. [30]

Свадьба

Буш встретил Барбару Пирс на рождественских танцах в Гринвиче в декабре 1941 года, [31] и после периода ухаживаний они обручились в декабре 1943 года. [32] Пока Буш был в отпуске из ВМФ, они поженились в Рай, штат Нью-Йорк , 6 января 1945 года. [33] Буши наслаждались крепким браком, и Барбара позже стала популярной первой леди, которую многие считали «своего рода национальной бабушкой». [34] [e] У них было шестеро детей: Джордж Буш (р. 1946), Робин (1949–1953), Джеб (р. 1953), Нил (р. 1955), Марвин (р. 1956) и Доро (р. 1959). [15] Их старшая дочь, Робин, умерла от лейкемии в 1953 году. [37] [38]

Годы обучения в колледже

Буш поступил в Йельский колледж , где он принял участие в ускоренной программе, которая позволила ему окончить колледж за два с половиной года вместо обычных четырех. [15] Он был членом братства Delta Kappa Epsilon и был избран его президентом. [39] Он также был капитаном бейсбольной команды Йельского университета и играл в первых двух Мировых сериях колледжей в качестве левого первого бейсмена. [40] Как и его отец, он был членом команды поддержки Йельского университета [41] и был посвящен в тайное общество Skull and Bones . Он окончил Phi Beta Kappa в 1948 году, получив степень бакалавра гуманитарных наук по экономике. [42]

Деловая карьера (1948–1963)

Буш, вверху справа, стоит с женой и детьми, середина 1960-х годов.

После окончания Йельского университета Буш перевез свою молодую семью в Западный Техас . Биограф Джон Мичем пишет, что переезд Буша в Техас позволил ему выйти из «ежедневной тени своего отца с Уолл-стрит и дедушки Уокера, двух доминирующих фигур в финансовом мире», но все равно позволил Бушу «обращаться к их связям, если ему нужно было привлечь капитал». [43] Его первой должностью в Техасе была должность продавца оборудования для нефтяных месторождений [44] в Dresser Industries , которую возглавлял друг семьи Нил Маллон. [45] Работая в Dresser, Буш жил в разных местах со своей семьей: Одесса, Техас ; Вентура , Бейкерсфилд и Комптон, Калифорния ; и Мидленд, Техас . [46] В 1952 году он добровольно участвовал в успешной президентской кампании кандидата от республиканцев Дуайта Д. Эйзенхауэра . В том же году его отец победил на выборах, чтобы представлять Коннектикут в Сенате Соединенных Штатов как член Республиканской партии. [47]

При поддержке Мэллона и дяди Буша, Джорджа Герберта Уокера-младшего , Буш и Джон Оверби основали Bush-Overbey Oil Development Company в 1951 году. [48] В 1953 году он стал соучредителем Zapata Petroleum Corporation , нефтяной компании, которая бурила в Пермском бассейне в Техасе. [49] В 1954 году он был назначен президентом Zapata Offshore Company, дочерней компании, которая специализировалась на оффшорном бурении . [50] Вскоре после того, как дочерняя компания стала независимой в 1959 году, Буш перевез компанию и свою семью из Мидленда в Хьюстон . [51] Там он подружился с Джеймсом Бейкером , известным адвокатом, который позже стал важным политическим союзником. [52] Буш оставался связанным с Сапатой до середины 1960-х годов, когда он продал свою долю в компании примерно за 1 миллион долларов. [53]

В 1988 году The Nation опубликовала статью, в которой утверждалось, что Буш работал агентом Центрального разведывательного управления (ЦРУ) в 1960-х годах; Буш отрицал это утверждение. [54]

Начало политической карьеры (1963–1971)

Вступление в политику

Бывший президент Дуайт Д. Эйзенхауэр с Бушем

К началу 1960-х годов Буш был широко признан привлекательным политическим кандидатом, и некоторые ведущие демократы пытались убедить Буша стать демократом. Он отказался покинуть Республиканскую партию, позже сославшись на свою веру в то, что национальная Демократическая партия выступает за «большое централизованное правительство». Демократическая партия исторически доминировала в Техасе, но республиканцы одержали свою первую крупную победу в штате с победой Джона Г. Тауэра на дополнительных выборах в Сенат США в 1961 году. Мотивированный победой Тауэра и надеясь предотвратить приход к власти крайне правого Общества Джона Бирча , Буш баллотировался на пост председателя Республиканской партии округа Харрис , победив на выборах в феврале 1963 года. [55] Как и большинство других республиканцев Техаса, Буш поддержал консервативного сенатора Барри Голдуотера , а не более центристского Нельсона Рокфеллера на президентских праймериз Республиканской партии 1964 года . [56]

В 1964 году Буш стремился сместить либерального демократа Ральфа У. Ярборо на выборах в Сенат США в Техасе . [57] Подкрепленный превосходным сбором средств, Буш выиграл республиканские праймериз, победив бывшего кандидата на пост губернатора Джека Кокса во втором туре выборов . На всеобщих выборах Буш критиковал голосование Ярборо за Закон о гражданских правах 1964 года , который запрещал расовую и гендерную дискриминацию в государственных учреждениях и многих частных предприятиях. Буш утверждал, что этот акт неконституционно расширяет полномочия федерального правительства, но втайне он был не в восторге от расовой политики противодействия этому акту. [58] Он проиграл выборы со счетом 56 процентов против 44 процентов, хотя и значительно опередил Барри Голдуотера, кандидата в президенты от республиканцев. [57] Несмотря на поражение, The New York Times сообщила, что Буш «был оценен как политическими друзьями, так и врагами как лучший кандидат от республиканцев в Техасе из-за его привлекательных личных качеств и сильной кампании, которую он провел в Сенате». [59]

Палата представителей США

Буш в 1969 году

В 1966 году Буш баллотировался в Палату представителей США в 7-м избирательном округе Техаса , недавно перераспределенном месте в районе Большого Хьюстона . Первоначальные опросы показали, что он отстает от своего оппонента-демократа, окружного прокурора округа Харрис Фрэнка Бриско, но в конечном итоге он выиграл гонку, набрав 57 процентов голосов. [60] Чтобы привлечь потенциальных кандидатов на Юге и Юго-Западе, республиканцы Палаты представителей обеспечили Бушу назначение в могущественный Комитет Палаты представителей США по путям и средствам , сделав Буша первым новичком, работающим в комитете с 1904 года. [61] Его результаты голосования в Палате представителей были в целом консервативными . Он поддерживал политику администрации Никсона во Вьетнаме, но порвал с республиканцами по вопросу контроля рождаемости , который он поддерживал. Он также голосовал за Закон о гражданских правах 1968 года , хотя он был в целом непопулярен в его округе. [62] [63] [64] [65] В 1968 году Буш присоединился к нескольким другим республиканцам, выпустив ответ партии на обращение «О положении страны» ; часть обращения Буша была сосредоточена на призыве к финансовой ответственности. [66]

Хотя большинство других техасских республиканцев поддержали Рональда Рейгана на президентских праймериз Республиканской партии 1968 года , Буш поддержал Ричарда Никсона , который впоследствии выиграл номинацию партии. Никсон рассматривал возможность выбора Буша в качестве своего напарника на президентских выборах 1968 года , но в конечном итоге выбрал Спиро Агню . Буш выиграл переизбрание в Палату представителей без сопротивления, в то время как Никсон победил Хьюберта Хамфри на президентских выборах. [67] В 1970 году при поддержке президента Никсона Буш отказался от своего места в Палате представителей, чтобы баллотироваться в Сенат против Ярборо. Буш легко выиграл республиканские праймериз, но Ярборо потерпел поражение от более консервативного Ллойда Бентсена на демократических праймериз. [68] В конечном итоге Бентсен победил Буша, набрав 53,5 процента голосов. [69]

Администрации Никсона и Форда (1971–1977)

Посол в Организации Объединенных Наций

Буш в качестве посла в ООН, 1971 г.

После выборов в Сенат 1970 года Буш принял должность старшего советника президента, но убедил Никсона вместо этого назначить его послом США в Организации Объединенных Наций . [70] Эта должность стала первым шагом Буша во внешней политике, а также его первым серьезным опытом взаимодействия с Советским Союзом и Китаем, двумя основными противниками США в холодной войне . [71] Во время правления Буша администрация Никсона проводила политику разрядки, стремясь ослабить напряженность как с Советским Союзом, так и с Китаем. [72] Посольство Буша было отмечено поражением по китайскому вопросу, поскольку Генеральная Ассамблея Организации Объединенных Наций проголосовала в резолюции 2758 за исключение Китайской Республики и замену ее Китайской Народной Республикой в ​​октябре 1971 года. [73] Во время кризиса в Пакистане 1971 года Буш поддержал индийское предложение на Генеральной Ассамблее ООН осудить пакистанское правительство Яхья Хана за осуществление геноцида в Восточном Пакистане (современный Бангладеш), ссылаясь на «традицию, которую мы поддерживаем, что вопрос прав человека выходит за рамки внутренней юрисдикции и должен свободно обсуждаться». [74] Поддержка Бушем Индии в ООН привела его к конфликту с Никсоном, который поддерживал Пакистан, отчасти потому, что Яхья Хан был полезным посредником в его попытках протянуть руку Китаю, а отчасти потому, что президент симпатизировал Яхье Хану. [75]

Председатель Национального комитета Республиканской партии

После того, как Никсон одержал убедительную победу на президентских выборах 1972 года , он назначил Буша председателем Республиканского национального комитета (RNC). [76] [77] На этой должности ему было поручено заниматься сбором средств, вербовкой кандидатов и выступлениями от имени партии в средствах массовой информации.

Когда Агню расследовали по факту коррупции, Буш по просьбе Никсона и Агню оказал содействие в оказании давления на Джона Гленна Билла-младшего , сенатора США от Мэриленда , чтобы заставить его брата, Джорджа Билла, прокурора США в Мэриленде, прекратить расследование в отношении Агню. Адвокат Билл проигнорировал давление. [78]

Во время пребывания Буша в RNC, скандал Уотергейт стал достоянием общественности; скандал начался со взлома Национального комитета Демократической партии в июне 1972 года , но также включал в себя более поздние попытки скрыть взлом со стороны Никсона и других членов Белого дома. [79] Буш изначально стойко защищал Никсона, но когда соучастие Никсона стало очевидным, он больше сосредоточился на защите Республиканской партии. [62]

После отставки вице-президента Агню в 1973 году из-за скандала, не связанного с Уотергейтом, Буша рассматривали на должность вице-президента, но вместо этого назначение досталось Джеральду Форду . [80] После публичного обнародования аудиозаписи , подтверждающей, что Никсон планировал использовать ЦРУ для сокрытия взлома Уотергейта, Буш присоединился к другим лидерам партии, призывая Никсона уйти в отставку. [81] Когда Никсон ушел в отставку 9 августа 1974 года, Буш отметил в своем дневнике, что «была аура грусти, как будто кто-то умер... Речь [об отставке] была в духе Никсона — пинок или два прессе — огромное напряжение. Нельзя было не посмотреть на семью и все это и не подумать о его достижениях, а затем не подумать о позоре... [Присяга президента Джеральда Форда] действительно принесла новый дух, новый подъем». [82]

Глава офиса по связям США в Китае

Буш на площади Тяньаньмэнь в Пекине в качестве представителя США в Китае,  1975 г.

После своего восхождения на пост президента Форд настоятельно рассматривал Буша, Дональда Рамсфелда и Нельсона Рокфеллера на вакантную должность вице-президента. В конечном итоге Форд выбрал Нельсона Рокфеллера, отчасти из-за публикации новостного сообщения, в котором утверждалось, что кампания Буша 1970 года финансировалась из секретного фонда, созданного Никсоном; позже Буш был оправдан специальным прокурором от любых подозрений. [83] Буш принял назначение на должность начальника Управления по связям США в Китайской Народной Республике, что сделало его фактическим послом в Китае. [84] По словам биографа Джона Мичема, время, проведенное Бушем в Китае, убедило его в том, что американское участие за рубежом необходимо для обеспечения глобальной стабильности и что Соединенные Штаты «должны быть заметными, но не назойливыми, мускулистыми, но не властными». [85]

Директор Центрального разведывательного управления

Директор Центрального разведывательного управления Буш на встрече после убийств Фрэнсиса Э. Мелоя-младшего и Роберта О. Уоринга в Бейруте в 1976 году

В январе 1976 года Форд вернул Буша в Вашингтон, чтобы тот стал директором Центрального разведывательного управления (DCI), поставив его во главе ЦРУ. [86] После Уотергейтского скандала и войны во Вьетнаме репутация ЦРУ была подорвана из-за его роли в различных тайных операциях. Бушу было поручено восстановить моральный дух и общественную репутацию агентства. [87] [f] В течение года, когда Буш возглавлял ЦРУ, аппарат национальной безопасности США активно поддерживал операции «Кондор» и правые военные диктатуры в Латинской Америке . [88] [89]

Тем временем Форд решил исключить Рокфеллера из списка кандидатов на президентских выборах 1976 года ; он рассматривал Буша в качестве своего напарника, но в конечном итоге выбрал Боба Доула . [90] В качестве директора ЦРУ Буш проводил брифинги по национальной безопасности для Джимми Картера как для кандидата в президенты, так и для избранного президента. [91]

президентские выборы 1980 года

Президентская кампания

Рональд Рейган , модератор Джон Брин и Буш на президентских дебатах в Нашуа, штат Нью-Гэмпшир , во время предварительных президентских выборов Республиканской партии в 1980 году.

Срок полномочий Буша в ЦРУ закончился после того, как Картер с небольшим перевесом победил Форда на президентских выборах 1976 года. Впервые с 1960-х годов, покинув государственную должность, Буш стал председателем исполнительного комитета Первого международного банка в Хьюстоне. [92] Он также провел год в качестве внештатного профессора административных наук в Школе бизнеса Джонса при Университете Райса , [93] продолжил свое членство в Совете по международным отношениям и присоединился к Трехсторонней комиссии . Тем временем он начал закладывать основу для своей кандидатуры на президентских праймериз Республиканской партии 1980 года . [94] В предвыборной кампании республиканцев 1980 года Буш столкнулся с Рональдом Рейганом, которого многие считали фаворитом, а также с другими претендентами, такими как сенатор Боб Доул, сенатор Говард Бейкер , губернатор Техаса Джон Конналли , конгрессмен Фил Крейн и конгрессмен Джон Б. Андерсон . [95]

Кампания Буша представляла его как молодого, «думающего кандидата», который будет подражать прагматичному консерватизму президента Эйзенхауэра. [96] На фоне советско-афганской войны , которая положила конец периоду разрядки, и кризиса с заложниками в Иране , в котором 52 американца были взяты в заложники, кампания подчеркнула внешнеполитический опыт Буша. [97] В начале гонки Буш сосредоточился на победе на партийных собраниях в Айове 21 января , совершив 31 визит в штат. [98] Он одержал близкую победу в Айове с 31,5% против 29,4% у Рейгана. После победы Буш заявил, что его кампания была полна импульса, или « Большого Мо », [99] и Рейган реорганизовал свою кампанию. [100] Частично в ответ на частые вопросы кампании Буша о возрасте Рейгана (Рейгану исполнилось 69 лет в 1980 году), кампания Рейгана усилила атаки на Буша, изображая его как элитиста, который на самом деле не был привержен консерватизму. [101] Перед праймериз в Нью-Гемпшире Буш и Рейган договорились о двухсторонних дебатах, организованных The Nashua Telegraph, но оплаченных кампанией Рейгана. [100]

За несколько дней до дебатов Рейган объявил, что пригласит на дебаты еще четырех кандидатов; Буш, который надеялся, что дебаты один на один позволят ему стать главной альтернативой Рейгану на предварительных выборах, отказался от дебатов с другими кандидатами. Все шесть кандидатов вышли на сцену, но Буш отказался выступать в присутствии других кандидатов. В конечном итоге остальные четыре кандидата покинули сцену, и дебаты продолжились, но отказ Буша от дебатов с кем-либо, кроме Рейгана, серьезно повредил его кампании в Нью-Гемпшире. [102] Он решительно проиграл предварительные выборы в Нью-Гемпшире Рейгану, набрав всего 23 процента голосов. [100] Буш оживил свою кампанию победой в Массачусетсе, но проиграл следующие несколько предварительных выборов. Когда Рейган набрал решающее преимущество среди делегатов, Буш отказался заканчивать свою кампанию, но другие кандидаты выбыли из гонки. [103] Критикуя политические предложения своего более консервативного соперника, Буш назвал планы Рейгана , основанные на предложении , по значительному сокращению налогов « вуду-экономикой ». [104] Хотя он выступал за более низкие налоги, Буш опасался, что резкое сокращение налогообложения приведет к дефициту и, в свою очередь, вызовет инфляцию. [105]

вице-президентская кампания

Пара Рейгана и Буша победила на президентских выборах 1980 года, набрав 50,7% голосов избирателей и значительное большинство голосов выборщиков.

После того, как Рейган получил большинство делегатов в конце мая, Буш неохотно выбыл из гонки. [106] На Республиканском национальном съезде 1980 года Рейган в последнюю минуту принял решение выбрать Буша своим кандидатом на пост вице-президента после того, как переговоры с Фордом относительно списка Рейгана и Форда провалились. [107] Хотя Рейган возмущался многими нападками кампании Буша во время первичной кампании, и несколько консервативных лидеров активно выступали против выдвижения Буша, Рейган в конечном итоге решил, что популярность Буша среди умеренных республиканцев делает его лучшим и самым безопасным выбором. Буш, который считал, что его политическая карьера может закончиться после праймериз, с радостью принял эту должность и бросился в агитацию за список Рейгана и Буша. [108] Всеобщая избирательная кампания 1980 года между Рейганом и Картером проводилась на фоне множества внутренних проблем и продолжающегося кризиса с заложниками в Иране, и Рейган стремился сосредоточить гонку на том, как Картер управляет экономикой. [109] Хотя гонка широко рассматривалась как напряженное состязание на протяжении большей части кампании, Рейган в конечном итоге победил подавляющее большинство неопределившихся избирателей. [110] Рейган получил 50,7% голосов избирателей и 489 из 538 голосов выборщиков, в то время как Картер получил 41% голосов избирателей, а Джон Андерсон, баллотировавшийся как независимый кандидат, получил 6,6% голосов избирателей. [111]

Вице-президентство (1981–1989)

Официальный портрет Буша на посту вице-президента ,  1981–1989 гг.
Буш с президентом Рональдом Рейганом в 1981 году

Будучи вице-президентом, Буш обычно держался в тени, признавая конституционные ограничения должности; он избегал принятия решений или критики Рейгана каким-либо образом. Такой подход помог ему заслужить доверие Рейгана, смягчив напряженность, оставшуюся от их раннего соперничества. [100] Буш также в целом имел хорошие отношения с сотрудниками Рейгана, включая близкого друга Буша Джеймса Бейкера, который был первым начальником штаба Рейгана. [112] Его понимание вице-президентства во многом было обусловлено вице-президентом Уолтером Мондейлом , который имел прочные отношения с президентом Картером отчасти из-за его способности избегать конфронтаций с высокопоставленными сотрудниками и членами кабинета министров, а также сложными отношениями вице-президента Нельсона Рокфеллера с некоторыми членами персонала Белого дома во время администрации Форда. [113] Буши посещали большое количество публичных и торжественных мероприятий на своих должностях, включая многие государственные похороны , которые стали обычной шуткой для комиков. Будучи председателем Сената , Буш также поддерживал связь с членами Конгресса и информировал президента о событиях на Капитолийском холме. [100]

Первый срок

Рейган и Буш на встрече, посвященной обсуждению вторжения США в Гренаду с группой двухпартийных членов Конгресса в октябре 1983 года.

30 марта 1981 года, когда Буш был в Техасе, Рейган был тяжело ранен выстрелом Джона Хинкли-младшего. Буш немедленно вылетел обратно в Вашингтон; когда его самолет приземлился, его помощники посоветовали ему отправиться прямо в Белый дом на вертолете, чтобы показать, что правительство все еще функционирует. [100] Буш отверг эту идею, опасаясь, что такая драматическая сцена может создать впечатление, что он пытается узурпировать полномочия и прерогативы Рейгана. [114] Во время короткого периода недееспособности Рейгана Буш председательствовал на заседаниях кабинета министров, встречался с конгрессменами и иностранными лидерами и проводил брифинги для журналистов. Тем не менее, он последовательно отвергал применение Двадцать пятой поправки . [115] Действия Буша в отношении покушения и его последствий произвели положительное впечатление на Рейгана, который выздоровел и вернулся к работе в течение двух недель после стрельбы. С тех пор эти двое мужчин регулярно обедали по четвергам в Овальном кабинете . [116]

Рейган назначил Буша председателем двух специальных целевых групп, одной по дерегулированию и одной по международной контрабанде наркотиков. Оба вопроса были популярны среди консерваторов, и Буш, в основном умеренный, начал обхаживать их своей работой. Целевая группа по дерегулированию пересмотрела сотни правил, дав конкретные рекомендации о том, какие из них следует изменить или пересмотреть, чтобы ограничить размер федерального правительства. [100] Усилия администрации Рейгана по дерегулированию сильно повлияли на вещание, финансы, добычу ресурсов и другие виды экономической деятельности, и администрация ликвидировала многочисленные правительственные должности. [117] Буш также курировал организацию администрации по управлению кризисами национальной безопасности, которая традиционно была обязанностью советника по национальной безопасности . [118] В 1983 году Буш совершил поездку по Западной Европе в рамках в конечном итоге успешных усилий администрации Рейгана по убеждению скептически настроенных союзников по НАТО поддержать развертывание ракет Pershing II . [119]

Рейтинги одобрения Рейгана упали после его первого года пребывания у власти, но они восстановились, когда Соединенные Штаты начали выходить из рецессии в 1983 году. [120] Бывший вице-президент Уолтер Мондейл был выдвинут Демократической партией на президентских выборах 1984 года . Снизившись в опросах, Мондейл выбрал конгрессвумен Джеральдин Ферраро в качестве своего напарника в надежде на активизацию поддержки своей кампании, таким образом сделав Ферраро первой женщиной-кандидатом на пост вице-президента от крупной партии в истории США. [121] Она и Буш схлестнулись в одних телевизионных вице-президентских дебатах . [100] Опросы общественного мнения неизменно показывали лидерство Рейгана в кампании 1984 года, и Мондейл не смог встряхнуть гонку. [122] В конце концов, Рейган победил на переизбрании, победив в 49 из 50 штатов и получив 59% голосов избирателей против 41% у Мондейла. [123]

Второй срок

Вице-президент Буш стоит с президентом Рональдом Рейганом и советским лидером Михаилом Горбачевым на набережной Нью-Йорка в 1988 году.

Михаил Горбачев пришел к власти в Советском Союзе в 1985 году. Отвергая идеологическую жесткость своих трех пожилых больных предшественников, Горбачев настаивал на срочно необходимых экономических и политических реформах, называемых « гласностью » (открытостью) и « перестройкой » (реструктуризацией). [124] На Вашингтонском саммите 1987 года Горбачев и Рейган подписали Договор о ликвидации ракет средней и меньшей дальности , который обязывал обе стороны полностью ликвидировать свои запасы ракет малой и средней дальности. [125] Договор положил начало новой эре торговли, открытости и сотрудничества между двумя державами. [126] Президент Рейган и госсекретарь Джордж Шульц взяли на себя ведущую роль в этих переговорах, но Буш присутствовал на многих встречах. Буш не был согласен со многими политиками Рейгана, но он сказал Горбачеву, что будет стремиться продолжать улучшать отношения, если он станет преемником Рейгана. [127] 13 июля 1985 года Буш стал первым вице-президентом, исполняющим обязанности президента , когда Рейган перенес операцию по удалению полипов из толстой кишки ; Буш исполнял обязанности президента примерно восемь часов. [128]

В 1986 году администрация Рейгана была потрясена скандалом, когда выяснилось, что должностные лица администрации тайно организовали продажу оружия Ирану во время ирано-иракской войны . Чиновники использовали вырученные средства для финансирования повстанцев- контрас в их борьбе против левого сандинистского правительства в Никарагуа . Демократы приняли закон, согласно которому ассигнованные средства не могли быть использованы для помощи контрас. Вместо этого администрация использовала неассигнованные средства от продаж. [100] Когда новости об этом деле попали в СМИ, Буш заявил, что он был «вне курса» и не знал об отвлечении средств. [129] Биограф Джон Мичем пишет, что «никогда не было представлено никаких доказательств того, что Буш знал о перенаправлении средств контрас», но он критикует характеристику Буша как «вне курса», написав, что «записи ясно показывают, что Буш знал, что Соединенные Штаты, вопреки своей собственной заявленной политике, обменивали оружие на заложников». [130] Скандал Иран-контрас , как его стали называть, нанес серьезный ущерб президентству Рейгана, поставив под сомнение компетентность Рейгана. [131] Конгресс учредил Комиссию Тауэра для расследования скандала, и по просьбе Рейгана коллегия федеральных судей назначила Лоуренса Уолша специальным прокурором, которому было поручено расследование скандала Иран-контрас. [132] Расследования продолжались после того, как Рейган покинул свой пост, и, хотя Бушу так и не было предъявлено обвинение в совершении преступления, скандал Иран-контрас оставался для него политической ответственностью. [133]

3 июля 1988 года крейсер с управляемыми ракетами USS  Vincennes случайно сбил рейс 655 авиакомпании Iran Air , в результате чего погибло 290 пассажиров. [134] Буш, тогдашний вице-президент, защищал свою страну в Организации Объединенных Наций, утверждая, что нападение США было военным инцидентом, и экипаж Vincennes действовал в соответствии с ситуацией. [135]

президентские выборы 1988 года

Bush began planning for a presidential run after the 1984 election, and he officially entered the 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries in October 1987.[100] He put together a campaign led by Reagan staffer Lee Atwater, which also included his son, George W. Bush, and media consultant Roger Ailes.[136] Though he had moved to the right during his time as vice president, endorsing a Human Life Amendment and repudiating his earlier comments on "voodoo economics", Bush still faced opposition from many conservatives in the Republican Party.[137] His major rivals for the Republican nomination were Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole of Kansas, Representative Jack Kemp of New York, and Christian televangelist Pat Robertson.[138] Reagan did not publicly endorse any candidate but privately expressed support for Bush.[139]

Though considered the early front-runner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus, behind Dole and Robertson.[140] Much as Reagan had done in 1980, Bush reorganized his staff and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary.[100] With help from Governor John H. Sununu and an effective campaign attacking Dole for raising taxes, Bush overcame an initial polling deficit and won New Hampshire with 39 percent of the vote.[141] After Bush won South Carolina and 16 of the 17 states holding a primary on Super Tuesday, his competitors dropped out of the race.[142]

Bush, occasionally criticized for his lack of eloquence compared to Reagan, delivered a well-received speech at the Republican convention. Known as the "thousand points of light" speech, it described Bush's vision of America: he endorsed the Pledge of Allegiance, prayer in schools, capital punishment, and gun rights.[143] Bush also pledged that he would not raise taxes, stating: "Congress will push me to raise taxes, and I'll say no, and they'll push, and I'll say no, and they'll push again. And all I can say to them is: read my lips. No new taxes."[144] Bush selected little-known Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. Though Quayle had compiled an unremarkable record in Congress, he was popular among many conservatives, and the campaign hoped that Quayle's youth would appeal to younger voters.[145]

Bush won the 1988 presidential election with 53.4% of the popular vote and a large majority of the electoral vote.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party nominated Governor Michael Dukakis, known for presiding over an economic turnaround in Massachusetts.[146] Leading in the general election polls against Bush, Dukakis ran an ineffective, low-risk campaign.[147] The Bush campaign attacked Dukakis as an unpatriotic liberal extremist and seized on the Willie Horton case, in which a convicted felon from Massachusetts raped a woman while on a prison furlough, a program Dukakis supported as governor. The Bush campaign charged that Dukakis presided over a "revolving door" that allowed dangerous convicted felons to leave prison.[148] Dukakis damaged his own campaign with a widely mocked ride in an M1 Abrams tank and poor performance at the second presidential debate.[149] Bush also attacked Dukakis for opposing a law that would require all students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[143] The election is widely considered to have had a high level of negative campaigning, though political scientist John Geer has argued that the share of negative ads was in line with previous presidential elections.[150]

Bush defeated Dukakis by a margin of 426 to 111 in the Electoral College, and he took 53.4 percent of the national popular vote.[151] Bush ran well in all the major regions of the country, but especially in the South.[152] He became the fourth sitting vice president to be elected president and the first to do so since Martin Van Buren in 1836 and the first person to succeed a president from his own party via election since Herbert Hoover in 1929.[100][g] In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress.[154]

Presidency (1989–1993)

Chief Justice William Rehnquist administers the Presidential Oath of Office to Bush.

Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989, succeeding Reagan. In his inaugural address, Bush said:

I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better. For a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn; for in man's heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, lifeless tree. A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken.[155]

Bush's first major appointment was that of James Baker as Secretary of State.[156] Leadership of the Department of Defense went to Dick Cheney, who had previously served as Gerald Ford's chief of staff and would later serve as vice president under his son George W. Bush.[157] Jack Kemp joined the administration as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, while Elizabeth Dole, the wife of Bob Dole and a former Secretary of Transportation, became the Secretary of Labor under Bush.[158] Bush retained several Reagan officials, including Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos.[159] New Hampshire Governor John Sununu, a strong supporter of Bush during the 1988 campaign, became chief of staff.[156] Brent Scowcroft was appointed as the National Security Advisor, a role he had also held under Ford.[160]

Foreign affairs

End of the Cold War

During the first year of his tenure, Bush paused Reagan's détente policy toward the Soviet Union.[161] Bush and his advisers were initially divided on Gorbachev; some administration officials saw him as a democratic reformer, but others suspected him of trying to make the minimum changes necessary to restore the Soviet Union to a competitive position with the United States.[162] In 1989, all the Communist governments collapsed in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided gloating over the demise of the Eastern Bloc to avoid undermining further democratic reforms.[163]

Bush and Gorbachev met at the Malta Summit in December 1989. Though many on the right remained wary of Gorbachev, Bush came away believing that Gorbachev would negotiate in good faith.[164] For the remainder of his term, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev, believing he was the key to peace.[165] The primary issue at the Malta Summit was the potential reunification of Germany. While Britain and France were wary of a reunified Germany, Bush joined German chancellor Helmut Kohl in pushing for German reunification.[166] Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve American interests.[167] After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 after paying billions of marks to Moscow.[168]

Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev at the Helsinki Summit in 1990

Gorbachev used force to suppress nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself.[169] A crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position, as he needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany and feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement but took no action to intervene directly.[170] Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "Chicken Kiev speech", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism".[171] In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) treaty, in which both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent.[172]

In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a coup against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government.[173] Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian president Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until December 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved.[174] Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, and of those states, Russia was the largest and most populous. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".[175] In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.[176]

Invasion of Panama

Through the late 1980s, the U.S. provided aid to Manuel Noriega, the anti-Communist leader of Panama. Noriega had long-standing ties to United States intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in drug trafficking.[177] In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election in which Guillermo Endara had been elected. Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the Panama Canal with Noriega still in office.[178] Bush dispatched 2,000 soldiers to the country, where they began conducting regular military exercises violating prior treaties.[179] After Panamanian forces shot a U.S. serviceman in December 1989, Bush ordered the United States invasion of Panama, known as "Operation Just Cause". The invasion was the first large-scale American military operation unrelated to the Cold War in more than 40 years. American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and Panama City. Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was quickly transported to a prison in the United States. Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992.[178] Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion "represented a new era in American foreign policy" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather because it was in the best interests of the United States.[180]

Gulf War

Bush meets with Robert Gates, General Colin Powell, Secretary Dick Cheney and others about the situation in the Persian Gulf, 1991

Faced with massive debts and low oil prices in the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to conquer the country of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich country situated on Iraq's southern border.[181] After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a multi-national coalition opposed to the invasion.[182] Some in the administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel.[183] Robert Gates attempted to convince Brent Scowcroft that Bush should tone down the rhetoric but Bush insisted it was his primary concern to discourage other countries from "unanswered aggression".[184] Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20 percent of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26 percent of the world's oil supply.[185]

At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the United Nations Security Council approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991.[186] Gorbachev's support and China's abstention helped ensure passage of the United Nations resolution.[187] Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq. He won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.[188] In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq.[189] Bush believed that the United Nations resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq. Still, he wanted to show that the nation was united behind military action.[190] Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991.[189]

After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces conducted a bombing campaign that devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most missiles did little damage. On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27. About 300 Americans and approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations died during the military action.[191] A ceasefire was arranged on March 3, and the United Nations passed a resolution establishing a peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq.[192] A March 1991 Gallup poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89 percent, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling.[193] After 1991, the United Nations maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the United Nations Special Commission was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its weapons of mass destruction program.[194]

NAFTA

From left to right: (standing) President Carlos Salinas, President Bush, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney; (seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills, and Michael Wilson at the NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992

In 1987, the U.S. and Canada reached a free trade agreement that eliminated many tariffs between the two countries. President Reagan had intended it as the first step towards a larger trade agreement to eliminate most tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.[195] The Bush administration, along with the Progressive Conservative Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico. In addition to lowering tariffs, the proposed treaty would affect patents, copyrights, and trademarks.[196] In 1991, Bush sought fast track authority, which grants the president the power to submit an international trade agreement to Congress without the possibility of amendment. Despite congressional opposition led by House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt, both houses of Congress voted to grant Bush fast track authority. NAFTA was signed in December 1992, after Bush lost reelection,[197] but President Clinton won ratification of NAFTA in 1993.[198] NAFTA was controversial for its impact on wages, jobs, and overall economic growth.[199] In 2020, it was replaced entirely by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).

Domestic affairs

Economy and fiscal issues

The U.S. economy had generally performed well since emerging from recession in late 1982, but it slipped into a mild recession in 1990. The unemployment rate rose from 5.9 percent in 1989 to a high of 7.8 percent in mid-1991.[200][201] Large federal deficits, spawned during the Reagan years, rose from $152.1 billion in 1989[202] to $220 billion for 1990;[203] the $220 billion deficit represented a threefold increase since 1980.[204] As the public became increasingly concerned about the economy and other domestic affairs, Bush's well-received handling of foreign affairs became less of an issue for most voters.[205] Bush's top domestic priority was to end federal budget deficits, which he saw as a liability for the country's long-term economic health and standing in the world.[206] As he was opposed to major defense spending cuts[207] and had pledged not to raise taxes, the president had major difficulties in balancing the budget.[208]

Bush and congressional leaders agreed to avoid major changes to the budget for fiscal year 1990, which began in October 1989. However, both sides knew spending cuts or new taxes would be necessary for the following year's budget to avoid the draconian automatic domestic spending cuts required by the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1987.[209] Bush and other leaders also wanted to cut deficits because Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan refused to lower interest rates and thus stimulate economic growth unless the federal budget deficit was reduced.[210] In a statement released in late June 1990, Bush said that he would be open to a deficit reduction program which included spending cuts, incentives for economic growth, budget process reform, as well as tax increases.[211] To fiscal conservatives in the Republican Party, Bush's statement represented a betrayal, and they heavily criticized him for compromising so early in the negotiations.[212]

In September 1990, Bush and congressional Democrats announced a compromise to cut mandatory and discretionary programs funding while raising revenue, partly through a higher gas tax. The compromise additionally included a "pay as you go" provision that required that new programs be paid for at the time of implementation.[213] House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill, strongly opposing any form of tax increase.[214] Some liberals also criticized the budget cuts in the compromise, and in October, the House rejected the deal, resulting in a brief government shutdown. Without the strong backing of the Republican Party, Bush agreed to another compromise bill, this one more favorable to Democrats. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, dropped much of the gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes on top earners. It included cuts to domestic spending, but the cuts were not as deep as those proposed in the original compromise. Bush's decision to sign the bill damaged his standing with conservatives and the general public, but it also laid the groundwork for the budget surpluses of the late 1990s.[215]

Discrimination

"Even the strongest person couldn't scale the Berlin Wall to gain the elusive promise of independence that lay just beyond. And so, together we rejoiced when that barrier fell. And now I sign legislation which takes a sledgehammer to another wall, one which has for too many generations separated Americans with disabilities from the freedom they could glimpse, but not grasp."

—Bush's remarks at the signing ceremony for the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990[216]

The disabled had not received legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, and many faced discrimination and segregation by the time Bush took office. In 1988, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and Tony Coelho introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which barred employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. The bill had passed the Senate but not the House and was reintroduced in 1989. Though some conservatives opposed the bill due to its costs and potential burdens on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly because his son, Neil, had struggled with dyslexia. After the bill passed both houses of Congress, Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990.[217] The act required employers and public accommodations to make "reasonable accommodations" for disabled people while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an "undue hardship".[218]

Senator Ted Kennedy later led the congressional passage of a separate civil rights bill designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits.[219] In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring.[220][221] In November 1991, Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year.[219]

In August 1990, Bush signed the Ryan White CARE Act, the largest federally funded program dedicated to assisting persons living with HIV/AIDS.[222] Throughout his presidency, the AIDS epidemic grew dramatically in the U.S. and around the world, and Bush often found himself at odds with AIDS activist groups who criticized him for not placing a high priority on HIV/AIDS research and funding. Frustrated by the administration's lack of urgency on the issue, ACT UP dumped the ashes of deceased HIV/AIDS patients on the White House lawn during a viewing of the AIDS Quilt in 1992.[223] By that time, HIV had become the leading cause of death in the U.S. for men aged 25–44.[224]

Environment

In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed a bill to amend the Clean Air Act. Working with Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell, the administration won passage of the amendments over the opposition of business-aligned members of Congress who feared the impact of tougher regulations.[225] The legislation sought to curb acid rain and smog by requiring decreased emissions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide,[226] and was the first major update to the Clean Air Act since 1977.[227] Bush also signed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. However, the League of Conservation Voters criticized some of Bush's other environmental actions, including his opposition to stricter auto-mileage standards.[228]

Points of Light

Bush devoted attention to voluntary service to solve some of America's most serious social problems. He often used the "thousand points of light" theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems. In his 1989 inaugural address, Bush said, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good."[229] During his presidency, Bush honored numerous volunteers with the Daily Point of Light Award, a tradition that his presidential successors continued.[230] In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism.[231] In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network to create a new organization, Points of Light.[232]

Judicial appointments

Bush appointed Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court in 1991.

Bush appointed two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1990, Bush appointed a largely unknown state appellate judge, David Souter, to replace liberal icon William J. Brennan Jr.[233] Souter was easily confirmed and served until 2009, but joined the liberal bloc of the court, disappointing Bush.[233] In 1991, Bush nominated conservative federal judge Clarence Thomas to succeed Thurgood Marshall, a long-time liberal stalwart. Thomas, the former head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), faced heavy opposition in the Senate, as well as from pro-choice groups and the NAACP. His nomination faced another difficulty when Anita Hill accused Thomas of having sexually harassed her during his time as the chair of EEOC. Thomas won confirmation in a narrow 52–48 vote; 43 Republicans and 9 Democrats voted to confirm Thomas's nomination, while 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans voted against confirmation.[234] Thomas became one of the most conservative justices of his era.[235]

Other issues

Bush's education platform consisted mainly of offering federal support for a variety of innovations, such as open enrollment, incentive pay for outstanding teachers, and rewards for schools that improve performance with underprivileged children.[236] Though Bush did not pass a major educational reform package during his presidency, his ideas influenced later reform efforts, including Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind Act.[237] Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990,[238] which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States.[239] The act more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills.[240] In the wake of the savings and loan crisis, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the savings and loans industry, and also proposed the creation of the Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate the industry. Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.[241]

Public image

Bush's approval ratings (red) compared to his disapproval ratings (blue) during his presidency

Bush was widely seen as a "pragmatic caretaker" president who lacked a unified and compelling long-term theme in his efforts.[242][243][244] A Bush sound bite, referring to the issue of overarching purpose as "the vision thing", has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties.[245][246][247][248][249][250] His ability to gain broad international support for the Gulf War and the war's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph,[251] rousing bipartisan approval,[252] though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings, and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy.[253] A New York Times article mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket barcode reader;[254][255] the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was "out of touch".[254]

Bush was popular throughout most of his presidency. After the Gulf war concluded in February 1991, his approval rating saw a high of 89 percent, before gradually declining for the rest of the year, and eventually falling below 50 percent according to a January 1992 Gallup poll.[256][257][258] His sudden drop in his favorability was likely due to the early 1990s recession, which shifted his image from "conquering hero" to "politician befuddled by economic matters".[259] At the elite level, several commentators and political experts lamented the state of American politics in 1991–1992 and reported the voters were angry. Many analysts blamed the poor quality of national election campaigns.[260]

1992 presidential campaign

Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, Bush's reelection initially looked likely.[261] As a result, many leading Democrats, including Mario Cuomo, Dick Gephardt, and Al Gore, declined to seek their party's presidential nomination.[262] However, Bush's tax increase angered many conservatives, who believed that Bush had strayed from the conservative principles of Ronald Reagan.[263] He faced a challenge from conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan in the 1992 Republican primaries.[264] Bush fended off Buchanan's challenge and won his party's nomination at the 1992 Republican National Convention. Still, the convention adopted a socially conservative platform strongly influenced by the Christian right.[265]

Bush was defeated in the 1992 presidential election by Bill Clinton.

Meanwhile, the Democrats nominated Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas. A moderate who was affiliated with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), Clinton favored welfare reform, deficit reduction, and a tax cut for the middle class.[266] In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third-party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility.[267] Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses.[268] National polling taken in mid-1992 showed Perot in the lead, but Clinton experienced a surge through effective campaigning and the selection of Senator Al Gore, a popular and relatively young Southerner, as his running mate.[269]

Clinton won the election, taking 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5 percent of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes.[270] Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls.[271] Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 election.[272] Several factors were important in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either "not so good" or "poor".[273][274] On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984.[275] The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party.[276] Bush partially blamed Perot for his defeat, though exit polls showed that Perot drew his voters about equally from Clinton and Bush.[277]

Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56 percent job approval rating in January 1993.[278] Like many of his predecessors, Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office. In December 1992, he granted executive clemency to six former senior government officials implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, most prominently former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger.[279] The charges against the six were that they lied to or withheld information from Congress. The pardons effectively brought an end to the Iran-Contra scandal.[280]

According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton uniting his party and winning over several heterogeneous groups.[281]

Post-presidency (1993–2018)

Appearances

After leaving office, Bush and his wife built a retirement house in the community of West Oaks, Houston.[282] He established a presidential office within the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive in Houston.[283] He also frequently spent time at his vacation home in Kennebunkport, took annual cruises in Greece, went on fishing trips in Florida, and visited the Bohemian Club in Northern California. He declined to serve on corporate boards but delivered numerous paid speeches and was an adviser to The Carlyle Group, a private equity firm.[284] He never published his memoirs, but he and Brent Scowcroft co-wrote A World Transformed, a 1998 work on foreign policy. Portions of his letters and his diary were later published as The China Diary of George H. W. Bush and All the Best, George Bush.[285]

During a 1993 visit to Kuwait, Bush was targeted in an assassination plot directed by the Iraqi Intelligence Service. President Clinton retaliated when he ordered the firing of 23 cruise missiles at Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad.[286] Bush did not publicly comment on the assassination attempt or the missile strike, but privately spoke with Clinton shortly before the strike took place.[287]

In the 1994 gubernatorial elections, his sons George W. and Jeb concurrently ran for Governor of Texas and Governor of Florida. Concerning their political careers, he advised them both that "[a]t some point both of you may want to say 'Well, I don't agree with my Dad on that point' or 'Frankly I think Dad was wrong on that.' Do it. Chart your own course, not just on the issues but on defining yourselves".[288] George W. won his race against Ann Richards while Jeb lost to Lawton Chiles. After the results came in, the elder Bush told ABC, "I have very mixed emotions. Proud father, is the way I would sum it all up."[289] Jeb would again run for governor of Florida in 1998 and win at the same time that his brother George W. won re-election in Texas. It marked the second time in United States history that a pair of brothers served simultaneously as governors.[290]

George and Barbara Bush, 2001

Bush supported his son's candidacy in the 2000 presidential election but did not actively campaign in the election and did not deliver a speech at the 2000 Republican National Convention.[291] George W. Bush defeated Al Gore in the 2000 election and was re-elected in 2004. Bush and his son thus became the second father–son pair to each serve as President of the United States, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams.[292] Through previous administrations, the elder Bush had ubiquitously been known as "George Bush" or "President Bush", but following his son's election, the need to distinguish between them has made retronymic forms such as "George H. W. Bush" and "George Bush Sr." and colloquialisms such as "Bush 41" and "Bush the Elder" more common.[293] Bush advised his son on some personnel choices, approving of the selection of Dick Cheney as running mate and the retention of George Tenet as CIA Director. However, he was not consulted on all appointments, including that of his old rival, Donald Rumsfeld, as Secretary of Defense.[294] Though he avoided giving unsolicited advice to his son, Bush and his son also discussed some policy matters, especially regarding national security issues.[295]

In his retirement, Bush used the public spotlight to support various charities.[296] Despite earlier political differences with Bill Clinton, the two former presidents eventually became friends.[297] They appeared together in television ads, encouraging aid for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami and Hurricane Katrina.[298] However, when interviewed by Jon Meacham, Bush criticized Donald Rumsfeld, Dick Cheney, and even his son George W. Bush for their handling of foreign policy after the September 11 attacks.[299]

Final years

From left to right: George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter

Bush supported Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election,[300] and Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election,[301] but both were defeated by Democrat Barack Obama. In 2011, Obama awarded Bush with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States.[302]

Bush supported his son Jeb's bid in the 2016 Republican primaries.[303] Jeb Bush's campaign struggled, however, and he withdrew from the race during the primaries. Neither George H. W. nor George W. Bush endorsed the eventual Republican nominee, Donald Trump;[304] all three Bushes emerged as frequent critics of Trump's policies and speaking style, while Trump frequently criticized George W. Bush's presidency. George H. W. later said he voted for the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, in the general election.[305] After the election, Bush wrote a letter to President-elect Donald Trump in January 2017 to inform him that because of his poor health, he would not be able to attend Trump's inauguration on January 20; he gave him his best wishes.[306]

In August 2017, after the violence at Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, both presidents Bush released a joint statement saying, "America must always reject racial bigotry, anti-Semitism, and hatred in all forms[. ...] As we pray for Charlottesville, we are all reminded of the fundamental truths recorded by that city's most prominent citizen in the Declaration of Independence: we are all created equal and endowed by our Creator with unalienable rights."[307][308]

On April 17, 2018, Barbara Bush died at the age of 92[309] at her home in Houston, Texas. Her funeral was held at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston four days later.[310][311] Bush, along with former presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush (son), Bill Clinton and First Ladies Melania Trump, Michelle Obama, Laura Bush (daughter-in-law) and Hillary Clinton attended the funeral and posed together for a photo as a sign of unity.[312][313]

On November 1, 2018, Bush went to the polls to vote early in the midterm elections. This would be his final public appearance.[314]

Death and funeral

Members of the public pay their respects at the casket of President Bush lying in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C.

After a long battle with vascular Parkinson's disease, Bush died at his home in Houston on November 30, 2018, at the age of 94.[315][316] At the time of his death he was the longest-lived U.S. president,[317] a distinction now held by Jimmy Carter.[318] He was also the third-oldest vice president.[h] Bush lay in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol from December 3 through December 5; he was the 12th U.S. president to be accorded this honor.[320][321] Then, on December 5, Bush's casket was transferred from the Capitol rotunda to Washington National Cathedral where a state funeral was held.[322] After the funeral, Bush's body was transported to George H.W. Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, where he was buried next to his wife Barbara and daughter Robin.[323] At the funeral, former president George W. Bush eulogized his father saying, "He looked for the good in each person, and he usually found it."[322]

Personal life

In May 1991, The New York Times revealed that Bush had developed Graves' disease, a non-contagious thyroid condition that his wife Barbara also had.[324] Bush had two separate hip replacement surgeries in 2000 and 2007.[325] Thereafter, Bush started to experience weakness in his legs, which was attributed to vascular parkinsonism, a form of Parkinson's disease. He progressively developed problems walking, initially needing a walking stick for mobility aid before he eventually came to rely on a wheelchair from 2011 onwards.[326]

Bush was a lifelong Episcopalian and a member of St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston. As President, Bush regularly attended services at St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington D.C.[327] He cited various moments in his life on the deepening of his faith, including his escape from Japanese forces in 1944, and the death of his three-year-old daughter Robin in 1953.[328] His faith was reflected in his "thousand points of light" speech, his support for prayer in schools, and his support for the pro-life movement (following his election as vice president).[329][328]

Legacy

Historical reputation

Bush visits NAS JRB during Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, 2005

Polls of historians and political scientists have ranked Bush in the top half of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 17th best president out of 44.[330] A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians also ranked Bush as the 20th best president out of 43.[331] Richard Rose described Bush as a "guardian" president, and many other historians and political scientists have similarly described Bush as a passive, hands-off president who was "largely content with things as they were".[332] Professor Steven Knott writes that "[g]enerally the Bush presidency is viewed as successful in foreign affairs but a disappointment in domestic affairs."[333]

Biographer Jon Meacham writes that, after he left office, many Americans viewed Bush as "a gracious and underappreciated man who had many virtues but who had failed to project enough of a distinctive identity and vision to overcome the economic challenges of 1991–92 and to win a second term."[334] Bush himself noted that his legacy was "lost between the glory of Reagan ... and the trials and tribulations of my sons."[335] In the 2010s, Bush was fondly remembered for his willingness to compromise, which contrasted with the intensely partisan era that followed his presidency.[336]

In 2018, Vox highlighted Bush for his "pragmatism" as a moderate Republican president by working across the aisle.[337] They specifically noted Bush's accomplishments within the domestic policy by making bipartisan deals, including raising the tax budget among the wealthy with the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990. Bush also helped pass the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 which The New York Times described as "the most sweeping anti-discrimination law since the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[338] In response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Bush built another bipartisan coalition to strengthen the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.[339][340] Bush also championed and signed into a law the Immigration Act of 1990, a sweeping bipartisan immigration reform act that made it easier for immigrants to legally enter the county, while also granting immigrants fleeing violence the temporary protected status visa, as well as lifted the pre-naturalization English testing process, and finally "eliminated the exclusion of homosexuals under what Congress now deemed the medically unsound classification of 'sexual deviant' that was included in the 1965 act."[341][342] Bush stated, "Immigration is not just a link to our past but it's also a bridge to America's future".[343]

According to USA Today, the legacy of Bush's presidency was defined by his victory over Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait and by his presiding over the dissolution of the Soviet Union and German reunification.[344] Michael Beschloss and Strobe Talbott praise Bush's handling of the Soviet Union, especially how he prodded Gorbachev in terms of releasing control over the satellite states and permitting German unification—and especially a united Germany in NATO.[345] Andrew Bacevich judges the Bush administration as "morally obtuse" in the light of its "business-as-usual" attitude towards China after the massacre in Tiananmen Square and its uncritical support of Gorbachev as the Soviet Union disintegrated.[346] David Rothkopf argues:

In the recent history of U.S. foreign policy, there has been no president, nor any president's team, who, when confronted with profound international change and challenges, responded with such a thoughtful and well-managed foreign policy...[the Bush administration was] a bridge over one of the great fault lines of history [that] ushered in a "new world order" it described with great skill and professionalism.[347]

However, TIME has criticized Bush's domestic policies involving "drugs, homelessness, racial hostility, education gaps, [and] issues with the environment", and it argues that these issues in the United States became worse in the 21st century primarily due to Bush setting a poor example and his handling of these concepts during his presidency.[348]

Memorials, awards, and honors

The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, 2011

In 1990, Time magazine named him the Man of the Year.[349] In 1997, the Houston Intercontinental Airport was renamed as the George Bush Intercontinental Airport.[350] In 1999, the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, was named the George Bush Center for Intelligence in his honor.[351] In 2011, Bush, an avid golfer, was inducted in the World Golf Hall of Fame.[352] The USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), the tenth and last Nimitz-class supercarrier of the United States Navy, was named for Bush.[353][354] Bush is commemorated on a postage stamp that was issued by the United States Postal Service in 2019.[355] In December 2020, the United States Mint honored Bush with a Presidential Dollar coin.

The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, the tenth U.S. presidential library, was completed in 1997.[356] It contains the presidential and vice presidential papers of Bush and the vice presidential papers of Dan Quayle.[357] The library is located on a 90-acre (36 ha) site on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas.[358] Texas A&M University also hosts the Bush School of Government and Public Service, a graduate public policy school.[358] In 2012, Phillips Academy also awarded Bush its Alumni Award of Distinction.[359]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ After the 1990s, he became more commonly known as George H. W. Bush, "Bush Senior," "Bush 41," and even "Bush the Elder" to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd U.S. president from 2001 to 2009; previously, he was usually referred to simply as George Bush.
  2. ^ Bush later purchased the estate, which is now known as the Bush compound.[10]
  3. ^ For decades, Bush was considered the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy during his period of service,[17] but such claims are now regarded as speculation.[18] His official Navy biography called him "the youngest" in 2001,[19] but by 2018 the Navy biography described him as "one of the youngest".[20]
  4. ^ Bush's fellow crew members for the mission were William G. White and John Delaney. According to the accounts of an American pilot and a Japanese individual, another parachute from Bush's aircraft opened, but the bodies of White and Delaney were never recovered.[24]
  5. ^ At the time of his wife's death on April 17, 2018, George H. W. had been married to Barbara for 73 years, the longest presidential marriage in American history at that point.[35] The length of their marriage was surpassed in 2019 by the marriage of Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter.[36]
  6. ^ Biographer Jon Meacham writes that it was widely assumed at the time that Donald Rumsfeld had engineered Bush's appointment as CIA Director since the post was regarded as a "political graveyard". Meacham writes that it is more likely that the key factor in Bush's appointment was that Ford believed Bush would work better with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger than would Elliot Richardson, his original pick for the CIA post.[87]
  7. ^ The 1988 presidential election remains the only presidential election since 1948 in which either party won a third consecutive term.[153]
  8. ^ The longest-lived U.S. vice president is John Nance Garner, who died on November 7, 1967, 15 days short of his 99th birthday.[319]

References

  1. ^ "George Herbert Walker Bush". Naval History and Heritage Command. August 29, 2019. Retrieved January 12, 2020.
  2. ^
    • "George H.W. Bush, American Diplomat". Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training.
    • "In Memoriam: George Herbert Walker Bush (1924–2018): Veteran, Statesman, Diplomat". Department of State, The National Museum of American Diplomacy. December 20, 2018.
    • "George H.W. Bush: Diplomats Remember". American Foreign Service Association.
    • "President George H.W. Bush: Foreign Policy". Study.com.
    • Pamela Falk (December 3, 2018). "George H.W. Bush stood out as tough negotiator on the world stage". CBS News.
    • "George H.W. Bush Professorship of International Relations". Johns Hopkins University, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies. July 14, 2016.
  3. ^ Kelly, Jon (December 2, 2018). "George HW Bush: What makes a one-term president?". BBC News. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  4. ^ "Presidential Avenue: George Bush". Presidential Avenue. Archived from the original on October 8, 2007. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  5. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 19–20.
  6. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 8–9.
  7. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 16–17.
  8. ^ Eun Kyung Kim (August 14, 2015). "Jenna Bush Hager welcomes second daughter — named after George H.W. Bush". Today. The new bundle of joy is named after Jenna's grandfather and former President George H.W. Bush, whose nickname growing up was "Poppy."
  9. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 20–21.
  10. ^ Bumiller, Elisabeth (July 8, 2002). "White House Letter; At Parents' Home, Bush Resumes Role of Son". The New York Times. Retrieved April 2, 2008.
  11. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 25.
  12. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 27.
  13. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 27–36.
  14. ^ "Former President George Bush honored at his 60th reunion at Phillips Academy, Andover". Phillips Academy. June 8, 2002. Archived from the original on April 1, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  15. ^ a b c Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George H. W. Bush: Life Before the Presidency". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center, the University of Virginia. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
  16. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 54.
  17. ^ Boyd, Gerald M. (November 9, 1988). "A Victor Free to Set His Own Course". The New York Times.
  18. ^ Siegel, Rachel (December 1, 2018). "For George H.W. Bush, Pearl Harbor changed everything, and World War II made him a hero". The Washington Post.
  19. ^ "Lieutenant Junior Grade George Bush, USNR". Naval Historical Center. April 6, 2001. Archived from the original on April 10, 2010.
  20. ^ a b c "George Herbert Walker Bush". Navy History and Heritage Command. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 2, 2018.
  21. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 56–57.
  22. ^ Adams, Kathy (January 10, 2009). "San Jacinto veterans reunite, recall serving with Bush". The Virginian-Pilot. Landmark Communications. Retrieved December 9, 2019.
  23. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 57–59.
  24. ^ a b Meacham 2015, pp. 60–63.
  25. ^ Bradley, James (2003). Flyboys: A True Story of Courage. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-10584-2.
  26. ^ "The Faith of George HW Bush". The Christian Post. June 26, 2017.
  27. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 66.
  28. ^ Washuk, Bonnie (December 1, 2018). "George H.W. Bush called Lewiston-Auburn home during WWII". Sun Journal. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
  29. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 69.
  30. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 70.
  31. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 41.
  32. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 56.
  33. ^ Markovich, Jeremy (January 6, 2017). "George H.W. Bush and Barbara Pierce are wed: Jan. 6, 1945". Politico. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
  34. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 406–407.
  35. ^ Siegel, Rachel (April 22, 2018). "'You were the reason': Barbara and George Bush's love story remembered at her funeral". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  36. ^ "Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter just became the longest-married presidential couple". CNN Politics. October 17, 2019. Retrieved October 18, 2019.
  37. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 97–100.
  38. ^ Withers, Rachel (December 2, 2018). "George H.W. Bush was a champion for people with disabilities". Vox. Retrieved April 13, 2022.
  39. ^ Kakutani, Michiko (November 11, 2014). "Love Flows, President to President". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022. Retrieved November 14, 2014.
  40. ^ "School House to White House: The Education of the Presidents". Washington, D.C.: National Archives. Spring 2007. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  41. ^ Berkower, Simone. "Cheerleading of the '20s: Epitome of masculinity". Yale Daily News. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  42. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 72.
  43. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 78.
  44. ^ Chawkins, Steve (October 11, 2005). "Two Future Presidents Slept Here — latimes". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
  45. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 77, 83.
  46. ^ "George Bush Collection". George Bush Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  47. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 94–96.
  48. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 92–93.
  49. ^ "National Archives NextGen Catalog". National Archives. Retrieved May 14, 2023.
  50. ^ Perin, Monica (April 25, 1999). "Adios, Zapata!". Houston Business Journal. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  51. ^ Bush, George W. 41: A Portrait of My Father. Crown Publishers, 2014, p. 64.
  52. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 144–146.
  53. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 130–131.
  54. ^ "'63 F.B.I. Memo Ties Bush to Intelligence Agency". The New York Times. Associated Press. July 11, 1988.
  55. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 112–114.
  56. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 116–117.
  57. ^ a b Naftali 2007, p. 13.
  58. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 120–122.
  59. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 133.
  60. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 130–132.
  61. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 133–134.
  62. ^ a b "Bush, George Herbert Walker". Scholastic Library Publishing, Inc. Archived from the original on June 15, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  63. ^ "House – August 16, 1967" (PDF). Congressional Record. 113 (17). U.S. Government Printing Office: 22778. Retrieved February 27, 2022.
  64. ^ "House – April 10, 1968" (PDF). Congressional Record. 114 (8). U.S. Government Printing Office: 9621. Retrieved February 27, 2022.
  65. ^ "George H.W. Bush (Part 1)". American Experience. Season 20. Episode 13. May 5, 2008. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved November 14, 2022.
  66. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 136–137.
  67. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 141–142.
  68. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 146–147.
  69. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 150.
  70. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 153–154.
  71. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 152, 157–158.
  72. ^ Herring 2008, pp. 773–775.
  73. ^ Austin, Anthony (October 31, 1971). "Crushing Defeat for the U.S., or A Blessing In Disguise?". The New York Times.
  74. ^ Saunders 2014, p. 39.
  75. ^ Saunders 2014, pp. 38–39.
  76. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 162–163.
  77. ^ "President Richard Nixon and the Presidents". nixontapes.org. Archived from the original on April 9, 2022. Retrieved March 30, 2020. CDHW 156-016 11/29/1972 Unknown time between 10:10 am and 1:47 pm P, GHWB[1] Archived December 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
  78. ^ "Transcript - Episode 4: Turn It Off". NBC News. November 13, 2018. Retrieved January 30, 2020.
  79. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 163–164.
  80. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 166–167.
  81. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 170–173.
  82. ^ "George HW on Nixon resignation". U.S. News & World Report. July 16, 2006. Archived from the original on June 24, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  83. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 176–177.
  84. ^ Bush, George H. W. (2011). Engel, Jeffrey A. (ed.). The China Diary of George H.W. Bush: The Making of a Global President. Princeton University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4008-2961-3.
  85. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 181.
  86. ^ "The George Bush Center for Intelligence". Central Intelligence Agency. April 5, 2007. Archived from the original on June 12, 2007. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
  87. ^ a b Meacham 2015, pp. 189–193.
  88. ^ "FIFA's Dirty Wars". The New Republic. December 15, 2017.
  89. ^ "Quand Pinochet tuait hors du Chili". L'Express. October 30, 1999.
  90. ^ Dowd, Maureen (November 28, 1988). "Will Bush and Dole End Their Grand Old Rivalry?". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  91. ^ "CIA Briefings of Presidential Candidates; Chapter 5: In-Depth Discussions With Carter". Central Intelligence Agency: Center for the Study of Intelligence. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
  92. ^ "George H. W. Bush". Presidential Timeline of the Twentieth Century. Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  93. ^ "President George H. W. Bush: Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University". Ukrainian Embassy. May 21, 2004. Archived from the original on May 19, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
  94. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 209–210.
  95. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 211, 214–215.
  96. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 215–217.
  97. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 221–222.
  98. ^ Noble, Jason (November 30, 2018). "George H.W. Bush in Iowa: The family campaign". The Des Moines Register. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  99. ^ Quinn, Ken (January 18, 2004). "Caucus-goers gave Bush 'Big Mo'". Des Moines Register. p. A15. Retrieved December 1, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. Free access icon
  100. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hatfield, Mark (with the Senate Historical Office) (1997). "Vice Presidents of the United States: George H. W. Bush (1981–1989)" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 23, 2003. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
  101. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 228–229.
  102. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 230–233.
  103. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 233–235.
  104. ^ Neikirk, William R. (March 13, 1988). "Bush conjures up voodoo economics". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  105. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 211–212.
  106. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 236–238.
  107. ^ Cannon, Lou; Broder, David S. (July 17, 1980). "Reagan Nominated, Picks Bush". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  108. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 242–255.
  109. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 23–27.
  110. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 27–28.
  111. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 149–151.
  112. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 267.
  113. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 264–265.
  114. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 275–277.
  115. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 280–281.
  116. ^ Bumiller, Elisabeth (June 9, 2004). "The 40th President: Between 2 First Families, A Complicated Rapport". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  117. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 601–604.
  118. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 267–268.
  119. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 285–287.
  120. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 620–621.
  121. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 166–169, 173.
  122. ^ Rossinow 2015, p. 173.
  123. ^ "1984 Presidential Election Results". David Leip. Retrieved May 25, 2007.
  124. ^ Herring 2008, p. 894.
  125. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 215.
  126. ^ Herring 2008, pp. 897–898.
  127. ^ Greene 2015, p. 90; Meacham 2015, pp. 315–316.
  128. ^ Boyd, Gerald M. (July 14, 1985). "Reagan Transfers Power to Bush For 8-Hour Period of 'Incapacity'". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  129. ^ "The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On". George Washington University. November 20, 2006. Retrieved April 3, 2008.
  130. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 299–305.
  131. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 202–204.
  132. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 210–211.
  133. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 305.
  134. ^ Wilson, Scott (November 8, 2013). "When should a president say he's sorry?". The Washington Post.
  135. ^ Butterfield, Fox (April 15, 1988). "Iran Falls Short in Drive at U.N. To Condemn U.S. in Airbus Case". The New York Times.
  136. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 295–296.
  137. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 297–298.
  138. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 30–31.
  139. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 318, 326.
  140. ^ Apple, R. W. Jr. (February 10, 1988). "Bush and Simon Seen as Hobbled by Iowa's Voting". The New York Times. Retrieved April 4, 2008.
  141. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 322–325.
  142. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 35–37.
  143. ^ a b "1988: George H. W. Bush Gives the 'Speech of his Life'". NPR. 2000. Retrieved April 4, 2008.
  144. ^ Greene 2015, p. 43.
  145. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 40–41.
  146. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 37–39.
  147. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 39, 47.
  148. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 44–46.
  149. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 47–49.
  150. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 347–348.
  151. ^ "1988 Presidential General Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
  152. ^ Greene 2015, p. 49.
  153. ^ Silver, Nate (July 18, 2013). "The White House Is Not a Metronome". FiveThirtyEight.
  154. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 224–225.
  155. ^ "George H. W. Bush: Inaugural Address". Bushlibrary.tamu.edu. January 20, 1989. Archived from the original on April 20, 2004.
  156. ^ a b Greene 2015, pp. 53–55.
  157. ^ Naftali 2007, pp. 69–70.
  158. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 56–57.
  159. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 55–56.
  160. ^ Naftali 2007, pp. 66–67.
  161. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 110–112.
  162. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 368–369.
  163. ^ Herring 2008, pp. 904–906.
  164. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 385–387.
  165. ^ Naftali 2007, pp. 91–93.
  166. ^ Heilbrunn, Jacob (March 31, 1996). "Together Again". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  167. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 400–402.
  168. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 126, 134–137.
  169. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 120–121.
  170. ^ Herring 2008, p. 907.
  171. ^ Herring 2008, pp. 907, 913–914.
  172. ^ Greene 2015, p. 204.
  173. ^ Naftali 2007, pp. 137–138.
  174. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 205–206.
  175. ^ Wines, Michael (February 2, 1992). "Bush and Yeltsn Declare Formal End to Cold War; Agree to Exchange Visits". The New York Times. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  176. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 238–239.
  177. ^ Dinges, John (1990). Our Man in Panama. New York City: Random House. pp. 50, 88. ISBN 978-0-8129-1950-9 – via Internet Archive.
  178. ^ a b Patterson 2005, pp. 226–227.
  179. ^ Franklin, Jane (2001). "Panama: Background and Buildup to Invasion of 1989". Rutgers University. Archived from the original on July 4, 2008. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  180. ^ Brewer, Stewart (2006). Borders and Bridges: A History of U.S.-Latin American Relations. Greenwood. p. 146. ISBN 9780275982041.
  181. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 139–141.
  182. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 230–232.
  183. ^ Herring 2008, pp. 908–909.
  184. ^ "Robert M. Gates Oral History". Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Miller Center. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
  185. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 233.
  186. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 232.
  187. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 146–147, 159.
  188. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 149–151.
  189. ^ a b Patterson 2005, pp. 232–233.
  190. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 160–161.
  191. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 233–235.
  192. ^ Greene 2015, p. 165.
  193. ^ Waterman 1996, p. 337.
  194. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 236.
  195. ^ Wilentz 2008, pp. 313–314.
  196. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: NAFTA". Federal Express. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  197. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 222–223.
  198. ^ "NAFTA". Duke University. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  199. ^ Zarroli, Jim (December 8, 2013). "NAFTA Turns 20, To Mixed Reviews". NPR. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  200. ^ Lohr, Steve (December 25, 1991). "Accepting the Harsh Truth Of a Blue-Collar Recession". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  201. ^ Blue-collar Towns Have Highest Jobless Numbers , Hartford Courant [Connecticut], W. Joseph Campbell, September 1, 1991.
  202. ^ Redburn, Tom (October 28, 1989). "Budget Deficit for 1989 Is Put at $152.1 Billion : Spending: Congress and the White House remain locked in a stalemate over a capital gains tax cut". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
  203. ^ Uchitelle, Louis (October 27, 1990). "The Struggle in Congress; U.S. Deficit for 1990 Surged to Near-Record $220.4 Billion, but How Bad Is That?". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
  204. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 72–73.
  205. ^ Waterman 1996, pp. 340–341.
  206. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 360–361.
  207. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 228–229.
  208. ^ "George H. W. Bush: Domestic Affairs". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  209. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 95–97.
  210. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 409–410.
  211. ^ Balz, Dan; Yang, John E. (June 27, 1990). "Bush Abandons Campaign Pledge, Calls for New Taxes". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 7, 2018.
  212. ^ Heclo, Hugh (2014). "Chapter 2: George Bush and American Conservatism". In Nelson, Michael; Perry, Barbara A. (eds.). 41: Inside the Presidency of George H. W. Bush. Cornell University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-8014-7927-4.
  213. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 100–104.
  214. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 446–447.
  215. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 104–106.
  216. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 395.
  217. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 90–92.
  218. ^ Griffin, Rodman (December 27, 1991). "The Disabilities Act". CQPress. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  219. ^ a b Greene 2015, pp. 79–80.
  220. ^ Devroy, Ann. "Bush Vetoes Civil Rights Bill; Measure Said to Encourage Job Quotas; Women, Minorities Sharply Critical". The Washington Post October 23, 1990, Print.
  221. ^ Holmes, Steven A. (October 23, 1990). "President Vetoes Bill on Job Rights; Showdown is Set". The New York Times. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
  222. ^ Stack, Liam (December 3, 2018). "'He Did Not Lead on AIDS': With Bush, Activists See a Mixed Legacy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  223. ^ Domonoske, Camila (December 4, 2018). "'Kinder Gentler Indifference': Activists Challenge George H.W. Bush's Record On AIDS". NPR. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  224. ^ "Update: Mortality Attributable to HIV Infection Among Persons Aged 25–44 Years – United States, 1991 and 1992". The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. November 19, 1993. pp. 869–872. 42(45). Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  225. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 92–94.
  226. ^ "Bush Signs Major Revision of Anti-Pollution Law". The New York Times. November 16, 1990. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  227. ^ Shabecoff, Philip (April 4, 1990). "Senators Approve Clean Air Measure By a Vote of 89-11". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  228. ^ Brown, Elizabeth (March 19, 1991). "Conservation League Gives Bush 'D' on Environment". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  229. ^ The Points of Light Movement: The President's Report to the Nation. Executive Office of the President, 1993. 1993.
  230. ^ Haven, Stephanie (July 15, 2013). "Obama, Bush present 5,000th Daily Point of Light Award for volunteers". CBS News.
  231. ^ Perry, Suzanne (October 15, 2009). "After Two Tough Years, New Points of Light Charity Emerges". Chronicle of Philanthropy. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
  232. ^ Edward, Deborah (2008). "Getting to Yes: The Points of Light and Hands On Network Merger" (PDF). RGK Center for Philanthropy and Community Service, the University of Texas at Austin. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved May 23, 2013.
  233. ^ a b Crawford Greenburg, Jan (May 1, 2009). "Supreme Court Justice Souter to Retire". ABC News. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  234. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 243–244.
  235. ^ Totenberg, Nina (October 11, 2011). "Clarence Thomas' Influence On The Supreme Court". NPR. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  236. ^ Campbell, Colin; Rockman, Bert (1991). The Bush Presidency: First Appraisals. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. pp. 83. ISBN 0-934540-90-X.
  237. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 239–240.
  238. ^ Schultz, Jeffrey D.; Haynie, Kerry L.; Aoki, Andrew L.; McCulloch, Anne M. (2000). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans. Oryx Press. ISBN 978-1-57356-148-8.
  239. ^ Fix, Michael (1991). The Paper Curtain: Employer Sanctions' Implementation, Impact, and Reform. The Urban Institute. ISBN 978-0-87766-550-2.
  240. ^ Pear, Robert (October 29, 1990). "Major Immigration Bill Is Sent to Bush". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  241. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 97–100.
  242. ^ "The Independent George H. W. Bush". The Independent. UK. January 22, 2009. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  243. ^ Howard, Michael (November 1, 1998). "The Prudence Thing: George Bush's Class Act". Foreign Affairs. 77 (November/December 1998): 130–134. doi:10.2307/20049135. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20049135. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  244. ^ Ajemian, Robert (January 26, 1987). "Where Is the Real George Bush?". Time. Archived from the original on January 8, 2010. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
  245. ^ "Quotations : Oxford Dictionaries Online". Askoxford.com. Archived from the original on February 4, 2003. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  246. ^ Thomas, Helen; Crawford, Craig (2009). Listen Up, Mr. President: Everything You Always Wanted Your President to Know and Do. Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4391-4815-0.
  247. ^ "Joseph A. Palermo: Meg Whitman's "Vision Thing"". HuffPost. September 26, 2009. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  248. ^ "It's time to do the 'vision' thing". Barre Montpelier Times Argus. September 29, 2009. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  249. ^ Mazurak, Zbigniew. "Sarah Palin as a GOP Nominee?". The Reality Check. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  250. ^ Rothkopf, David (October 1, 2009). "Obama does not want to become known as 'The Great Ditherer'". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  251. ^ Freidel, Frank; Sidey, Hugh (2006). "George H. W. Bush". The Presidents of the United States of America. White House Historical Association. Retrieved February 15, 2017.
  252. ^ "Modest Bush Approval Rating Boost at War's End: Summary of Findings – Pew Research Center for the People & the Press". People-press.org. April 18, 2003. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  253. ^ "George H. W. Bush". American Experience. PBS. October 3, 1990. Archived from the original on April 30, 2009. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  254. ^ a b Goldberg, Jonah (August 22, 2008). "The Corner: The Supermarket Scanner Story Cont'd". National Review. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
  255. ^ Rosenthal, Andrew (February 5, 1992). "Bush Encounters the Supermarket, Amazed". The New York Times. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
  256. ^ "Stop panicking in public, Mr. President". Democrat and Chronicle. January 21, 1992.
  257. ^ Moore, David W. (September 24, 2001). "Bush Job Approval Highest in Gallup History". Gallup Inc.
  258. ^ "Presidential Job Approval Center". Gallup Inc. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  259. ^ "Maybe I'm Amazed". Snopes.com. April 1, 2001. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  260. ^ Troy, Gil (1995). "Stumping in the Bookstores: A Literary History of the 1992 Presidential Campaign". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 25 (4): 697–710. ISSN 0360-4918. JSTOR 27551506.
  261. ^ Kornacki, Steve (January 2, 2015). "What if Mario Cuomo had run for president?". MSNBC. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
  262. ^ Waterman 1996, pp. 337–338.
  263. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 444–445.
  264. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 246.
  265. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 251–252.
  266. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 247–248.
  267. ^ "The Perot Vote". President and Fellows of Harvard College. Retrieved April 23, 2008.
  268. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 251.
  269. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 504–506.
  270. ^ "1992 Presidential General Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
  271. ^ Holmes, Steven A. (November 5, 1992). "The 1992 Elections: Disappointment – News Analysis – An Eccentric but No Joke; Perot's Strong Showing Raises Questions On What Might Have Been, and Might Be –". The New York Times. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  272. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 252–253.
  273. ^ R. W. Apple Jr. (November 4, 1992). "THE 1992 ELECTIONS: NEWS ANALYSIS; The Economy's Casualty –". The New York Times. Pennsylvania; Ohio; New England States (Us); Michigan; West Coast; New Jersey; Middle East. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  274. ^ Lazarus, David (June 9, 2004). "Downside of the Reagan Legacy". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  275. ^ WSJ Research (2015). "How the Presidents Stack Up: A Look at U.S. Presidents' Job Approval Ratings (George H.W. Bush)". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
  276. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 233–234.
  277. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 521.
  278. ^ Langer, Gary (January 17, 2001). "Poll: Clinton Legacy Mixed". ABC News. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  279. ^ Mcdonald, Dian (December 24, 1992). "Bush pardons Weinberger, Five Other Tied to Iran-Contra". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on April 21, 2008. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  280. ^ Carl Levin, and Henry Hyde, "The Iran-Contra Pardons-Was It Wrong for Ex-President Bush to Pardon Six Defendants". American Bar Association Journal 79 (1993): 44–45. Levin says yes, Hyde says no.
  281. ^ Lipset, Seymour Martin (1993). "The Significance of the 1992 Election". PS: Political Science and Politics. 26 (1): 7–16. doi:10.2307/419496. ISSN 1049-0965. JSTOR 419496. S2CID 227288247.
  282. ^ Feldman, Claudia (December 13, 1992). "Moving back to the 'hood .../CITIZEN BUSH". Houston Chronicle. p. Lifestyle p. 1. Archived from the original on December 8, 2012.
  283. ^ "Bushes upbeat for step-down". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. January 10, 1993. 1 News. Retrieved October 15, 2012. "Bush's Houston office will be in the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive"
  284. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 540–541.
  285. ^ Lozada, Carlos (December 1, 2018). "The memoir I wish George H.W. Bush had written". The Washington Post.
  286. ^ "frontline: the long road to war: assassination". PBS. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  287. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 541–543.
  288. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 546–549.
  289. ^ Verhovek, Sam Howe (November 9, 1994). "The 1994 Elections: The Nation The Bushes; Texas Elects George W. While Florida Rejects Jeb". The New York Times.
  290. ^ Rosenbaum, David E. (November 4, 1998). "George W. Bush Is Re-elected in Texas; His Brother Jeb Is Victorious in Florida". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  291. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 552–555.
  292. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 560.
  293. ^ Bush, George W. (2014). 41: A Portrait of My Father. Crown Publishers. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-553-44778-1.
  294. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 554, 563–564.
  295. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 567–568.
  296. ^ Meacham 2015, pp. 582–583.
  297. ^ Healy, Patrick (May 19, 2007). "A Candidacy That May Test a Friendship's Ties". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2011.
  298. ^ "People of the Year: Bill Clinton and George H. W. Bush". ABC News. December 27, 2005. Retrieved September 5, 2010.
  299. ^ Graham, David A. (November 5, 2015). "George H.W. Bush's Feuds With Donald Rumsfeld and Dick Cheney Go Back 40 Years". The Atlantic.
  300. ^ "George H. W. Bush Endorses McCain for President". The Washington Post. February 18, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2008.
  301. ^ "George H.W. Bush endorses Romney". United Press International. March 29, 2012.
  302. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 598.
  303. ^ "Bush father, son want Jeb Bush to run for White House". The Arizona Republic. November 11, 2014.
  304. ^ Collins, Eliza. "Bush 41, 43 won't be endorsing Trump". USA Today.
  305. ^ Selk, Avi (November 4, 2017). "White House attacks legacies of both Bush presidents after reports they refused to vote for Trump". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 4, 2017.
  306. ^ Garcia, Feliks (January 18, 2017). "George HW Bush sends personal note to Donald Trump on why he can't attend inauguration". The Independent. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  307. ^ "Both Presidents Bush Condemn Hatred a Day After Trump's Press Conference". Time. Retrieved May 3, 2020.
  308. ^ "Presidents George Bush and G.W. Bush issue joint statement condemning racism and anti-Semitism". Vox. August 16, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2020.
  309. ^ Nemy, Enid (April 17, 2018). "Barbara Bush, Wife of 41st President and Mother of 43rd, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022.
  310. ^ Kamath, Tulsi (April 17, 2018). "Bush family releases details on Barbara Bush's funeral, public visitation". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
  311. ^ Linge, Mary Kay (April 21, 2018). "Presidents pay their respects as Barbara Bush is laid to rest". New York Post. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  312. ^ Winsor, Morgan (April 21, 2018). "Barbara Bush remembered at funeral as 'the first lady of the greatest generation'". ABC News. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  313. ^ "The story behind that viral photo of the past 4 presidents all in the same place". CNN. April 23, 2018. Retrieved May 8, 2020.
  314. ^ "George H.W. Bush Was Last Seen in Public 1 Month Before Death — and It Was to Vote with His Dog". People. Retrieved May 8, 2020.
  315. ^ "Former President George H.W. Bush dead at 94". ABC News. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  316. ^ Nagourney, Adam (November 30, 2018). "George Bush, 41st President, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  317. ^ Bowden, John (November 25, 2017). "Bush 41 becomes longest-living president in US history". The Hill. Washington, D.C. Retrieved November 25, 2017.
  318. ^ Barrow, Bill (March 22, 2019). "Jimmy Carter's new milestone: Longest-lived U.S. president". The Detroit News. Retrieved March 22, 2019.
  319. ^ Lewis, Janna (January 22, 2009). "Texans who were presidents, vice-presidents". Fort Hood Sentinel. Fort Hood, Texas. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  320. ^ Pergram, Chad; Shaw, Adam (December 1, 2018). "George H.W. Bush to lie in state in US Capitol; Trump to attend funeral". John Roberts contributed to this report. Fox News. Retrieved January 21, 2019.
  321. ^ "Individuals Who Have Lain in State or in Honor". Washington, D.C.: Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved January 21, 2019.
  322. ^ a b "Thousands honor former President George H.W. Bush at National Cathedral funeral". CBS News. December 6, 2018. Retrieved January 19, 2019.
  323. ^ Fernandez, Manny (December 12, 2018). "For George Bush, One Last Funeral, and then a 70-Mile Train Ride". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022.
  324. ^ Altman, Lawrence (May 10, 1991). "In Strange Twist, Bush Is Suffering From Same Gland Disease as Wife". The New York Times. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
  325. ^ Burke, Monte (March 25, 2010). "George H. W. Bush's Sporting Life". Forbes. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
  326. ^ Solomon, John (March 21, 2011). "George H.W. Bush - Revisited". The Center for Public Integrity. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
  327. ^ Paulsen, David (December 4, 2018). "Bush remembered as lifelong Episcopalian with deep ties to his church". Episcopal News Service. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
  328. ^ a b Smith, Gary S. (June 26, 2017). "The Faith of George HW Bush". The Christian Post. Retrieved June 1, 2018.
  329. ^ Johnston, Lori (December 1, 2018). "George H.W. Bush helped lead GOP toward evangelicalism". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  330. ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (February 19, 2018). "How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 10, 2019.
  331. ^ "Presidential Historians Survey 2017". C-SPAN. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
  332. ^ Greene 2015, pp. 255–256.
  333. ^ Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George H. W. Bush: Impact and Legacy". Miller Center. University of Virginia.
  334. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 567.
  335. ^ Meacham 2015, p. 595.
  336. ^ Shesol, Jeff (November 13, 2015). "What George H. W. Bush Got Wrong". The New Yorker. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  337. ^ "The George H.W. Bush promise that changed the Republican Party". Vox. May 4, 2018. Archived from the original on November 2, 2020. Retrieved October 29, 2020 – via YouTube.
  338. ^ "A Law for Every American". The New York Times. July 27, 1990. Retrieved October 30, 2020.
  339. ^ Medina, Monica (December 2, 2018). "We can breathe easier - literally - thanks to George H.W. Bush". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 29, 2020.
  340. ^ "Lessons in Bipartisanship: The 1990 Clean Air Act amendments". Environmental America. November 15, 2017. Archived from the original on August 15, 2022.
  341. ^ Glass, Andrew (November 29, 2018). "Bush signs immigration reform statute into law, Nov. 29, 1990". Politico. Retrieved October 29, 2020.
  342. ^ Morrison, Bruce (December 4, 2018). "Bush 41's immigration plan actually worked". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved October 30, 2020.
  343. ^ "George H.W. Bush on Immigration". Immmigration Act Signing Ceremony. C-SPAN. November 30, 1990. Retrieved October 30, 2002.
  344. ^ "Remembering Former President George H.W. Bush's life and legacy". USA Today. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  345. ^ Michael R. Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (Boston, 1993), pp. 470-72.
  346. ^ Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (2002), 64–68, quoted in Sparrow, p. 143.
  347. ^ Rothkopf, David (2009). Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power. PublicAffairs. p. 261. ISBN 9780786736003.
  348. ^ Jacobs, Sam; Rothman, Lily; Benedict, Julie Blume; Cassidy, Catherine, eds. (2023). "George H.W. Bush". TIME Person of the Year: 95 Years of the World's Most Influential People. Time. p. 63.
  349. ^ Church, George J. (January 7, 1991). "A Tale of Two Bushes". Time. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  350. ^ Benito, Marcelino (December 2, 2018). "George H.W. Bush's legacy lives on at Houston airport named after him". KHOU 11.
  351. ^ Courson, Paul (April 26, 1999). "Former President Bush honored at emotional ceremony renaming CIA headquarters". CNN.
  352. ^ "Bush, George H.W." Retrieved June 1, 2018.
  353. ^ "Future USS George H. W. Bush to Transit". Naval Sea Systems Command Public Affairs. December 18, 2008. Retrieved December 22, 2008.
  354. ^ Jones, Matthew (January 10, 2009). "Carrier awaits a call to come to life in ceremony today". The Virginian Pilot. Landmark Communications. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
  355. ^ "Texas ceremony marks issuing of George H.W. Bush stamp". Associated Press News. June 12, 2019. Retrieved September 8, 2019.
  356. ^ "National Archives Accepts Bush Library as Tenth Presidential Library" (Press release). National Archives and Records Administration. November 6, 1997. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  357. ^ "The Birth of the Tenth Presidential Library: The Bush Presidential Materials Project, 1993–1994". George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on April 10, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
  358. ^ a b Heathman, Claire (July 3, 2013). "How Texas A&M became home to the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum". The Bryan-College Station Eagle. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
  359. ^ "Finis Origine Pendent All-School Meeting: October 20, 2022". October 24, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2023 – via YouTube.

Works cited

Further reading

Secondary sources

Primary sources

External links