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антисемитизм

Антисемитизм [a] или ненависть к евреям [2] — это враждебность, предубеждение или дискриминация по отношению к евреям . [3] [4] [5] Это чувство является формой расизма , [b] [6] [7] и человек, который его придерживается, называется антисемитом . В первую очередь, антисемитские тенденции могут быть мотивированы негативным отношением к евреям как к народу или негативным отношением к евреям в отношении иудаизма . В первом случае, обычно представляемом как расовый антисемитизм , враждебность человека обусловлена ​​убеждением, что евреи представляют собой отдельную расу с присущими чертами или характеристиками, которые отталкивают или уступают предпочтительным чертам или характеристикам в обществе этого человека. [8] В последнем случае, известном как религиозный антисемитизм , враждебность человека обусловлена ​​восприятием его религией евреев и иудаизма, обычно охватывающим доктрины вытеснения, которые ожидают или требуют от евреев отвернуться от иудаизма и подчиниться религии, представляющей себя как преемница иудаизма — это общая тема в других авраамических религиях . [9] [10] Развитие расового и религиозного антисемитизма исторически поощрялось концепцией антииудаизма , [11] [12] , которая отличается от самого антисемитизма. [13]

Существуют различные способы проявления антисемитизма, варьирующиеся по уровню жестокости преследования евреев . На более тонком конце он состоит из выражения ненависти или дискриминации в отношении отдельных евреев и может сопровождаться или не сопровождаться насилием. На самом экстремальном конце он состоит из погромов или геноцида , которые могут или не могут быть спонсированы государством. Хотя термин «антисемитизм» не вошел в общее употребление до 19 века, он также применяется к предыдущим и более поздним антиеврейским инцидентам. Известные примеры антисемитских преследований включают резню в Рейнланде в 1096 году; Эдикт об изгнании в 1290 году; европейское преследование евреев во время Черной смерти между 1348 и 1351 годами; резня испанских евреев в 1391 году, подавление испанской инквизиции и изгнание евреев из Испании в 1492 году; казацкие погромы на Украине между 1648 и 1657 годами; различные антиеврейские погромы в Российской империи между 1821 и 1906 годами; дело Дрейфуса между 1894 и 1906 годами; Холокост нацистской Германии во время Второй мировой войны ; и различные советские антиеврейские политики . Исторически большинство жестоких антисемитских событий в мире произошли в христианской Европе . Однако с начала 20-го века в арабском мире наблюдается резкий рост антисемитских инцидентов , в основном из-за всплеска арабских антисемитских теорий заговора , которые в определенной степени культивировались под эгидой европейских антисемитских теорий заговора . [14] [15]

В последнее время несколько раз возникала идея о том, что существует разновидность антисемитизма, известная как « новый антисемитизм ». Согласно этой точке зрения, поскольку государство Израиль является еврейским государством, выражения антисионистских позиций могут таить в себе антисемитские настроения. [16] [17]

Из-за корневого слова Semite , термин склонен к использованию в качестве неправильного наименования теми, кто неверно утверждает (в этимологической ошибке ), что он относится к расистской ненависти, направленной на « семитский народ », несмотря на тот факт, что эта группа является устаревшей исторической расовой концепцией . Аналогично, такое использование ошибочно; составное слово antisemitismus впервые было использовано в печати в Германии в 1879 году [18] как « научно звучащий термин » для Judenhass ( буквально « ненависть к евреям » ), [19] [ 20] [21] [22] [23] и с тех пор оно использовалось для обозначения только антиеврейских настроений. [19] [24] [25]

Происхождение и использование

Этимология

Устав Антисемитской лиги 1879 г.

Слово «семитский» было придумано немецким востоковедом Августом Людвигом фон Шлёцером в 1781 году для обозначения семитской группы языковарамейского , арабского , иврита и других, — на которых предположительно говорили потомки библейского персонажа Сема , сына Ноя . [26] [27]

Происхождение «антисемитских» терминов можно найти в ответах востоковеда Морица Штайншнайдера на взгляды востоковеда Эрнеста Ренана . Историк Алекс Бейн пишет: «Сложный антисемитизм, по-видимому, впервые был использован Штайншнайдером, который бросил вызов Ренану из-за его «антисемитских предрассудков» [т. е. его принижения «семитов » как расы ]». [28] Психолог Авнер Фальк пишет аналогичным образом: «Немецкое слово antisemitisch впервые было использовано в 1860 году австрийским еврейским ученым Морицем Штайншнайдером (1816–1907) в фразе antisemitische Vorurteile (антисемитские предрассудки). Штайншнайдер использовал эту фразу, чтобы охарактеризовать ложные идеи французского философа Эрнеста Ренана о том, что « семитские расы » были ниже « арийских рас » . [29]

Псевдонаучные теории, касающиеся расы , цивилизации и «прогресса», стали довольно широко распространены в Европе во второй половине XIX века, особенно после того, как прусский националистический историк Генрих фон Трейчке сделал многое для продвижения этой формы расизма. Он придумал фразу «евреи — наше несчастье», которая впоследствии широко использовалась нацистами . [30] По словам Фалька, Трейчке использует термин «семитский» почти как синоним термина «еврейский», в отличие от использования его Ренаном для обозначения целого ряда народов, [31] основанного в целом на лингвистических критериях. [32]

По словам филолога Джонатана М. Гесса , этот термин изначально использовался его авторами, чтобы «подчеркнуть радикальное различие между их собственным «антисемитизмом» и более ранними формами антагонизма по отношению к евреям и иудаизму» [33] .

Титульный лист книги Марра «Путь к победе германизма над иудаизмом» , издание 1880 г.

В 1879 году немецкий журналист Вильгельм Марр опубликовал памфлет « Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confienellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet» ( Победа еврейского духа над германским духом. Рассматриваемая с нерелигиозной точки зрения ), в котором он использовал слово Semitismus взаимозаменяемо со словом Judentum для обозначения как «еврейства» (евреев как коллектива), так и «еврейства» (качества быть евреем или еврейского духа). [34] [35] [36] Он обвинил евреев во всемирном заговоре против неевреев, призвал к сопротивлению «этой иностранной власти» и заявил, что «не будет абсолютно ни одной государственной должности, даже самой высокой, которую бы евреи не узурпировали». [37]

Это последовало за его книгой 1862 года Die Judenspiegel ( Зеркало для евреев ), в которой он утверждал, что «иудаизм должен прекратить свое существование, если человечество должно начаться», требуя, чтобы иудаизм был распущен как «религиозно-конфессиональная секта», но также подвергался критике «как раса, гражданское и социальное образование». [38] [39] Во введениях к первому-четвертому изданиям Der Judenspiegel Марр отрицал, что он намеревался проповедовать ненависть к евреям, но вместо этого хотел помочь «евреям достичь своего полного человеческого потенциала», что могло произойти только «через падение иудаизма, явление, которое отрицает все чисто человеческое и благородное». [38]

За этим использованием термина «семитизм» последовало создание термина «антисемитизм», который использовался для обозначения оппозиции евреям как народу [40] и оппозиции еврейскому духу, который Марр интерпретировал как проникновение в немецкую культуру.

Брошюра стала очень популярной, и в том же году Марр основал Antisemiten-Liga (Лигу антисемитов), [41] очевидно названную так в честь «Anti-Kanzler-Liga» (Антиканцлерской лиги). [42] Лига была первой немецкой организацией, которая специально занималась борьбой с предполагаемой угрозой Германии и немецкой культуре, исходящей от евреев и их влияния, и выступала за их принудительное выселение из страны. [ необходима цитата ]

Насколько можно установить, это слово впервые было широко напечатано в 1881 году, когда Марр опубликовал Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte , а Вильгельм Шерер использовал термин Antisemiten в январском номере Neue Freie Presse . [ необходима цитата ]

Еврейская энциклопедия сообщает: «В феврале 1881 года корреспондент Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums говорит об «антисемитизме» как о недавно вошедшем в употребление обозначении («Allg. Zeit. d. Jud.», 1881, стр. 138). 19 июля 1882 года редактор пишет: «Этому совсем недавнему антисемитизму едва ли исполнилось три года » [43] .

Слово «антисемитизм» было заимствовано в английский язык из немецкого в 1881 году. Редактор Оксфордского словаря английского языка Джеймс Мюррей писал, что оно не было включено в первое издание, потому что «Антисемит и его родственные слова, вероятно, были тогда совсем новыми в английском языке и не считались чем-то большим, чем мимолетные окказионализмы... Если бы антисемитизм не имел более чем мимолетного интереса!» [44] Родственный термин « филосемитизм » использовался к 1881 году. [45]

Использование

С самого начала термин «антисемитизм» имел особые расовые коннотации и означал конкретно предубеждение против евреев . [4] [19] [25] Термин был описан как сбивающий с толку, поскольку в современном использовании «семитский» обозначает языковую группу, а не расу. В этом смысле термин является неправильным, поскольку есть много носителей семитских языков (например, арабы , эфиопы и арамеи ), которые не являются объектами антисемитских предрассудков, в то время как есть много евреев, которые не говорят на иврите , семитском языке. Хотя «антисемитизм» можно было бы истолковать как предубеждение против людей, говорящих на других семитских языках, это не то, как этот термин обычно используется. [46] [47] [48] [49]

Термин может быть написан с дефисом или без него (антисемитизм или антисемитизм). Многие ученые и институты отдают предпочтение форме без дефиса. [1] [50] [51] [52] Шмуэль Альмог утверждал: «Если вы используете форму с дефисом, вы считаете слова „семитизм“, „семит“, „семитский“ значимыми... [В] антисемитском жаргоне „семиты“ на самом деле означают евреев, вот и все». [53] Эмиль Факенхайм поддерживал написание без дефиса, чтобы «[развеять] представление о том, что существует сущность „семитизм“, которой противостоит „антисемитизм“». [54]

Другие, поддерживающие термин без дефиса по той же причине, включают Международный альянс памяти жертв Холокоста [1] , историка Дебору Липштадт [19] , Падраика О'Хара, профессора религиозных и теологических исследований и директора Центра изучения еврейско-христианско-мусульманских отношений в колледже Мерримак ; и историков Йехуду Бауэра и Джеймса Кэрролла . По словам Кэрролла, который первым цитирует О'Хара и Бауэра о «существовании чего-то под названием „семитизм », «слово с дефисом, таким образом, отражает биполярность, которая лежит в основе проблемы антисемитизма». [55]

Associated Press и сопровождающая его книга стилей AP приняли написание без дефиса в 2021 году. [56] Руководства по стилю для других новостных организаций, таких как New York Times и Wall Street Journal, позже также приняли это написание. [57] [58] Оно также было принято многими музеями Холокоста , такими как Мемориальный музей Холокоста США и Яд Вашем . [59]

Определение

Хотя общее определение антисемитизма — враждебность или предубеждение по отношению к евреям, и, по словам Олафа Блашке , он стал «обобщающим термином для негативных стереотипов о евреях» [60] :18,  ряд авторитетных лиц разработали более формальные определения.

В 1987 году исследователь Холокоста и профессор Городского университета Нью-Йорка Хелен Фейн определила его как «сохраняющуюся скрытую структуру враждебных убеждений по отношению к евреям как к коллективу, проявляющуюся у отдельных лиц в виде установок, а в культуре — в виде мифа, идеологии, фольклора и образов, а также в действиях — социальной или правовой дискриминации, политической мобилизации против евреев и коллективном или государственном насилии, — которая приводит к дистанцированию, вытеснению или уничтожению евреев как таковых и/или направлена ​​на это» [61] .

Развивая определение Фейна, Диц Беринг из Кельнского университета пишет, что для антисемитов «евреи не только частично, но и полностью плохи по своей природе, то есть их плохие черты неисправимы. Из-за этой плохой природы: (1) евреев следует рассматривать не как индивидуумов, а как коллектив. (2) евреи остаются по сути чуждыми окружающим обществам. (3) евреи навлекают беду на свои «общества-хозяева» или на весь мир, они делают это тайно, поэтому антисемиты чувствуют себя обязанными разоблачить заговорщический, плохой еврейский характер». [62]

Для швейцарского историка Сони Вайнберг, в отличие от экономического и религиозного антииудаизма , антисемитизм в его специфически современной форме демонстрирует концептуальное новаторство, обращение к «науке» для самозащиты, новые функциональные формы и организационные различия. Он был антилиберальным, расистским и националистическим. Он продвигал миф о том, что евреи сговорились «иудаизировать» мир ; он служил консолидации социальной идентичности; он направлял недовольство среди жертв капиталистической системы; и он использовался как консервативный культурный код для борьбы с эмансипацией и либерализмом. [60] : 18–19 

Карикатура К. Леандра (Франция, 1898), изображающая Ротшильда с миром в руках.

В 2003 году израильский политик Натан Щаранский разработал так называемый тест «трех Д», чтобы отличить антисемитизм от критики Израиля, используя делегитимацию , демонизацию и двойные стандарты в качестве лакмусовой бумажки для первого. [63] [64] [65] [66]

Бернард Льюис , писавший в 2006 году, определил антисемитизм как особый случай предрассудков, ненависти или преследования, направленных против людей, которые в некотором роде отличаются от остальных. По словам Льюиса, антисемитизм характеризуется двумя отличительными чертами: евреев судят по стандарту, отличному от того, который применяется к другим, и их обвиняют в «космическом зле». Таким образом, «вполне возможно ненавидеть и даже преследовать евреев, не обязательно будучи антисемитом», если только эта ненависть или преследование не проявляют одну из двух черт, характерных для антисемитизма. [67]

Международные и правительственные органы предприняли ряд попыток дать формальное определение антисемитизму. В 2005 году Государственный департамент США заявил, что «хотя общепринятого определения не существует, в целом существует четкое понимание того, что охватывает этот термин». В целях Доклада о глобальном антисемитизме за 2005 год этот термин рассматривался как означающий «ненависть к евреям — индивидуально и как к группе — которую можно отнести к еврейской религии и/или этнической принадлежности». [68]

В 2005 году Европейский центр мониторинга расизма и ксенофобии (EUMC, теперь Агентство по основным правам ), агентство Европейского союза , разработало более подробное рабочее определение , в котором говорилось: «Антисемитизм — это определенное восприятие евреев, которое может выражаться в ненависти к евреям. Риторические и физические проявления антисемитизма направлены на еврейских или неевреев и/или их имущество, на еврейские общинные учреждения и религиозные сооружения». В нем также добавляется, что «такие проявления могут быть также направлены на государство Израиль, задуманное как еврейская общность», но что «критика Израиля, подобная той, которая направлена ​​против любой другой страны, не может считаться антисемитской». [69] В нем приводятся современные примеры того, как может проявляться антисемитизм, включая пропаганду причинения вреда евреям во имя идеологии или религии; пропаганду негативных стереотипов о евреях; возложение на евреев коллективной ответственности за действия отдельного еврейского лица или группы; отрицание Холокоста или обвинение евреев или Израиля в его преувеличении; и обвинение евреев в двойной лояльности или большей преданности Израилю, чем своей собственной стране. Он также перечисляет способы, которыми нападение на Израиль может быть антисемитским, и заявляет, что отрицание права еврейского народа на самоопределение, например, утверждение, что существование государства Израиль является расистским начинанием, может быть проявлением антисемитизма — как и применение двойных стандартов, требуя от Израиля поведения, которое не ожидается или не требуется от любой другой демократической страны, или возложение на евреев коллективной ответственности за действия государства Израиль. [69]

Рабочее определение EUMC было принято Рабочей группой Европейского парламента по антисемитизму в 2010 году, [70] [ необходим неосновной источник ] Государственным департаментом США в 2017 году, [71] [ необходим неосновной источник ] в Руководстве по оперативным преступлениям на почве ненависти Коллегии полиции Великобритании в 2014 году [72] [ необходим неосновной источник ] и Кампанией Великобритании против антисемитизма . [73] [ необходим неосновной источник ] В 2016 году рабочее определение было принято Международным альянсом памяти жертв Холокоста . [74] [75] Рабочее определение антисемитизма IHRA является одним из самых спорных документов, связанных с противодействием антисемитизму, и критики утверждают, что оно использовалось для цензуры критики Израиля. [76] В ответ на предполагаемую неясность определения IHRA в 2021 году были опубликованы два новых определения антисемитизма: Nexus Document в феврале 2021 года и Иерусалимская декларация об антисемитизме в марте 2021 года. [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82]

Плакат о выборах в Париже, Франция, 1889 г., на котором изображен сам себя называющий «кандидат-антисемит» Адольф Вийетт : «Евреи — это другая раса, враждебная нашей... Иудаизм — вот враг!» (полный перевод см. в файле)

Эволюция использования

В 1879 году Вильгельм Марр основал Antisemiten-Liga (Антисемитскую лигу). [83] Отождествление себя с антисемитизмом и антисемитизмом было политически выгодно в Европе в конце 19 века. Например, Карл Люгер , популярный мэр Вены конца века , умело использовал антисемитизм как способ направить общественное недовольство в своих политических интересах. [84] В некрологе Люгера 1910 года газета The New York Times отмечает, что Люгер был «председателем Христианско-социального союза парламента и Антисемитского союза сейма Нижней Австрии». [85] В 1895 году А. К. Куза организовал в Бухаресте Всемирный антисемитский альянс . В период до Второй мировой войны , когда враждебность по отношению к евреям была гораздо более распространенным явлением, для человека, организации или политической партии было обычным делом идентифицировать себя как антисемита или антисемитку.

Ранний пионер сионизма Леон Пинскер , профессиональный врач, предпочитал клинически звучащий термин «юдофобия » антисемитизму, который он считал неправильным. Слово «юдофобия» впервые появилось в его памфлете « Автоэмансипация », опубликованном анонимно на немецком языке в сентябре 1882 года, где оно описывалось как иррациональный страх или ненависть к евреям. По мнению Пинскера, этот иррациональный страх был наследственной предрасположенностью. [86]

Иудеофобия — это форма демонопатии, с той разницей, что еврейский призрак стал известен всей расе человечества, а не только определенным расам... Иудеофобия — это психическое расстройство. Как психическое расстройство, оно наследственное, и как болезнь, передаваемая в течение двух тысяч лет, оно неизлечимо... Таким образом, иудаизм и ненависть к евреям прошли через историю на протяжении столетий как неразлучные спутники... Проанализировав иудеофобию как наследственную форму демонопатии, свойственную человеческой расе, и представив ненависть к евреям как основанную на унаследованном отклонении человеческого разума, мы должны сделать важный вывод, что мы должны отказаться от борьбы с этими враждебными импульсами, так же как мы отказываемся от борьбы с любой другой унаследованной предрасположенностью. [87]

После погрома «Хрустальной ночи» в 1938 году немецкий министр пропаганды Геббельс заявил: «Немецкий народ — антисемит. Он не желает, чтобы его права ограничивались или чтобы его в будущем провоцировали паразиты еврейской расы». [88]

После победы союзников над нацистской Германией в 1945 году , и особенно после того, как стало известно о полном масштабе нацистского геноцида против евреев , термин «антисемитизм» приобрел уничижительные коннотации. Это ознаменовало полный круговой сдвиг в использовании, с эпохи всего несколько десятилетий назад, когда «еврей» использовался как уничижительный термин. [89] [90] Йехуда Бауэр писал в 1984 году: «В мире нет антисемитов... Никто не говорит: «Я антисемит». Вы не можете, после Гитлера. Это слово вышло из моды». [91]

Дискуссия об этернализме и контекстуализме

Изучение антисемитизма стало политически спорным из-за различных интерпретаций Холокоста и израильско-палестинского конфликта. [92] Существует два конкурирующих взгляда на антисемитизм: этернализм и контекстуализм. [93] Этернализм рассматривает антисемитизм как нечто отдельное от других форм расизма и предрассудков и как исключительную, трансисторическую силу, телеологически достигающую кульминации в Холокосте. [93] [94] Ханна Арендт критиковала этот подход, написав, что он спровоцировал «неудобный вопрос: «Почему именно евреи из всех людей?» ... с вопросом, напрашивающимся ответом: вечная враждебность». [95] Сионистские мыслители и антисемиты делают разные выводы из того, что они воспринимают как вечную ненависть к евреям; по мнению антисемитов, это доказывает неполноценность евреев, в то время как для сионистов это означает, что евреям нужно собственное государство в качестве убежища. [96] [97] Большинство сионистов не верят, что с антисемитизмом можно бороться с помощью образования или других средств. [96]

Контекстуальный подход рассматривает антисемитизм как тип расизма и фокусируется на историческом контексте, в котором возникает ненависть к евреям. [98] Некоторые контекстуалисты ограничивают использование «антисемитизма» исключительно для обозначения эпохи современного расизма, рассматривая антииудаизм как отдельное явление. [99] Историк Дэвид Энгель оспорил проект определения антисемитизма, утверждая, что он эссенциализирует еврейскую историю как историю преследований и дискриминации. [100] Энгель утверждает, что термин «антисемитизм» бесполезен в историческом анализе, поскольку он подразумевает, что существуют связи между антиеврейскими предрассудками, выраженными в разных контекстах, без доказательств такой связи. [95]

Проявления

Сжигание евреев (которых можно распознать по обязательному еврейскому значку и еврейской шляпе ).

Антисемитизм проявляется различными способами. Рене Кёниг упоминает социальный антисемитизм, экономический антисемитизм, религиозный антисемитизм и политический антисемитизм в качестве примеров. Кёниг указывает, что эти различные формы демонстрируют, что «истоки антисемитских предрассудков уходят корнями в разные исторические периоды». Кёниг утверждает, что различия в хронологии различных антисемитских предрассудков и неравномерное распределение таких предрассудков среди разных слоев населения создают «серьёзные трудности в определении различных видов антисемитизма». [101]

Эти трудности могут способствовать существованию различных таксономий, которые были разработаны для категоризации форм антисемитизма. Выявленные формы по существу одинаковы; в первую очередь различаются число форм и их определения. Бернар Лазар , писавший в 1890-х годах, выделил три формы антисемитизма: христианский антисемитизм , экономический антисемитизм и этнологический антисемитизм. [102] Уильям Брустейн называет четыре категории: религиозную, расовую, экономическую и политическую. [103] Римско -католический историк Эдвард Флэннери различал четыре разновидности антисемитизма: [104]

Европа обвинила евреев в энциклопедии грехов .
Церковь обвинила евреев в убийстве Иисуса ; Вольтер обвинил евреев в изобретении христианства . В лихорадочных умах антисемитов евреи были ростовщиками , отравителями колодцев и распространителями болезней . Евреи были создателями как коммунизма , так и капитализма ; они были клановыми, но также и космополитичными ; трусливыми и воинственными; самодовольными моралистами и осквернителями культуры.
Идеологи и демагоги многих перестановок понимали, что евреи являются исключительно злобной силой, стоящей между миром и его совершенством.

Джеффри Голдберг , 2015. [111]

Луи Харап, писавший в 1980-х годах, разделил «экономический антисемитизм» и объединил «политический» и «националистический» антисемитизм в «идеологический антисемитизм». Харап также добавляет категорию «социальный антисемитизм». [112]

Религиозный антисемитизм

Казнь Марианы де Карабахаль (обращенной еврейки), обвиненной в возвращении в иудаизм, Мехико , 1601 г.

Религиозный антисемитизм , также известный как антииудаизм, — это антипатия к евреям из-за их предполагаемых религиозных убеждений. Теоретически антисемитизм и нападения на отдельных евреев прекратились бы, если бы евреи прекратили практиковать иудаизм или изменили свою публичную веру, особенно путем обращения в официальную или правильную религию. Однако в некоторых случаях дискриминация продолжается после обращения, как в случае с марранами (христианизированными евреями в Испании и Португалии) в конце 15-го и 16-м веках, которых подозревали в тайном исповедании иудаизма или соблюдении еврейских обычаев. [104]

Хотя истоки антисемитизма уходят корнями в иудео-христианский конфликт, в наше время развились и другие формы антисемитизма. Фредерик Швейцер утверждает, что «большинство ученых игнорируют христианскую основу, на которой покоится современное антисемитское здание, и ссылаются на политический антисемитизм, культурный антисемитизм, расизм или расовый антисемитизм, экономический антисемитизм и тому подобное». [113] Уильям Николс проводит различие между религиозным антисемитизмом и современным антисемитизмом, основанным на расовых или этнических признаках: «Разделительной линией была возможность эффективного обращения [...] еврей переставал быть евреем при крещении ». Однако с точки зрения расового антисемитизма «ассимилированный еврей оставался евреем даже после крещения. […] Начиная с эпохи Просвещения , уже невозможно провести четкие границы между религиозными и расовыми формами враждебности по отношению к евреям. […] Как только евреи эмансипировались и появилось светское мышление, не оставив позади старую христианскую враждебность по отношению к евреям, новый термин «антисемитизм» становится почти неизбежным, даже до появления явно расистских доктрин». [114]

Некоторые христиане, такие как католический священник Эрнест Жуэн , опубликовавший первый французский перевод « Протоколов» , сочетали религиозный и расовый антисемитизм, как в его заявлении, что «С тройственной точки зрения расы, национальности и религии еврей стал врагом человечества». [115] Яростный антисемитизм Эдуарда Дрюмона , одного из самых читаемых католических писателей во Франции во время дела Дрейфуса, также сочетал религиозный и расовый антисемитизм. [116] [117] [118] Дрюмон основал Антисемитскую лигу Франции .

Экономический антисемитизм

Мужчина целует ноги другому мужчине с крючковатым носом, роняя деньги ему на голову
Словацкий пропагандистский плакат времен Второй мировой войны призывает читателей «не быть слугами еврея».

Основная предпосылка экономического антисемитизма заключается в том, что евреи осуществляют вредоносную экономическую деятельность или что экономическая деятельность становится вредоносной, когда она осуществляется евреями. [119]

Связь евреев и денег лежит в основе самых разрушительных и устойчивых антисемитских выдумок . [120] Антисемиты утверждают, что евреи контролируют мировые финансы, теория, выдвинутая в мошеннических «Протоколах сионских мудрецов» и позднее повторенная Генри Фордом и его «Дирборн Индепендент» . В современную эпоху такие мифы продолжают распространяться в таких книгах, как «Тайная связь между черными и евреями», издаваемых «Нацией ислама» , и в Интернете.

Дерек Пенслар пишет, что финансовые утки состоят из двух компонентов: [121]

а) Евреи — дикари, которые «по своему темпераменту не способны к честному труду»
б) Евреи — «лидеры финансовой клики, стремящейся к мировому господству»

Абрахам Фоксман описывает шесть граней финансовых уток:

  1. Все евреи богаты [122]
  2. Евреи скупы и жадны [123]
  3. Влиятельные евреи контролируют деловой мир [124]
  4. Еврейская религия подчеркивает прибыль и материализм [125]
  5. Евреям разрешено обманывать неевреев [126]
  6. Евреи используют свою власть на благо «себя» [127]

Джеральд Крефец резюмирует миф следующим образом: «[Евреи] контролируют банки, денежную массу, экономику и бизнес — сообщества, страны, мира». [128] Крефец приводит в качестве иллюстраций множество оскорблений и пословиц (на нескольких разных языках), которые предполагают, что евреи скупы, жадны, скупы или агрессивны в торгах. [129] В девятнадцатом веке евреев описывали как «грубых, глупых и скупых», но после еврейской эмансипации и возвышения евреев до среднего или высшего класса в Европе их стали изображать как «умных, коварных и манипулятивных финансистов, стремящихся доминировать [в мировых финансах]». [130]

Леон Поляков утверждает, что экономический антисемитизм не является отдельной формой антисемитизма, а всего лишь проявлением теологического антисемитизма (потому что без теологических причин экономического антисемитизма не было бы экономического антисемитизма). В противовес этой точке зрения Дерек Пенслар утверждает, что в современную эпоху экономический антисемитизм «является отчетливым и почти постоянным», а теологический антисемитизм «часто подавлен». [131]

Академическое исследование Франческо Д'Акунто, Марселя Прокопчука и Михаэля Вебера показало, что люди, живущие в районах Германии, где зафиксирована самая жестокая история антисемитских преследований, с большей вероятностью будут недоверчивы к финансам в целом. Поэтому они, как правило, вкладывали меньше денег в фондовый рынок и принимали плохие финансовые решения. Исследование пришло к выводу, что «преследование меньшинств снижает не только долгосрочное богатство преследуемых, но и преследователей». [132]

Расовый антисемитизм

Советский солдат-еврей, взятый в плен немецкой армией, август 1941 года. По меньшей мере 50 000 солдат-евреев были расстреляны после отбора. [133]

Расовый антисемитизм – это предубеждение против евреев как расовой/этнической группы, а не против иудаизма как религии. [134]

Расовый антисемитизм — это идея о том, что евреи являются отдельной и неполноценной расой по сравнению с принимающими их странами. В конце 19-го и начале 20-го века он получил широкое признание как часть евгенического движения, которое классифицировало неевропейцев как неполноценных. Он более конкретно утверждал, что северные европейцы, или «арийцы», были выше. Расовые антисемиты считали евреев частью семитской расы и подчеркивали их неевропейское происхождение и культуру. Они считали евреев не подлежащими искуплению, даже если они обращались в религию большинства. [135]

Расовый антисемитизм заменил ненависть к иудаизму ненавистью к евреям как группе. В контексте промышленной революции , последовавшей за еврейской эмансипацией , евреи быстро урбанизировались и пережили период большей социальной мобильности. С уменьшением роли религии в общественной жизни, смягчающим религиозный антисемитизм, сочетание растущего национализма , подъема евгеники и негодования по поводу социально-экономического успеха евреев привело к новому и более злобному расистскому антисемитизму. [136]

В начале 19 века в странах Западной Европы был принят ряд законов, обеспечивающих эмансипацию евреев. [137] [138] Старые законы, ограничивавшие их гетто , а также многочисленные законы, ограничивавшие их права собственности, права вероисповедания и занятия, были отменены. Несмотря на это, традиционная дискриминация и враждебность к евреям по религиозным мотивам сохранялись и дополнялись расовым антисемитизмом , поощряемым работами расовых теоретиков, таких как Жозеф Артюр де Гобино и, в частности, его «Очерком о неравенстве человеческой расы» 1853–1855 годов. Националистические программы, основанные на этнической принадлежности , известные как этнонационализм , обычно исключали евреев из национального сообщества как чуждую расу. [139] С этим были связаны теории социального дарвинизма , которые подчеркивали предполагаемый конфликт между высшими и низшими расами людей. Подобные теории, обычно выдвигаемые северными европейцами, отстаивали превосходство белых арийцев над семитскими евреями. [140]

Политический антисемитизм

Вся проблема евреев существует только в национальных государствах, поскольку здесь их энергия и высший интеллект, их накопленный капитал духа и воли, собранные из поколения в поколение посредством долгой школы страданий, должны стать настолько преобладающими, чтобы вызвать массовую зависть и ненависть. Поэтому почти во всех современных нациях — в прямой зависимости от степени их националистических действий — распространяется литературная непристойность ведения евреев на бойню как козлов отпущения всех мыслимых общественных и внутренних несчастий.

Фридрих Ницше , 1886, [MA 1 475] [141]

Уильям Брустейн определяет политический антисемитизм как враждебность по отношению к евреям, основанную на убеждении, что евреи стремятся к национальной или мировой власти. Исраэль Гутман характеризует политический антисемитизм как тенденцию «возлагать на евреев ответственность за поражения и политические экономические кризисы», одновременно стремясь «использовать оппозицию и сопротивление еврейскому влиянию как элементы политических партийных платформ». [142] Дерек Дж. Пенслар писал: «Политический антисемитизм идентифицировал евреев как ответственных за все вызывающие беспокойство социальные силы, которые характеризовали современность ». [143]

По словам Виктора Каради, политический антисемитизм получил широкое распространение после юридической эмансипации евреев и был направлен на то, чтобы обратить вспять некоторые последствия этой эмансипации. [144]

Культурный антисемитизм

Луи Харап определяет культурный антисемитизм как «такую ​​разновидность антисемитизма, которая обвиняет евреев в развращении данной культуры и попытке вытеснить или успешно вытеснить предпочтительную культуру единообразной, грубой, «еврейской» культурой». [145] Аналогичным образом Эрик Кандель характеризует культурный антисемитизм как основанный на идее «еврейства» как «религиозной или культурной традиции, которая приобретается посредством обучения, посредством отличительных традиций и образования». По словам Канделя, эта форма антисемитизма рассматривает евреев как обладающих «непривлекательными психологическими и социальными характеристиками, которые приобретаются посредством аккультурации». [146] Невик и Никосия характеризуют культурный антисемитизм как сосредоточенный на «отчужденности евреев от обществ, в которых они живут», и осуждающий ее». [147] Важной чертой культурного антисемитизма является то, что он считает отрицательные черты иудаизма искупаемыми посредством образования или религиозного обращения. [148]

Теории заговора

Отрицание Холокоста и теории еврейского заговора также считаются формами антисемитизма. [69] [149] [150] [151] [152] [153] [154] Зоологические теории заговора пропагандируются арабскими СМИ и арабоязычными веб-сайтами, утверждая, что за использованием животных для нападения на мирных жителей или для ведения шпионажа стоит «сионистский заговор». [155]

Новый антисемитизм

Плакат на акции протеста в Эдинбурге, Шотландия , январь 2009 г.

Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel,[156] and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.[157]

Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".[157] It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.[156]

Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.[158]

History

The massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627

Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:[159]

  1. Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
  2. Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
  3. Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
  4. Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
  5. Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
  6. Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism

Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."[160]

Ancient world

The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria,[161] the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus.[162] Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat.[163] One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.[164]: 238 

In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices".[165] The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.[166][167] The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes.[168] Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis.[169] Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.[170]

Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.[171] Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."[104]

There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.

The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.[172]

Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.[104] However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.

James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[173]

Persecutions during the Middle Ages

In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.[174] Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",[175] ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.[176]

From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmis and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century.[177] It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066.[178][179][180] Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.[181]

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,[182] were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.[183][184][185] Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,[183] while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.[183]

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade.[186] This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.[187]

In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,[188] and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.[189]

In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.[190]

As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.[191]

Reformation

Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust."[192]

17th century

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614

During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.[193][194]

European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.[195]

In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.[196]

Enlightenment

In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as malke-geld ("queen's money" in Yiddish).[197] In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.

In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

Voltaire

According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".[198] Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."[199] Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.[200]

Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution

The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution.[201][202] Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.[203][204][205][206] Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel.[201][207][208] Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.[201][209]

Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.[210][209] Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.[209] Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.[209]

Imperial Russia

Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.[211] A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.[212]

Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881).[213] However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".[214]

Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century

Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."[215]

In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."[216]

In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.[217]

At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".[218]

Secular or racial antisemitism

Title page of the second edition of Das Judenthum in der Musik, published in 1869
Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the Dreyfus affair

In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"[219] – published Das Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music"[219]) under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:[219]

According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.[219]

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.[219]

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn").

The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.[220]

Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.[221]

The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.[222]

Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party.[223][224] This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.

Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.[225][226][227] These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.[228][229][230] Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it.[231][232]

Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.[233][234][235][236] Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."[237]

David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".[238] According to McLellan, Marx used the word Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".[239]

20th century

The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav

Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.[240] The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.[241]

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms.[242]

Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper Der Stürmer, Worms, Germany, 1935

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".[243]

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, 1945

In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.[244][245]

In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as Rassenschande ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").[246] It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.[247] Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.

In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.[248][249][250] Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to Kristallnacht by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".[251] An article by Jonathan Marwil in Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.[252]

In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom.[253] After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust.[254] Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.[254][255][256]

Contemporary antisemitism

Post-WWII antisemitism

There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.[257][258] This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the 'Doctors' Plot' in 1952.

In the 20th century, Soviet and Russian antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the Bolsheviks initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with Marxist ideology. However, under Joseph Stalin's regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "rootless cosmopolitans".[259] The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.[259] The Doctors' Plot of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.

In that same year, the antisemitic Slánský show trial alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."[260] In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the State of Israel and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."[261] The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book Judaism Without Embellishment, written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed Nazi propaganda, alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.[260] It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.

The Six-Day War in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.[260] This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."[262] The Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public shut down and expropriated synagogues, yeshivas, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of Hebrew. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the KGB and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.[260]

Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion and sometimes relied upon Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf as a source of information about Zionism.[260] Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."[263] The still-extant Novosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the CPSU in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 Prague Spring.[263] According to historian William Korey, "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"[262]

Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.[258] After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours.[264][265]

21st-century European antisemitism

Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.[266][267] A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."[268]

This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.[269] This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.[270]

In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".[271] He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."[271]

Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,[272] the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,[273] the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine[274] and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.[275]

According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.[276] While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.[277]

21st-century Arab antisemitism

Graffiti of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city Nablus, 2022

Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".[278]

In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.[279]

According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda.[280] According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."[281]

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.[282][283][284]

According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.[285]

21st-century antisemitism at universities

After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.[286][287][288] Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.[289][290][291] On 1 May 2024, the United States House of Representatives voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance definition of antisemitism into law.[292] The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the American Jewish Committee and World Jewish Congress generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.[293][294] An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.[295]

Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism

4% of African-Americans self-identified as Black Hebrew Israelites in 2019.[296] Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.[297]

In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".[298] Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion.[299][300] Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.[297]

Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.[297] Black Hebrew Israelites promote the Khazar theory about Ashkenazi Jewish origins.[297] In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites.[296]

Causes

Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat.[301]

Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."[302] The latter position is exemplified by Theodor W. Adorno, who wrote that 'Anti-Semitism is the rumour about Jews'.[303][304]

As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by Bernard Lazare questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.[305][306][307] As another example, Walter Laqueur suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews.[308] Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,[308] while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury",[309] although recent scholarship, such as that of historian Julie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian projection of taboo behaviour on to the minority.[302][310][311]

In Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (2013), historian David Nirenberg traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.[312] Its foundation lies in the early claim of Jewish deicide and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic 'other' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the Enlightenment, figures like Voltaire critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the Soviet Union frequently portrayed Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and communism. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.[312]

British quantum physicist David Deutsch has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews."[313] He provides the following examples:

  1. The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
  2. The idea that Jews cause pollution – for instance that they are poisoning the water supply, or that they desecrate holy sites and artefacts – which is often extended, semi-metaphorically, to the idea that Jews are pollution/vermin/rotten/cancer etc.;
  3. Blood libels, the classic one being that Jews kidnap and murder non-Jewish children and consume their blood in religious rituals;
  4. The incorporation of an entity called 'The Jews' deeply into the fabric of many cultures as the eternal enemy bent on destroying whatever that culture values; and
  5. Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.

British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,

This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the legitimacy of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed.[314]The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.[315]

Prevention through education

Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination.[316] However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities.[316]

Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the Holocaust is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. Dara Horn wrote in The Atlantic that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."[317]

Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"[318]

Geographical variation

A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.[319] A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.[320] In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism,[321] which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".[322]

In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.[323][324] The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.[323] In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.[323]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "Semitism" is a valid concept.[1]
  2. ^ Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought, see the § Eternalism–contextualism debate paragraph.

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c "Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism" (PDF). International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2019. The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.
  2. ^ "Jew-hatred". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/2854443694. Retrieved 2 September 2024. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. ^ "anti-Semitism". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  4. ^ a b "anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived from the original on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  5. ^ See, for example:
    • "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006.
    • Johnson, Paul (1988). A History of the Jews. HarperPerennial. p. 133.
    • Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). "The New Anti-Semitism". The American Scholar. 75 (1): 25–36. Archived from the original on 8 September 2011.
  6. ^ "Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance" (PDF). United Nations. 1 March 1999. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  7. ^ Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). "2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia" (PDF). Executive Council of Australian Jewry. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  8. ^ "Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2023. These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics, they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination.
  9. ^ Novak, David (February 2019). "Supersessionism hard and soft". firstthings.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  10. ^ Sandra Toenies Keating (2014). "Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān". Nicholas of Cusa and Islam. Brill. pp. 202–217. doi:10.1163/9789004274761_014. ISBN 9789004274761. S2CID 170395646. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  11. ^ "From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism". Facing History and Ourselves. 1 August 2017. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  12. ^ Zauzmer Weil, Julie (22 August 2019). "How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  13. ^ M. Freidenreich, David (18 November 2022). "How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends". University of California Press. Archived from the original on 25 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  14. ^ Herf, Jeffrey (December 2009). "Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings". Central European History. 42 (4). Cambridge University Press: 709–736. doi:10.1017/S000893890999104X. ISSN 0008-9389. JSTOR 40600977. S2CID 145568807.
  15. ^ Spoerl, Joseph S. (January 2020). "Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism". Jewish Political Studies Review. 31 (1/2). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: 210–244. ISSN 0792-335X. JSTOR 26870795. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  16. ^ "What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?". BBC News. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  17. ^ Malik, Kenan (24 February 2019). "Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  18. ^ Bein (1990), p. 595.
  19. ^ a b c d Lipstadt (2019), pp. 22–25.
  20. ^ Chanes (2004), p. 150.
  21. ^ Rattansi (2007), pp. 4–5.
  22. ^ Johnston (1983), p. 27.
  23. ^ Laqueur (2006), p. 21.
  24. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 133.
  25. ^ a b Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Anti-Semites". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2018.. Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973.
    • Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). "The New Anti-Semitism". The American Scholar. 75 (1): 25–36. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017.
  26. ^ Vermeulen, H.F. (2015). Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7738-0. Retrieved 7 October 2022. Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."
  27. ^ Kiraz (2001), p. 25; Baasten (2003), p. 67
  28. ^ Bein (1990), p. 594.
  29. ^ Falk (2008), p. 21.
  30. ^ Poliakov, Léon (2003). The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire to Wagner. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-8122-1865-7.
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