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Вторая интифада

Вторая интифада ( араб . الانتفاضة الثانية , латинизированоAl-Intifāḍa aṯ-Ṯhāniya , букв. «Второе восстание»; иврит : האינתיפאדה השנייה Ha-Intifada ha-Shniya ), также известная как интифада Аль-Акса , [11] была крупным восстанием палестинцев против израильской оккупации , характеризовавшимся периодом обострения насилия на палестинских территориях и в Израиле между 2000 и 2005 годами. [11] [12] [13] Предполагается, что основными причинами беспорядков стали провал саммита в Кэмп-Дэвиде в 2000 году . который, как ожидалось, достигнет окончательного соглашения по израильско-палестинскому мирному процессу в июле 2000 года. [14] Всплеск насильственных инцидентов начался в сентябре 2000 года после того, как израильский политик Ариэль Шарон совершил провокационный визит на Храмовую гору ; [15] [14] сам визит был мирным, но, как и ожидалось, вызвал протесты и беспорядки, которые израильская полиция подавила резиновыми пулями, боевыми патронами и слезоточивым газом. [16] В течение первых нескольких дней восстания Армия обороны Израиля выпустила один миллион патронов. [17]

Большое количество жертв было вызвано как среди мирных жителей, так и среди комбатантов, что контрастирует с относительно менее жестоким характером Первой интифады (1987–1993). Около 138 терактов с участием смертников , совершенных палестинскими военизированными группировками , стали одной из наиболее заметных особенностей интифады и в основном были направлены против израильских мирных жителей. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] Израильские силы безопасности участвовали в перестрелках, целенаправленных убийствах , танковых атаках и авиаударах; палестинцы участвовали в перестрелках, терактах с участием смертников (первый из которых произошел в марте 2001 года [17] ), бросании камней и ракетных атаках . [23] [24] В течение первых нескольких недель восстания соотношение убитых палестинцев и израильтян составляло около 20 к 1. [17] С учетом общих потерь среди комбатантов и мирных жителей, насилие, по оценкам, привело к гибели приблизительно 3000 палестинцев и 1000 израильтян, а также 64 иностранных граждан. [25]

Многие считают, что саммит в Шарм-эль-Шейхе 2005 года положил конец восстанию [26] , поскольку президент Палестины Махмуд Аббас и премьер-министр Израиля Ариэль Шарон договорились предпринять решительные шаги по деэскалации военных действий между двумя сторонами: все палестинские воинствующие группировки прекратят все акты насилия против всех израильтян по всему миру, а Израиль также прекратит всю военную деятельность против всех палестинцев по всему миру. [27] [28] Они также подтвердили свою приверженность « дорожной карте мира », которая была предложена «квартетом» на Ближнем Востоке в 2003 году. Кроме того, Шарон согласился освободить 900 из 7500 палестинских заключенных, удерживаемых Израилем в то время [29] и далее заявил, что израильские войска уйдут из тех частей Западного берега , которые они повторно оккупировали, сражаясь с палестинскими боевиками во время восстания.

Этимология

Вторая интифада относится ко второму палестинскому восстанию, последовавшему за первым палестинским восстанием , которое произошло между декабрем 1987 и 1993 годами. «Интифада» ( انتفاضة ) переводится на английский как «восстание». Его корень — арабское слово, означающее «стряхивание». Оно использовалось в значении «восстание» в различных арабских странах; египетские беспорядки 1977 года , например, были названы «хлебной интифадой». [30] Термин относится к восстанию против израильской оккупации палестинских территорий .

Интифада Аль-Акса относится к Аль-Аксе , основному названию комплекса мечетей, построенного в VIII веке н. э. на вершине Храмовой горы в Старом городе Иерусалима , также известного мусульманам как Харам аш-Шариф .

Интифаду иногда называют войной Осло (מלחמת אוסלו) некоторые израильтяне, которые считают ее результатом уступок, сделанных Израилем после соглашений Осло , [31] [32] [33] и войны Арафата , в честь покойного палестинского лидера , которого некоторые обвиняли в ее начале. Другие назвали то, что они считают непропорциональным ответом на то, что изначально было народным восстанием безоружных демонстрантов, причиной эскалации интифады в полномасштабную войну. [34]

Фон

Соглашения Осло

В соответствии с соглашениями Осло , подписанными в 1993 и 1995 годах, Израиль обязался поэтапно вывести свои войска из частей сектора Газа и Западного берега и подтвердил право палестинцев на самоуправление в этих районах путем создания Палестинской администрации . Со своей стороны, Организация освобождения Палестины официально признала Израиль и обязалась взять на себя ответственность за внутреннюю безопасность в населенных пунктах в эвакуированных районах. Палестинское самоуправление должно было продлиться в течение пятилетнего переходного периода, в течение которого будут вестись переговоры о постоянном соглашении. Однако реалии на местах оставили обе стороны глубоко разочарованными процессом Осло. Сообщается, что свобода передвижения палестинцев ухудшилась с 1993 по 2000 год. [35] Израильтяне и палестинцы обвиняют друг друга в провале мирного процесса Осло. За пять лет, непосредственно последовавших за подписанием соглашений Осло, было убито 405 палестинцев и 256 израильтян.

С 1996 года Израиль разработал обширные планы действий в чрезвычайных ситуациях и приготовления, коллективно названные «Музыкальное очарование», на случай, если мирные переговоры могут провалиться. В 1998 году, придя к выводу, что 5-летний план, предусмотренный на переговорах в Осло, не будет выполнен, Армия обороны Израиля реализовала план операции «Поле терний» по захвату городов в Зоне С и некоторых районов Газы, а в апреле 2000 года с этой целью были проведены военные учения на уровне полка. Палестинские приготовления были оборонительными и мелкомасштабными, больше для того, чтобы успокоить местное население, чем для того, чтобы справиться с возможным нападением со стороны Израиля. Интенсивность этих операций заставила бригадного генерала Цви Фогеля задуматься, не окажутся ли военные приготовления Израиля самоисполняющимся пророчеством. [36]

В 1995 году Шимон Перес занял место Ицхака Рабина , убитого Игалем Амиром , еврейским экстремистом, выступавшим против мирного соглашения в Осло. На выборах 1996 года израильтяне избрали правую [37] коалицию во главе с кандидатом от Ликуда Биньямином Нетаньяху , за которым в 1999 году последовал лидер партии «Авода» Эхуд Барак .

Саммит в Кэмп-Дэвиде

С 11 по 25 июля 2000 года в Кэмп-Дэвиде состоялся саммит по миру на Ближнем Востоке между президентом США Биллом Клинтоном , премьер-министром Израиля Эхудом Бараком и председателем Палестинской автономии Ясиром Арафатом . Переговоры в конечном итоге провалились, и каждая сторона обвиняла другую. Было пять основных препятствий к соглашению: границы и территориальная непрерывность, Иерусалим и Храмовая гора , палестинские беженцы и их право на возвращение , проблемы безопасности Израиля и израильские поселения. Разочарование ситуацией летом привело к значительному расколу ООП, поскольку многие фракции ФАТХ покинули ее, чтобы присоединиться к ХАМАС и Исламскому джихаду. [38]

13 сентября 2000 года Ясир Арафат и Палестинский законодательный совет отложили запланированное одностороннее провозглашение независимого палестинского государства. [39]

Израильские поселения

В то время как Перес ограничил строительство поселений по просьбе госсекретаря США Мадлен Олбрайт , [37] Нетаньяху продолжил строительство в существующих израильских поселениях [40] и выдвинул планы по строительству нового района Хар-Хома в Восточном Иерусалиме . Однако он был намного ниже уровня правительства Шамира 1991–92 годов и воздержался от строительства новых поселений, хотя соглашения Осло не предусматривали такого запрета. [37] Строительство жилых единиц до Осло, 1991–92: 13 960; после Осло, 1994–95: 3 840; 1996–1997: 3 570. [41]

С целью маргинализации более воинственного крыла поселенцев Барак добивался расположения умеренных поселенцев, добившись согласия на демонтаж 12 новых форпостов, которые были построены после Уай-Риверского соглашения в ноябре 1998 года, [42] но продолжающееся расширение существующих поселений с планами на 3000 новых домов на Западном берегу вызвало резкое осуждение со стороны палестинского руководства. Хотя строительство в существующих поселениях было разрешено в соответствии с соглашениями Осло, сторонники палестинцев утверждают, что любое продолжающееся строительство противоречит его духу, [37] предрешает исход переговоров об окончательном статусе и подрывает веру палестинцев в стремление Барака к миру. [42]

Хронология

2000

Карта дистанционного зондирования ЦРУ территорий, контролируемых Палестинской администрацией, июль 2008 г.

Ближневосточный мирный саммит в Кэмп-Дэвиде , проходивший с 11 по 25 июля 2000 года, состоялся между президентом США Биллом Клинтоном , премьер-министром Израиля Эхудом Бараком и председателем Палестинской автономии Ясиром Арафатом . Он провалился, поскольку последние двое обвиняли друг друга в провале переговоров. [43] Было четыре главных препятствия к соглашению: территория, Иерусалим и Храмовая гора , палестинские беженцы и право на возвращение , а также проблемы безопасности Израиля. [44]

Ариэль Шарон посещает Храмовую гору

28 сентября лидер израильской оппозиции Ариэль Шарон и делегация партии «Ликуд» , охраняемая сотнями израильских полицейских, посетили Храмовую гору , которая широко считается третьим по святости местом в исламе . [45] Израиль претендует на суверенитет над горой и остальной частью Восточного Иерусалима с 1980 года , и этот комплекс является самым святым местом в иудаизме .

Министр внутренних дел Израиля Шломо Бен-Ами , разрешивший визит Шарона, позже утверждал, что звонил начальнику службы безопасности Палестинской администрации Джибрилю Раджубу перед визитом и получил от него заверения в том, что пока Шарон не войдет в мечети, его визит не вызовет никаких проблем. Раджуб громогласно отрицал, что давал какие-либо такие заверения. [46]

Вскоре после того, как Шарон покинул место, гневные демонстрации палестинских иерусалимцев снаружи переросли в беспорядки. Человек, отвечавший за вакф в то время, Абу Ктейш, позже был обвинен Израилем в использовании громкоговорителя для призыва палестинцев защищать Аль-Аксу, что, по утверждению израильских властей, стало причиной последующего бросания камней в направлении Стены Плача. [47] Израильская полиция ответила слезоточивым газом и резиновыми пулями, в то время как протестующие бросали камни и другие снаряды, ранив 25 полицейских, из которых один был серьезно ранен и был доставлен в больницу. По меньшей мере трое палестинцев были ранены резиновыми пулями. [48]

Заявленной целью визита Шарона в комплекс было утверждение права всех израильтян посещать Храмовую гору; [49] [50] однако, по словам представителя Ликуда Офира Акуниса , фактическая цель состояла в том, чтобы «показать, что при правительстве Ликуда [Храмовая гора] останется под суверенитетом Израиля». [51] Эхуд Барак на переговорах в Кэмп-Дэвиде настаивал на том, что Восточный Иерусалим, где находится Харам, останется под полным суверенитетом Израиля. [52] В ответ на обвинения Ариэля Шарона в готовности правительства уступить это место палестинцам, израильское правительство дало Шарону разрешение посетить этот район. Когда его предупредили о намерениях, высокопоставленные палестинские деятели, такие как Ясир Арафат , Саиб Эрекат и Фейсал Хусейни , попросили Шарона отменить свой визит. [53]

Десятью днями ранее палестинцы отметили ежегодный день памяти о резне в Сабре и Шатиле , где тысячи ливанских и палестинских мусульман были убиты ливанскими силами при поддержке израильских военных. [53] Израильская комиссия Кахана пришла к выводу, что Ариэль Шарон , который был министром обороны Израиля во время резни в Сабре и Шатиле, был признан несущим личную ответственность [54] «за игнорирование опасности кровопролития и мести» и «непринятие надлежащих мер для предотвращения кровопролития». Халатность Шарона в защите гражданского населения Бейрута, который перешел под контроль Израиля, была равносильна невыполнению обязанности, которая была возложена на министра обороны , и было рекомендовано уволить Шарона с поста министра обороны. Шарон изначально отказался уйти в отставку, но после смерти израильтянина после марша мира Шарон ушел в отставку с поста министра обороны, но остался в израильском кабинете министров.

Палестинцы осудили визит Шарона на Храмовую гору как провокацию и вторжение, как и его вооруженные телохранители, прибывшие на место происшествия вместе с ним. Критики утверждают, что Шарон знал, что визит может спровоцировать насилие, и что цель его визита была политической. По словам одного наблюдателя, Шарон, гуляя по Храмовой горе, «ходил по самому тонкому льду арабо-израильского конфликта». [55]

По данным The New York Times , многие в арабском мире, включая египтян, палестинцев, ливанцев и иорданцев, указывают на визит Шарона как на начало Второй интифады и срыв мирного процесса. [56] По словам Джулианы Окс, визит Шарона «символически спровоцировал» вторую интифаду. [57] Марван Баргути сказал, что хотя провокационные действия Шарона были объединяющим фактором для палестинцев, Вторая интифада вспыхнула бы, даже если бы он не посетил Храмовую гору. [58]

Палестинские беспорядки после визита

29 сентября 2000 года, на следующий день после визита Шарона, после пятничных молитв в районе Старого города Иерусалима вспыхнули крупные беспорядки . Израильская полиция открыла огонь по палестинцам на Храмовой горе, которые бросали камни через Стену Плача в еврейских верующих. После того, как начальник полиции Иерусалима был сбит камнем и потерял сознание, они перешли на боевые патроны и убили четырех палестинских юношей. [55] [59] [60] Около 200 палестинцев и полицейских получили ранения. [61] Еще трое палестинцев были убиты в Старом городе и на Масличной горе . [62] К концу дня семь палестинцев были убиты и 300 ранены; [63] В столкновениях также получили ранения 70 израильских полицейских. [53] [64]

В последующие дни демонстрации вспыхнули по всему Западному берегу и в секторе Газа . Израильская полиция ответила боевым огнем и резиновыми пулями. За первые пять дней было убито по меньшей мере 47 палестинцев и ранено 1885. [63] В Париже, когда Жак Ширак пытался выступить посредником между сторонами, он выразил протест Бараку, заявив, что соотношение убитых и раненых палестинцев и израильтян за один день было таково, что он не мог убедить никого, что палестинцы были агрессорами. Он также сказал Бараку, что «продолжение обстрела с вертолетов людей, бросающих камни» и отказ от международного расследования равносильны отклонению предложения Арафата об участии в трехсторонних переговорах. [65] В течение первых нескольких дней беспорядков Армия обороны Израиля выпустила около 1,3 миллиона пуль. [66]

По данным Amnesty International, первыми жертвами среди палестинцев были те, кто принимал участие в демонстрациях или были сторонними наблюдателями. Amnesty также утверждает, что около 80% палестинцев, убитых в течение первого месяца, были на демонстрациях, где жизни израильских служб безопасности не подвергались опасности. [67]

30 сентября 2000 года смерть Мухаммеда ад-Дурраха , палестинского мальчика, застреленного, когда он прятался за своим отцом в переулке в секторе Газа, была запечатлена на видео. Первоначально смерть мальчика и ранение его отца приписывались израильским солдатам. Сцена приобрела культовый статус, поскольку ее показали по всему миру и неоднократно транслировали по арабскому телевидению. Израильская армия изначально взяла на себя ответственность за убийство и извинилась, и отказалась от нее только 2 месяца спустя, когда внутреннее расследование поставило под сомнение первоначальную версию, и впоследствии разгорелись споры о том, действительно ли Армия обороны Израиля произвела выстрелы или же ответственность за смертельные выстрелы несут палестинские группировки. [68]

События октября 2000 г.

Памятник израильским арабам, погибшим в ходе беспорядков в октябре 2000 года, Назарет

«События октября 2000 года» относятся к нескольким дням беспорядков и столкновений в Израиле, в основном между арабскими гражданами и израильской полицией , а также к крупномасштабным беспорядкам как арабов, так и евреев. Двенадцать арабских граждан Израиля и палестинец из сектора Газа были убиты израильской полицией, в то время как израильский еврей погиб, когда в его машину попал камень на шоссе Тель-Авив-Хайфа . В течение первого месяца интифады 141 палестинец был убит и 5984 ранены, в то время как 12 израильтян были убиты и 65 ранены. [69]

Всеобщая забастовка и демонстрации по всему северному Израилю начались 1 октября и продолжались несколько дней. В некоторых случаях демонстрации переросли в столкновения с израильской полицией, включавшие бросание камней , зажигательные бомбы и стрельбу боевыми патронами. Полицейские использовали слезоточивый газ и открывали огонь резиновыми пулями , а затем в некоторых случаях и боевыми патронами, во многих случаях в нарушение полицейского протокола, регулирующего разгон беспорядков. Это использование боевых патронов было напрямую связано со многими смертями, по данным Комиссии Ора .

8 октября тысячи израильских евреев приняли участие в актах насилия в Тель-Авиве и других местах: некоторые бросали камни в арабов, уничтожали арабскую собственность и скандировали «Смерть арабам». [70]

После беспорядков между еврейскими и арабскими гражданами и недоверием между арабскими гражданами и полицией были широко распространены. Следственная комиссия во главе с судьей Верховного суда Теодором Ором рассмотрела насильственные беспорядки и обнаружила, что полиция была плохо подготовлена ​​к борьбе с такими беспорядками, и обвинила главных офицеров в плохом поведении. Комиссия Ора вынесла выговор премьер-министру Эхуду Бараку и рекомендовала Шломо Бен-Ами , тогдашнему министру внутренней безопасности, не занимать пост министра общественной безопасности. Комиссия также обвинила арабских лидеров и членов Кнессета в содействии нагнетанию обстановки и усилению насилия.

Самосуд в Рамалле и ответ Израиля

12 октября полиция ПА арестовала двух израильских резервистов, которые случайно вошли в Рамаллу , где за предыдущие недели было убито сто палестинцев, около двух десятков из которых были несовершеннолетними. [71] Быстро распространились слухи, что в здании находятся израильские тайные агенты, и разъяренная толпа из более чем 1000 палестинцев собралась перед зданием вокзала, требуя их смерти. Оба солдата были избиты, зарезаны и выпотрошены, а одно тело было подожжено. Итальянская телевизионная группа засняла убийства на видео, а затем транслировала запись на международном уровне. [72] [73] Британский журналист был убит бунтовщиками, когда он пытался сделать снимок. Жестокость убийств потрясла израильскую общественность, которая увидела в этом доказательство глубоко укоренившейся ненависти палестинцев к Израилю и евреям. [74] В ответ Израиль начал серию ответных авиаударов по целям Палестинской автономии на Западном берегу и в секторе Газа. Полицейский участок, где произошло линчевание, был эвакуирован и разрушен в ходе этих операций. [75] [76] Позднее Израиль выследил и арестовал виновных в убийстве солдат.

Ноябрь–декабрь 2000 г.

Столкновения между израильскими силами и палестинцами резко усилились 1 ноября, когда были убиты три израильских солдата и шесть палестинцев, а четыре солдата ЦАХАЛа и 140 палестинцев получили ранения. В последующие дни потери увеличились, поскольку ЦАХАЛ пытался восстановить порядок, и столкновения происходили каждый день в ноябре. Всего было убито 122 палестинца и 22 израильтянина. 27 ноября, в первый день Рамадана , Израиль ослабил ограничения на провоз товаров и топлива через контрольно-пропускной пункт Карни . В тот же день иерусалимское поселение Гило подверглось обстрелу из палестинских крупнокалиберных пулеметов из Бейт-Джалы . Израиль ужесточил ограничения неделю спустя, и палестинцы продолжили столкновения с ЦАХАЛом и израильскими поселенцами, в результате чего в декабре было убито в общей сложности 51 палестинец и 8 израильтян. [77] В последней попытке администрации Клинтона достичь мирного соглашения между израильтянами и палестинцами в декабре был запланирован саммит в Шарм-эль-Шейхе. Однако премьер-министр Израиля Барак решил не присутствовать после того, как палестинцы отложили принятие параметров Клинтона . [78]

2001

Саммит Таба между Израилем и Палестинской администрацией состоялся с 21 по 27 января 2001 года в Табе на Синайском полуострове . Премьер-министр Израиля Эхуд Барак и президент Палестины Ясир Арафат приблизились к достижению окончательного урегулирования больше, чем любые предыдущие или последующие мирные переговоры, однако в конечном итоге не достигли своих целей.

17 января 2001 года израильский подросток Офир Рахум был убит после того, как его заманила в Рамаллу 24-летняя палестинка Мона Джауд Авана, член ФАТХ Танзим . Она связалась с Офиром в Интернете и вступила с ним в онлайн-роман на протяжении нескольких месяцев. В конце концов она убедила его поехать в Рамаллу, чтобы встретиться с ней, где вместо этого он попал в засаду трех палестинских боевиков и был застрелен более пятнадцати раз. [79] Позже Авана была арестована в ходе масштабной военной и полицейской операции и приговорена к пожизненному заключению. В январе были убиты еще пять израильтян, а также восемнадцать палестинцев.

Ариэль Шарон , в то время из партии «Ликуд» , баллотировался против Эхуда Барака из партии «Авода» . Шарон был избран премьер-министром Израиля 6 февраля 2001 года на дополнительных выборах 2001 года на пост премьер-министра . Шарон отказался лично встречаться с Ясиром Арафатом.

В результате насилия в марте погибли 8 израильтян, в основном мирные жители, и 26 палестинцев. В Хевроне палестинский снайпер убил десятимесячного израильского младенца Шалхевет Пасс . [80] [81] Убийство потрясло израильскую общественность. Согласно расследованию израильской полиции, снайпер намеренно целился в младенца. [82]

30 апреля 2001 года в результате взрыва погибли семь палестинских боевиков, один из которых был участником убийства Офира Рахума. Армия обороны Израиля отказалась подтвердить или опровергнуть обвинения палестинцев в том, что она несет за это ответственность.

7 мая 2001 года военно-морские коммандос Армии обороны Израиля захватили судно «Санторини» , которое плыло в международных водах в направлении контролируемой Палестинской администрацией Газы. Судно было нагружено оружием. Последовавшее израильское расследование заявило, что груз был куплен Народным фронтом освобождения Палестины — Главным командованием Ахмеда Джибриля (НФОП-ГК). Стоимость судна и его груза оценивалась в 10 миллионов долларов. Сообщается, что команда планировала выгрузить груз заполненных оружием бочек — тщательно запечатанных и водонепроницаемых вместе с их содержимым — в заранее согласованном месте у побережья Газы, где его заберет Палестинская администрация.

8 мая 2001 года двое израильских подростков, Яаков «Коби» Манделл (13) и Йосеф Ишран (14), были похищены во время пешего похода недалеко от своей деревни. Их тела были обнаружены на следующее утро в пещере недалеко от того места, где они жили. [83] USA Today сообщила, что, по данным полиции, оба мальчика были «связаны, зарезаны и забиты камнями до смерти». Газета продолжила: «Стены пещеры в Иудейской пустыне были покрыты кровью мальчиков, которую, как сообщается, размазали там убийцы». [84]

После того, как 18 мая 2001 года в Нетании произошел теракт , Израиль впервые с 1967 года использовал военные самолеты для атаки на объекты Палестинской автономии на Западном берегу и в секторе Газа, убив 12 палестинцев. В прошлом авиаудары наносились с помощью боевых вертолетов. [85]

Мемориал жертвам резни в дельфинарии на территории Тель-Авивского дельфинария с именами жертв, написанными на русском языке

1 июня 2001 года террорист-смертник Исламского джихада взорвал себя в танцевальном клубе Dolphinarium на побережье Тель-Авива . Двадцать один израильский мирный житель, большинство из которых были старшеклассниками, погибли, а 132 получили ранения. [86] [87] [88] [89] Атака существенно затруднила попытки Америки договориться о прекращении огня.

Убийство Георгиоса Цибуктзакиса 12 июня палестинскими снайперами позже было связано с Марваном Баргути . [90]

В 2001 году было убито 469 палестинцев и 199 израильтян. В докладе Amnesty International о первом годе интифады говорится:

Подавляющее большинство случаев незаконных убийств и ранений в Израиле и на оккупированных территориях были совершены Армией обороны Израиля с применением чрезмерной силы. В частности, Армия обороны Израиля использовала предоставленные США вертолеты для карательных ракетных атак, когда не было непосредственной опасности для жизни. Израиль также использовал вертолеты огневой поддержки для проведения внесудебных казней и обстрела целей, что приводило к гибели мирных жителей, включая детей. ... ХАМАС и Исламский джихад часто размещали бомбы в общественных местах, обычно в Израиле, чтобы убить и покалечить большое количество израильских мирных жителей случайным образом. Обе организации поощряли культ мученичества и часто использовали террористов-смертников. [67]

Палестинские террористы совершили ряд терактов смертников позднее в 2001 году, среди которых бойня в ресторане Sbarro , в результате которой погибло 15 мирных жителей (включая 7 детей); [91] [92] теракт на железнодорожной станции Нагарии и взрыв автобуса Пардес-Хана , в обоих случаях погибло 3 мирных жителя; [93] [94] [95] взрыв на улице Бен-Йехуда, в результате которого погибло 11 мирных жителей, многие из которых были детьми; [96] и взрыв автобуса № 16 в Хайфе , в результате которого погибло 15 мирных жителей. [97]

2002

Военная техника, конфискованная у Карин А.

В январе 2002 года военно-морские коммандос израильской армии Shayetet 13 захватили Karine A , грузовое судно, перевозившее оружие из Ирана в Израиль, которое, как считалось, предназначалось для использования палестинскими боевиками против Израиля. Было обнаружено, что в контрабанде были замешаны высокопоставленные должностные лица Палестинской администрации , а израильтяне указывали пальцем на Ясира Арафата , как на также замешанного.

Палестинцы начали серию терактов и атак смертников против Израиля, направленных в основном на мирных жителей. 3 марта палестинский снайпер убил 10 израильских солдат и поселенцев и ранил 4 на контрольно-пропускном пункте около Офры , [98] используя карабин М1 . Позже он был арестован и приговорен к пожизненному заключению. Частота атак возросла и достигла пика в марте 2002 года. [99]

В дополнение к многочисленным перестрелкам и гранатам, в этом месяце в Израиле было совершено 15 терактов-смертников — в среднем один взрыв каждые два дня. Высокий уровень атак вызвал всеобщий страх по всему Израилю и серьезно нарушил повседневную жизнь по всей стране. Март 2002 года стал известен в Израиле как «Черный марш». [99] 12 марта была принята резолюция Совета Безопасности ООН 1397 , которая подтвердила решение о двух государствах и заложила основу для « дорожной карты» мира . [100]

27 марта волна насилия достигла кульминации в результате взрыва террориста-смертника во время празднования Песаха в отеле Park в Нетании, в результате которого погибло 30 человек. Атака стала известна как резня на Песах . [101] Всего в результате палестинских атак в марте 2002 года погибло около 130 израильтян, в основном мирных жителей. [100] 28 марта лидеры арабских стран, чьи избиратели были подвергнуты подробному телевизионному освещению насилия в конфликте, выдвинули всеобъемлющую Арабскую мирную инициативу , которая была одобрена Арафатом, но фактически проигнорирована Израилем. [100] [102] [103] [104]

29 марта Израиль начал операцию «Оборонительный щит» , которая продолжалась до 3 мая. Армия обороны Израиля провела масштабные вторжения по всему Западному берегу и во многие палестинские города. Арафат был осажден в своем комплексе в Рамалле . [105] По оценкам ООН, в результате израильского вторжения с 1 марта по 7 мая было убито 497 палестинцев и ранено 1447 человек. [106] В докладе ООН Израиль был оправдан от обвинений в резне, но подвергся критике за применение чрезмерной силы в отношении гражданского населения. Израильские силы также арестовали 4258 палестинцев во время операции. [107] Потери израильтян во время операции составили 30 убитых и 127 раненых. Операция завершилась повторным захватом территорий, контролируемых Палестинской администрацией. [106]

Битва при Дженине

ЦАХАЛ Caterpillar D9

Между 2 и 11 апреля в палестинском лагере беженцев в городе Дженин происходили осада и ожесточённые бои . Лагерь стал целью операции «Оборонительный щит» после того, как Израиль определил, что он «служил плацдармом для многочисленных террористических атак как против израильских мирных жителей, так и против израильских городов и деревень в этом районе». [108] Сражение в Дженине стало горячей точкой для обеих сторон и сопровождалось ожесточёнными городскими боями, когда израильская пехота при поддержке бронетехники и ударных вертолётов боролась за зачистку лагеря от палестинских боевиков. В конечном итоге битва была выиграна Армией обороны Израиля после того, как она задействовала дюжину бронированных бульдозеров Caterpillar D9 для расчистки палестинских мин-ловушек , подрыва взрывных устройств и сноса зданий и огневых точек; бульдозеры оказались неуязвимы для атак палестинских боевиков. [109]

Во время израильских военных операций в лагере палестинские источники утверждали, что произошла резня сотен людей. Высокопоставленный представитель Палестинской администрации заявил в середине апреля, что было убито около 500 человек. [110] Во время боев в Дженине израильские официальные лица также первоначально подсчитали сотни смертей палестинцев, но позже заявили, что ожидают, что число жертв среди палестинцев достигнет «45-55». [111] В последовавшем споре Израиль заблокировал проведение Организацией Объединенных Наций расследования из первых рук, единогласно запрошенного Советом Безопасности, но тем не менее ООН сочла возможным отклонить заявления о резне в своем докладе, в котором говорилось, что погибло около 52 человек, критикуя обе стороны за то, что они подвергают риску палестинских мирных жителей. [111] [112] Основываясь на своих собственных расследованиях, Amnesty International [113] и Human Rights Watch [114] обвинили некоторых военнослужащих ЦАХАЛа в Дженине в совершении военных преступлений , но также подтвердили, что ЦАХАЛ не совершал никаких массовых убийств. Обе правозащитные организации призвали к проведению официального расследования; Армия обороны Израиля оспорила обвинения.

После битвы большинство источников, включая Армию обороны Израиля и Палестинскую администрацию , оценили число погибших палестинцев в 52–56 человек; [115] Human Rights Watch задокументировала 52 случая гибели палестинцев и заявила, что среди них было не менее 27 боевиков и 22 гражданских лица, а также еще 3 палестинца, чей статус как боевиков или гражданских лиц не может быть установлен, [116] в то время как Армия обороны Израиля заявила, что было убито 48 боевиков и 5 гражданских лиц. [117] По данным Human Rights Watch, было разрушено 140 зданий. [118] Армия обороны Израиля сообщила, что в ходе битвы было убито 23 израильских солдата и 75 ранено. [114] [119]

Осада Вифлеема

С 2 апреля по 10 мая в церкви Рождества Христова в Вифлееме развернулось противостояние . Солдаты ЦАХАЛа окружили церковь, в то время как внутри находились палестинские гражданские лица, боевики и священники. Во время осады снайперы ЦАХАЛа убили 8 боевиков внутри церкви и ранили более 40 человек. Противостояние было урегулировано депортацией в Европу 13 палестинских боевиков, которых ЦАХАЛ идентифицировал как террористов, и ЦАХАЛ прекратил свое 38-дневное противостояние с боевиками внутри церкви.

2003

Последствия взрыва автобуса в Хайфе в 2003 году

После доклада израильской разведки, в котором говорилось, что Ясир Арафат заплатил 20 000 долларов « Бригадам мучеников Аль-Аксы» , Соединенные Штаты потребовали демократических реформ в Палестинской администрации , а также назначения премьер-министра, независимого от Арафата. 13 марта 2003 года под давлением США Арафат назначил Махмуда Аббаса премьер-министром Палестины.

После назначения Аббаса администрация США продвигала Дорожную карту мира — план « квартета » по прекращению израильско-палестинского конфликта путем роспуска боевых организаций, прекращения поселенческой деятельности и создания демократического и мирного палестинского государства. Первая фаза плана требовала от Палестинской администрации подавления партизанских и террористических атак и конфискации незаконного оружия. Не имея возможности или не желая противостоять боевым организациям и рискуя гражданской войной, Аббас попытался достичь временного соглашения о прекращении огня с боевыми группировками и попросил их прекратить нападения на израильских мирных жителей.

20 мая израильские морские коммандос перехватили еще одно судно, Abu Hassan , направлявшееся в сектор Газа из Ливана . Оно было загружено ракетами, оружием и боеприпасами. Восемь членов экипажа на борту были арестованы, включая высокопоставленного члена Хезболлы .

29 июня 2003 года временное перемирие было в одностороннем порядке объявлено ФАТХ , ХАМАС и Исламским джихадом , которые объявили о прекращении огня и прекращении всех атак на Израиль сроком на три месяца. [120] Насилие несколько снизилось в следующем месяце, но теракты смертников против израильских мирных жителей продолжались, как и израильские операции против боевиков.

Четыре палестинца, трое из которых были боевиками, были убиты в перестрелках во время рейда Армии обороны Израиля на Аскар около Наблуса с участием танков и бронетранспортеров (БТР); израильский солдат был убит одним из боевиков. Палестинцы неподалеку заявили, что отряд израильской полиции, замаскированный под палестинских рабочих, открыл огонь по Аббедулле Кавасаме , когда он выходил из мечети в Хевроне. [121] YAMAM , израильское полицейское подразделение по борьбе с терроризмом, проводившее операцию, заявило, что Кавасаме открыл по ним огонь, когда они пытались арестовать его.

19 августа ХАМАС организовал теракт в переполненном автобусе в Иерусалиме, в результате которого погибли 23 мирных жителя Израиля, в том числе 7 детей. ХАМАС заявил, что это было возмездие за убийство пяти палестинцев (включая лидера ХАМАС Абдоллу Кавасаме ) ранее на этой неделе. Американские и израильские СМИ часто ссылались на взрыв автобуса как на нарушение тишины и прекращение режима прекращения огня.

После атаки на автобус ХАМАС израильским силам обороны было приказано убить или захватить всех лидеров ХАМАС в Хевроне и секторе Газа . Все заговорщики, совершившие взрыв в автобусе-смертнике, были захвачены или убиты, а руководство ХАМАС в Хевроне сильно пострадало от действий израильской армии. В Наблусе, Дженине и Тулькарме был введен строгий комендантский час; изоляция Наблуса продолжалась более 100 дней. В Назлет-Иссе более 60 магазинов были разрушены бульдозерами израильской гражданской администрации . Израильская гражданская администрация объяснила, что магазины были снесены , потому что они были построены без разрешения. Палестинцы считают, что израильские военные комендантские часы и уничтожение имущества представляют собой коллективное наказание невинных палестинцев. [122]

Начало строительства Израилем разделительного барьера на Западном берегу, 2003 г.

Не имея возможности эффективно управлять при Арафате, Аббас ушел в отставку в сентябре 2003 года . На его место был назначен Ахмед Курей (Абу Ала). Израильское правительство отказалось от надежды на урегулирование конфликта путем переговоров и проводило одностороннюю политику физического отделения Израиля от палестинских общин, начав строительство израильского разделительного барьера на Западном берегу . Израиль утверждает, что барьер необходим для предотвращения проникновения палестинских нападающих в израильские города. Палестинцы утверждают, что барьер отделяет палестинские общины друг от друга и что план строительства является фактической аннексией палестинской территории.

После теракта 4 октября в ресторане Maxim в Хайфе , в результате которого погибли 21 израильтянин, Израиль заявил, что Сирия и Иран спонсируют Исламский джихад и Хезболлу и несут ответственность за теракт. На следующий день после бойни в Maxim военные самолеты ВВС Израиля бомбили предполагаемую бывшую палестинскую учебную базу в Айн-Сахебе, Сирия , которая была практически заброшена с 1980-х годов. Боеприпасы, хранившиеся на объекте, были уничтожены, а гражданский охранник получил ранения.

2004

In response to repeated shelling of Israeli communities with Qassam rockets and mortar shells from Gaza, the IDF operated mainly in Rafah – to search and destroy smuggling tunnels used by militants to obtain weapons, ammunition, fugitives, cigarettes, car parts, electrical goods, foreign currency, gold, drugs, and cloth from Egypt. Between September 2000 and May 2004, ninety tunnels connecting Egypt and the Gaza Strip were found and destroyed. Raids in Rafah left many families homeless. Israel's official stance is that their houses were captured by militants and were destroyed during battles with IDF forces. Many of these houses are abandoned due to Israeli incursions and later destroyed. According to Human Rights Watch, over 1,500 houses were destroyed to create a large buffer zone in the city, many "in the absence of military necessity", displacing around sixteen thousand people.[123]

On 2 February 2004, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon announced his plan to transfer all the Jewish settlers from the Gaza Strip. The Israeli opposition dismissed his announcement as "media spin", but the Israeli Labour Party said it would support such a move. Sharon's right-wing coalition partners National Religious Party and National Union rejected the plan and vowed to quit the government if it were implemented. Yossi Beilin, peace advocate and architect of the Oslo Accords and the Geneva Accord, also rejected the proposed withdrawal plan. He claimed that withdrawing from the Gaza Strip without a peace agreement would reward terror.

Following the declaration of the disengagement plan by Ariel Sharon and as a response to suicide attacks on Erez crossing and Ashdod seaport (10 people were killed), the IDF launched a series of armored raids on the Gaza Strip (mainly Rafah and refugee camps around Gaza), killing about 70 Hamas militants. On 22 March 2004, an Israeli helicopter gunship killed Hamas leader Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, along with his two bodyguards and nine bystanders. On 17 April, after several failed attempts by Hamas to commit suicide bombings and a successful one that killed an Israeli policeman, Yassin's successor, Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi, was killed in an almost identical way, along with a bodyguard and his son Mohammed.

The fighting in Gaza Strip escalated severely in May 2004 after several failed attempts to attack Israeli checkpoints such as Erez crossing and Karni crossing. On 2 May, Palestinian militants attacked and shot dead a pregnant woman and her four young daughters.[124][125][126] Amnesty International classified it as a crime against humanity and said it "reiterates its call on all Palestinian armed groups to put an immediate end to the deliberate targeting of Israeli civilians, in Israel and in the Occupied Territories".[127] Additionally, on 11 and 12 May, Palestinian militants destroyed two IDF M-113 APCs, killing 13 soldiers and mutilating their bodies. The IDF launched two raids to recover the bodies, killing 20–40 Palestinians and greatly damaging structures in the Zaitoun neighbourhood in Gaza and in south-west Rafah.

Israeli forces uncover a smuggling tunnel in Gaza, May 2004

Subsequently, on 18 May the IDF launched Operation Rainbow with a stated aim of striking the militant infrastructure of Rafah, destroying smuggling tunnels, and stopping a shipment of SA-7 missiles and improved anti-tank weapons. A total of 41 Palestinian militants and 12 civilians were killed in the operation, and about 45–56 Palestinian structures were demolished. Israeli tanks shelled hundreds of Palestinian protesters approaching their positions, killing 10. The protesters had disregarded Israeli warnings to turn back. This incident led to a worldwide outcry against the operation.

On 29 September, after a Qassam rocket hit the Israeli town of Sderot and killed two Israeli children, the IDF launched Operation Days of Penitence in the north of the Gaza Strip. The operation's stated aim was to remove the threat of Qassam rockets from Sderot and kill the Hamas militants launching them. The operation ended on 16 October, after having caused widespread destruction and the deaths of over 100 Palestinians, at least 20 of whom were under the age of sixteen.[128] The IDF killed thirteen-year-old Iman Darweesh Al Hams as she strayed into a closed military area; the commander was accused of allegedly firing his automatic weapon at her dead body deliberately to verify the death. The act was investigated by the IDF, but the commander was cleared of all wrongdoing,[129][130] and more recently, was fully vindicated when a Jerusalem district court found the claim to be libellous, ruled that NIS 300,000 be paid by the journalist and TV company responsible for the report, an additional NIS 80,000 to be paid in legal fees and required the journalist and television company to air a correction.[131] According to Palestinian medics, Israeli forces killed at least 62 militants and 42 other Palestinians believed to be civilians.[132] According to a count performed by Haaretz, 87 militants and 42 civilians were killed. Palestinian refugee camps were heavily damaged by the Israeli assault. The IDF announced that at least 12 Qassam launchings had been thwarted and many militants hit during the operation.

On 21 October, the Israeli Air Force killed Adnan al-Ghoul, a senior Hamas bomb maker and the inventor of the Qassam rocket.

On 11 November, Yasser Arafat died in Paris.

Escalation in Gaza began amid the visit of Mahmoud Abbas to Syria in order to achieve a Hudna between Palestinian factions and convince Hamas leadership to halt attacks against Israelis. Hamas vowed to continue the armed struggle, sending numerous Qassam rockets into open fields near Nahal Oz, and hitting a kindergarten in Kfar Darom with an anti-tank missile.

On 9 December five Palestinians weapon smugglers were killed and two were arrested in the border between Rafah and Egypt. Later that day, Jamal Abu Samhadana and two of his bodyguards were injured by a missile strike. In the first Israeli airstrike against militants in weeks, an unmanned Israeli drone plane launched one missile at Abu Samahdna's car as it travelled between Rafah and Khan Younis in the southern Gaza Strip. It was the fourth attempt on Samhadana's life by Israel. Samhadana is one of two leaders of the Popular Resistance Committees and one of the main forces behind the smuggling tunnels. Samhadana is believed to be responsible for the blast against an American diplomatic convoy in Gaza that killed three Americans.

On 10 December, in response to Hamas firing mortar rounds into the Neveh Dekalim settlement in the Gaza Strip and wounding four Israelis (including an 8-year-old boy), Israeli soldiers fired at the Khan Younis refugee camp (the origin of the mortars) killing a seven-year-old girl. An IDF source confirmed troops opened fire at Khan Younis, but said they aimed at Hamas mortar crews.[citation needed]

The largest attack since the death of Yasser Arafat claimed the lives of five Israeli soldiers on 12 December, wounding ten others. Approximately 1.5 tons of explosives were detonated in a tunnel under an Israeli military-controlled border crossing on the Egyptian border with Gaza near Rafah, collapsing several structures and damaging others. The explosion destroyed part of the outpost and killed three soldiers. Two Palestinian militants then penetrated the outpost and killed two other Israeli soldiers with gunfire. It is believed that Hamas and a new Fatah faction, the "Fatah Hawks", conducted the highly organised and coordinated attack. A spokesman, "Abu Majad", claimed responsibility for the attack in the name of the Fatah Hawks claiming it was in retaliation for "the assassination" of Yasser Arafat, charging he was poisoned by Israel.

2005

Palestinian presidential elections were held on 9 January, and Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen) was elected as the president of the PA. His platform was of a peaceful negotiation with Israel and non-violence to achieve Palestinian objectives. Although Abbas called on militants to halt attacks against Israel, he promised them protection from Israeli incursions and did not advocate disarmament by force.

Violence continued in the Gaza Strip, and Ariel Sharon froze all diplomatic and security contacts with the Palestinian National Authority. Spokesman Assaf Shariv declared that "Israel informed international leaders today that there will be no meetings with Abbas until he makes a real effort to stop the terror." The freezing of contacts came less than one week after Mahmoud Abbas was elected, and the day before his inauguration. Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat, confirming the news, declared "You cannot hold Mahmoud Abbas accountable when he hasn't even been inaugurated yet."[133][134]

Gaza Strip, with borders and Israeli limited fishing zone

Following international pressure and Israeli threat of wide military operation in the Gaza Strip, Abbas ordered Palestinian police to deploy in the northern Gaza Strip to prevent Qassam rocket and mortar shelling over Israeli settlement. Although attacks on Israelis did not stop completely, they decreased sharply. On 8 February 2005, at the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit of 2005, Sharon and Abbas declared a mutual truce between Israel and the Palestinian National Authority. They shook hands at a four-way summit that also included Jordan and Egypt at Sharm al-Sheikh. However, Hamas and Islamic Jihad said the truce is not binding for their members. Israel has not withdrawn its demand to dismantle terrorist infrastructure before moving ahead in the Road map for peace.[135]

Many warned that truce is fragile, and progress must be done slowly while observing that the truce and quiet are kept. On 9–10 February night, a barrage of 25–50 Qassam rockets and mortar shells hit Neve Dekalim settlement, and another barrage hit at noon. Hamas said it was in retaliation for an attack in which one Palestinian was killed near an Israeli settlement.[136] As a response to the mortar attack, Abbas ordered the Palestinian security forces to stop such attacks in the future. He also fired senior commanders in the Palestinian security apparatus. On 10 February, Israeli security forces arrested Maharan Omar Shucat Abu Hamis, a Palestinian resident of Nablus, who was about to launch a bus suicide attack in the French Hill in Jerusalem.

On 13 February 2005, Abbas entered into talks with the leaders of the Islamic Jihad and the Hamas, for them to rally behind him and respect the truce. Ismail Haniyah, a senior leader of the group Hamas said that "its position regarding calm will continue unchanged and Israel will bear responsibility for any new violation or aggression."

In the middle of June, Palestinian factions intensified bombardment over the city of Sderot with improvised Qassam rockets. Palestinian attacks resulted in 2 Palestinians and 1 Chinese civilian killed by a Qassam, and 2 Israelis were killed. The wave of attacks lessened support for the disengagement plan among the Israeli public. Attacks on Israel by the Islamic Jihad and the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades increased in July, and on 12 July, a suicide bombing hit the coastal city of Netanya, killing 5 civilians. On 14 July, Hamas started to shell Israeli settlements inside and outside the Gaza Strip with dozens of Qassam rockets, killing an Israeli woman. On 15 July, Israel resumed its "targeted killing" policy, killing 7 Hamas militants and bombing about 4 Hamas facilities. The continuation of shelling rockets over Israeli settlements, and street battles between Hamas militants and Palestinian policemen, threatened to shatter the truce agreed in the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit of 2005. The Israeli Defence Force also started to build up armored forces around the Gaza Strip in response to the shelling.

End of the Second Intifada

The ending date of the Second Intifada is disputed, as there was no definite event that brought it to an end.[137] The general view is that it ended in 2005, while some sources include events and statistics extending as late as 2007.[138]

Schachter addressed the difficulties in deciding when the Second Intifada ended. He reasoned that suicide bombing was the best criterion, being arguably the most important element of the violence involved, and that according to this criterion the intifada ended during 2005.[137]

Trigger for the uprising

The Second Intifada started on 28 September 2000, after Ariel Sharon, a Likud party candidate for Israeli Prime Minister, made a visit to the Temple Mount, also known as Al-Haram Al-Sharif, an area sacred to both Jews and Muslims, accompanied by over 1,000 security guards. He stated on that day, "the Temple Mount is in our hands and will remain in our hands. It is the holiest site in Judaism and it is the right of every Jew to visit the Temple Mount."[147]

This visit was seen by Palestinians as highly provocative; and Palestinian demonstrators, throwing stones at police, were dispersed by the Israeli Army, using tear gas and rubber bullets.[148][149][150][151] A riot broke out among Palestinians at the site, resulting in clashes between Israeli forces and the protesting crowd.

Some believe the Intifada started the next day, on Friday, 29 September, a day of prayers, when an Israeli police and military presence was introduced and there were major clashes and deaths.[152][153][154]

The Mitchell Report

The Sharm el-Sheikh Fact-Finding Committee (an investigatory committee set up to look into the causes behind the breakdown in the peace process, chaired by George J. Mitchell) published its report in May 2001.[155] In the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that:

The immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on July 25, 2000, and the "widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse". In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at "provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative".

The Palestine Liberation Organization, according to the same report, denied that the Intifada was planned, and asserted that "Camp David represented nothing less than an attempt by Israel to extend the force it exercises on the ground to negotiations." The report also stated:

From the perspective of the PLO, Israel responded to the disturbances with excessive and illegal use of deadly force against demonstrators; behavior which, in the PLO's view, reflected Israel's contempt for the lives and safety of Palestinians. For Palestinians, the widely seen images of Muhammad al-Durrah in Gaza on September 30, shot as he huddled behind his father, reinforced that perception.

The Mitchell report concluded:

The Sharon visit did not cause the "Al-Aqsa Intifada". But it was poorly timed and the provocative effect should have been foreseen; indeed it was foreseen by those who urged that the visit be prohibited.

and also:

We have no basis on which to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the PA to initiate a campaign of violence at the first opportunity; or to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the [Government of Israel] to respond with lethal force.

Contributing factors

Palestinians have claimed that Sharon's visit was the beginning of the Second Intifada,[150] while others have claimed that Yasser Arafat had pre-planned the uprising.[156]

Some, like Bill Clinton,[157] say that tensions were high due to failed negotiations at the Camp David Summit in July 2000. They note that there were Israeli casualties as early as 27 September; this is the Israeli "conventional wisdom", according to Jeremy Pressman, and the view expressed by the Israeli Foreign Ministry.[158][159] Most mainstream media outlets have taken the view that the Sharon visit was the spark that triggered the rioting at the start of the Second Intifada.[48][160][161][162] In the first five days of rioting and clashes after the visit, Israeli police and security forces killed 47 Palestinians and wounded 1885,[63] while Palestinians killed 5 Israelis.[163][164]

Palestinians view the Second Intifada as part of their ongoing struggle for national liberation and an end to Israeli occupation,[165] whereas many Israelis consider it to be a wave of Palestinian terrorism instigated and pre-planned by then Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat.[158]

Support for the idea that Arafat planned the uprising comes from Hamas leader Mahmoud al-Zahar, who said in September 2010 that when Arafat realized that the Camp David Summit in July 2000 would not result in the meeting of all of his demands, he ordered Hamas as well as Fatah and the Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, to launch "military operations" against Israel.[166] Al-Zahar is corroborated by Mosab Hassan Yousef, son of the Hamas founder and leader, Sheikh Hassan Yousef, who claims that the Second Intifada was a political maneuver premeditated by Arafat. Yousef claims that "Arafat had grown extraordinarily wealthy as the international symbol of victimhood. He wasn't about to surrender that status and take on the responsibility of actually building a functioning society."[167]

David Samuels quoted Mamduh Nofal, former military commander of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, who supplied more evidence of pre-28 September military preparations. Nofal recounts that Arafat "told us, Now we are going to the fight, so we must be ready".[168] Barak as early as May had drawn up contingency plans to halt any intifada in its tracks by the extensive use of IDF snipers, a tactic that resulted in the high number of casualties among Palestinians during the first days of rioting.[169]

Arafat's widow Suha Arafat reportedly said on Dubai television in December 2012 that her husband had planned the uprising: "Immediately after the failure of the Camp David [negotiations], I met him in Paris upon his return.... Camp David had failed, and he said to me, 'You should remain in Paris.' I asked him why, and he said, 'Because I am going to start an intifada. They want me to betray the Palestinian cause. They want me to give up on our principles, and I will not do so,'" the research institute [MEMRI] translated Suha as saying.[170]

Israel's unilateral pullout from Lebanon in the summer of 2000 was, according to Philip Mattar, interpreted by the Arabs as an Israeli defeat and had a profound influence on tactics adopted in the Al Aqsa Intifada.[102] PLO official Farouk Kaddoumi told reporters: "We are optimistic. Hezbollah's resistance can be used as an example for other Arabs seeking to regain their rights."[171] Many Palestinian officials have gone on record as saying that the intifada had been planned long in advance to put pressure on Israel. It is disputed however whether Arafat himself gave direct orders for the outbreak, though he did not intervene to put a brake on it[38] A personal advisor to Arafat, Manduh Nufal, claimed in early 2001 that the Palestinian Authority had played a crucial role in the outbreak of the Intifada.[69] Israeli's military response demolished a large part of the infrastructure built by the PA during the years following the Oslo Accords in preparation for a Palestinian state.[172] This infrastructure included the legitimate arming of Palestinian forces for the first time: some 90 paramilitary camps had been set up to train Palestinian youths in armed conflict.[38] Some 40,000 armed and trained Palestinians existed in the occupied territories.[52]

On 29 September 2001 Marwan Barghouti, the leader of the Fatah Tanzim in an interview to Al-Hayat, described his role in the lead up to the intifada.[173]

I knew that the end of September was the last period (of time) before the explosion, but when Sharon reached the al-Aqsa Mosque, this was the most appropriate moment for the outbreak of the intifada.... The night prior to Sharon's visit, I participated in a panel on a local television station and I seized the opportunity to call on the public to go to the al-Aqsa Mosque in the morning, for it was not possible that Sharon would reach al-Haram al-Sharif just so, and walk away peacefully. I finished and went to al-Aqsa in the morning.... We tried to create clashes without success because of the differences of opinion that emerged with others in the al-Aqsa compound at the time.... After Sharon left, I remained for two hours in the presence of other people, we discussed the manner of response and how it was possible to react in all the cities (bilad) and not just in Jerusalem. We contacted all (the Palestinian) factions.

Barghouti also went on record as stating that the example of Hezbollah and Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon was a factor which contributed to the Intifada.[69]

According to Nathan Thrall, from Elliott Abrams's inside accounts of negotiations between 2001 and 2005, it would appear to be an inescapable conclusion that violence played an effective role in shaking Israeli complacency and furthering Palestinian goals: the U.S. endorsed the idea of a Palestinian State, Ariel Sharon became the first Israeli Prime Minister to affirm the same idea, and even spoke of Israel's "occupation", and the bloodshed was such that Sharon also decided to withdraw from Gaza, an area he long imagined Israel keeping.[174] However, Zakaria Zubeidi, former leader of the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, considers the Intifada to be a total failure that achieved nothing for the Palestinians.[175]

Casualties

The casualty data for the Second Intifada has been reported by a variety of sources and though there is general agreement regarding the overall number of dead, the statistical picture is blurred by disparities in how different types of casualties are counted and categorized.

The sources do not vary widely over the data on Israeli casualties. B'Tselem reports that 1,053 Israelis were killed by Palestinian attacks through 30 April 2008.[176][failed verification] Israeli journalist Ze'ev Schiff reported similar numbers citing the Shin Bet as his source[177] in an August 2004 Haaretz article where he noted:

The number of Israeli fatalities in the current conflict with the Palestinians exceeded 1,000 last week. Only two of the country's wars – the War of Independence and the Yom Kippur War – have claimed more Israeli lives than this intifada, which began on September 29, 2000. In the Six-Day War, 803 Israelis lost their lives, while the War of Attrition claimed 738 Israeli lives along the borders with Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.[177]

There is little dispute as to the total number of Palestinians killed by Israelis. B'Tselem reports that through 30 April 2008, there were 4,745 Palestinians killed by Israeli security forces, and 44 Palestinians killed by Israeli civilians.[176] B'Tselem also reports 577 Palestinians killed by Palestinians through 30 April 2008.[176]

Between September 2000 and January 2005, 69 percent of Israeli fatalities were male, while over 95 percent of the Palestinian fatalities were male.[8] "Remember These Children" reports that as of 1 February 2008, 119 Israeli children, age 17 and under, had been killed by Palestinians. Over the same time period, 982 Palestinian children, age 17 and under, were killed by Israelis.[178]

Combatant versus non-combatant deaths

Regarding the numbers of Israeli civilian versus combatant deaths, B'Tselem reports that through 30 April 2008 there were 719 Israeli civilians killed and 334 Israeli security force personnel killed.[176]


The chart is based on B'Tselem casualty numbers.[176] It does not include the 577 Palestinians killed by Palestinians.

B'Tselem reports[176] that through 30 April 2008, out of 4,745 Palestinians killed by Israeli security forces, there were 1,671 "Palestinians who took part in the hostilities and were killed by Israeli security forces", or 35.2%. According to their statistics, 2,204 of those killed by Israeli security forces "did not take part in the hostilities", or 46.4%. There were 870 (18.5%) who B'Tselem defines as "Palestinians who were killed by Israeli security forces and it is not known if they were taking part in the hostilities".

The B'Tselem casualties breakdown's reliability was questioned and its methodology has been heavily criticized by a variety of institutions and several groups and researchers, most notably Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs's senior researcher, retired IDF lieutenant colonel Jonathan Dahoah-Halevi, who claimed that B'Tselem repeatedly classifies terror operatives and armed combatants as "uninvolved civilians", but also criticized the Israeli government for not collecting and publishing casualty data.[179] Caroline B. Glick, deputy managing editor of The Jerusalem Post and former advisor to Benjamin Netanyahu, pointed to several instances where, she claimed, B'Tselem had misrepresented Palestinian rioters or terrorists as innocent victims, or where B'Tselem failed to report when an Arab allegedly changed his testimony about an attack by settlers.[180][181] The Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA), which said that B'Tselem repeatedly classified Arab combatants and terrorists as civilian casualties.[182][183][184][185]

The Israeli International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (IPICT), on the other hand, in a "Statistical Report Summary" for 27 September 2000, through 1 January 2005, indicates that 56% (1,542) of the 2,773 Palestinians killed by Israelis were combatants. According to their data, an additional 406 Palestinians were killed by actions of their own side. 22% (215) of the 988 Israelis killed by Palestinians were combatants. An additional 22 Israelis were killed by actions of their own side.[8]

IPICT counts "probable combatants" in its total of combatants. From their full report in September 2002:

A 'probable combatant' is someone killed at a location and at a time during which an armed confrontation was going on, who appears most likely – but not certain – to have been an active participant in the fighting. For example, in many cases where an incident has resulted in a large number of Palestinian casualties, the only information available is that an individual was killed when Israeli soldiers returned fire in response to shots fired from a particular location. While it is possible that the person killed had not been active in the fighting and just happened to be in the vicinity of people who were, it is reasonable to assume that the number of such coincidental deaths is not particularly high. Where the accounts of an incident appear to support such a coincidence, the individual casualty has been given the benefit of the doubt, and assigned a non-combatant status.[8]

In the same 2002 IPICT full report there is a pie chart (Graph 2.9) that lists the IPICT combatant breakdown for Palestinian deaths through September 2002. Here follow the statistics in that pie chart used to come up with the total combatant percentage through September 2002:

On 24 August 2004, Haaretz reporter Ze'ev Schiff published casualty figures based on Shin Bet data.[177] The Haaretz article reported: "There is a discrepancy of two or three casualties with the figures tabulated by the Israel Defense Forces."

Here is a summary of the figures presented in the article:

The article does not say whether those killed were combatants or not. Here is a quote:

The Palestinian security forces – for example, Force 17, the Palestinian police, General Intelligence, and the counter security apparatus – have lost 334 of its members during the current conflict, the Shin Bet figures show.[177]

In response to IDF statistics about Palestinian casualties in the West Bank, the Israeli human rights organization B'Tselem reported that two-thirds of the Palestinians killed in 2004 did not participate in the fighting.[186]

In 2009, historian Benny Morris stated in his retrospective book One State, Two States that about one third of the Palestinian deaths up to 2004 had been civilians.[187]

Palestinians killed by Palestinians

B'Tselem reports that through 30 April 2008, there were 577 Palestinians killed by Palestinians. Of those, 120 were "Palestinians killed by Palestinians for suspected collaboration with Israel".[176] B'Tselem maintains a list of deaths of Palestinians killed by Palestinians with details about the circumstances of the deaths. Some of the many causes of death are crossfire, factional fighting, kidnappings, collaboration, etc.[188]

Concerning the killing of Palestinians by other Palestinians, a January 2003 The Humanist magazine article reports:[189]

For over a decade the PA has violated Palestinian human rights and civil liberties by routinely killing civilians—including collaborators, demonstrators, journalists, and others—without charge or fair trial. Of the total number of Palestinian civilians killed during this period by both Israeli and Palestinian security forces, 16 percent were the victims of Palestinian security forces.

... According to Freedom House's annual survey of political rights and civil liberties, Freedom in the World 2001–2002, the chaotic nature of the Intifada along with strong Israeli reprisals has resulted in a deterioration of living conditions for Palestinians in Israeli-administered areas. The survey states:

Civil liberties declined due to: shooting deaths of Palestinian civilians by Palestinian security personnel; the summary trial and executions of alleged collaborators by the Palestinian Authority (PA); extra-judicial killings of suspected collaborators by militias; and the apparent official encouragement of Palestinian youth to confront Israeli soldiers, thus placing them directly in harm's way.

Internal Palestinian violence has been called an 'Intra'fada during this Intifada and the previous one.[190]

Aftermath

On 25 January 2006, the Palestinians held general elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council. The Islamist group Hamas won with an unexpected majority of 74 seats, compared to 45 seats for Fatah and 13 for other parties and independents. Hamas is officially declared as a terrorist organization by the United States and the European Union and its gaining control over the Palestinian Authority (such as by forming the government) would jeopardize international funds to the PA, by laws forbidding sponsoring of terrorist group.

On 9 June, seven members of the Ghalia family were killed on a Gaza beach. The cause of the explosion remains uncertain. Nevertheless, in response, Hamas declared an end to its commitment to a ceasefire declared in 2005 and announced the resumption of attacks on Israelis. Palestinians blame an Israeli artillery shelling of nearby locations in the northern Gaza Strip for the deaths, while an Israeli military inquiry cleared itself from the charges.

On 25 June, a military outpost was attacked by Palestinian militants and a gunbattle followed that left 2 Israeli soldiers and 3 Palestinian militants dead. Corporal Gilad Shalit, an Israeli soldier, was captured and Israel warned of an imminent military response if the soldier was not returned unharmed. In the early hours of 28 June Israeli tanks, APCs and troops entered the Gaza Strip just hours after the air force had taken out two main bridges and the only powerstation in the strip, effectively shutting down electricity and water. Operation Summer Rains commenced, the first major phase of the Gaza–Israel conflict, which continues to run independently of the intifada.

On 26 November 2006, a truce was implemented between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. A 10 January 2007, Reuters article reports: "Hamas has largely abided by a November 26 truce which has calmed Israeli–Palestinian violence in Gaza."[191]

Rocket and mortar shells from Gaza into Israel, February 2009

2008–2009 Gaza–Israel War

An intensification of the Gaza–Israel conflict, the Gaza war, occurred on 27 December 2008 (11:30 a.m. local time; 09:30 UTC)[192] when Israel launched a military campaign codenamed Operation Cast Lead (Hebrew: מבצע עופרת יצוקה) targeting the members and infrastructure of Hamas in response to the numerous rocket attacks upon Israel from the Gaza Strip.[193][194][195] The operation has been termed the Gaza massacre (Arabic: مجزرة غزة) by Hamas leaders and much of the media in the Arab World.[196][197][198][199][200][201][202][203][204][205]

On Saturday, 17 January 2009, Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire, conditional on elimination of further rocket and mortar attacks from Gaza, and began withdrawing over the next several days.[206] Hamas later announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. A reduced level of mortar fire originating in Gaza continues, though Israel has so far not taken this as a breach of the ceasefire. The frequency of the attacks can be observed in the thumbnailed graph. The data corresponds to the article "Timeline of the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict", using mainly Haaretz news reports from 1 February[207] up to 28 February.[208] The usual IDF responses are airstrikes on weapon smuggling tunnels.[209]

The violence continued on both sides throughout 2006. On 27 December the Israeli Human Rights Organization B'Tselem released its annual report on the Intifada. According to which, 660 Palestinians, a figure more than three times the number of Palestinian fatalities in 2005, and 23 Israelis, were killed in 2006. From a 28 December Haaretz article:[210] "According to the report, about half of the Palestinians killed, 322, did not take part in the hostilities at the time they were killed. 22 of those killed were targets of assassinations, and 141 were minors." 405 of 660 Palestinians were killed in the 2006 Israel-Gaza conflict, which lasted from 28 June till 26 November.

Tactics

Unlike the First Intifada, a Palestinian civil uprising mainly focused on mass protests and general strikes, the Second Intifada rapidly turned into an armed conflict between Palestinian militant groups and the Israel Defense Forces.[211] Palestinian tactics focused on Israeli civilians, soldiers, police and other security forces, and methods of attack included suicide bombings,[212][213] launching rockets and mortars into Israel,[214][215] kidnapping of both soldiers[216][217] and civilians, including children,[84][218] shootings,[219] assassination,[220] stabbings,[84][221] and lynchings.[222]

Israeli tactics included curbing Palestinians' movements through the setting up of checkpoints and the enforcement of strict curfews in certain areas. Infrastructural attacks against Palestinian Authority targets such as police and prisons was another method to force the Palestinian Authority to repress the anti-Israeli protests and attacks on Israeli targets.[citation needed]

Palestinians

Militant groups involved in violence include Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades. The most lethal Palestinian tactic was the suicide bombing (see List). Conducted as a single or double bombing, suicide bombings were generally conducted against "soft" targets, or "lightly hardened" targets (such as checkpoints) to try to raise the cost of the war to Israelis and demoralize the Israeli society. Most suicide bombing attacks (although not all) targeted civilians, and were conducted in crowded places in Israeli cities, such as public transport, restaurants, shopping malls and markets.

One major development was the use of suicide bombs carried by children. Unlike most suicide bombings, the use of these not only earned condemnation from the United States and from human rights groups such as Amnesty International, but also from many Palestinians and much of the Middle East press. The youngest Palestinian suicide bomber was 16-year-old Issa Bdeir, a high school student from the village of Al Doha, who shocked his friends and family when he blew himself up in a park in Rishon LeZion, killing a teenage boy and an elderly man. The youngest attempted suicide bombing was by a 14-year-old captured by soldiers at the Huwwara checkpoint before managing to do any harm.

Militant groups also waged a high-intensity campaign of guerrilla warfare against Israeli military and civilian targets inside Israel and in the Palestinian Territories, utilizing tactics such as ambushes, sniper attacks, and suicide bombings. Military equipment was mostly imported, while some light arms, hand grenades and explosive belts, assault rifles, and Qassam rockets were indigenously produced. They also increased use of remote-controlled landmines against Israeli armor, a tactic that was highly popular among the poorly armed groups. Car bombs were often used against "lightly hardened" targets such as Israeli armored jeeps and checkpoints. Also, more than 1,500 Palestinian drive-by shootings killed 75 people in only the first year of the Intifada.[223]

In May 2004, Israel Defense minister Shaul Mofaz claimed that United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East's ambulances were used to take the bodies of dead Israeli soldiers in order to prevent the Israel Defense Forces from recovering their dead.[224] Reuters has provided video of healthy armed men entering ambulance with UN markings for transport. UNRWA initially denied that its ambulances carry militants but later reported that the driver was forced to comply with threats from armed men. UNRWA still denies that their ambulances carried body parts of dead Israeli soldiers.

In August 2004, Israel said that an advanced explosives-detection device employed by the IDF at the Hawara checkpoint near Nablus discovered a Palestinian ambulance had transported explosive material.

Some of the Palestinian reaction to Israeli policy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has consisted of non-violent protest,[225][226][227] primarily in and near the village of Bil'in. Groups such as the Palestinian Centre for Rapprochement, which works out of Beit Sahour, formally encourage and organize non-violent resistance.[228] Other groups, such as the International Solidarity Movement openly advocate non-violent resistance. Some of these activities are done in cooperation with internationals and Israelis, such as the weekly protests against the Israeli West Bank Barrier carried out in villages like Bi'lin,[229] Biddu[230] and Budrus.[231] This model of resistance has spread to other villages like Beit Sira,[232] Hebron, Saffa, and Ni'lein.[233][234] During the Israeli re-invasion of Jenin and Nablus, "A Call for a Non-violent Resistance Strategy in Palestine" was issued by two Palestinian Christians in May 2002.[235]

Non-violent tactics have sometimes been met with Israeli military force. For example, Amnesty International notes that "10-year-old Naji Abu Qamer, 11-year-old Mubarak Salim al-Hashash and 13-year-old Mahmoud Tariq Mansour were among eight unarmed demonstrators killed in the early afternoon of May 19, 2004 in Rafah, in the Gaza Strip, when the Israeli army open fire on a non-violent demonstration with tank shells and a missile launched from a helicopter gunship. Dozens of other unarmed demonstrators were wounded in the attack." According to Israeli army and government officials, the tanks shelled a nearby empty building and a helicopter fired a missile in a nearby open space in order to deter the demonstrators from proceeding towards Israeli army positions.[236]

Israel

IDF Caterpillar D9 armoured bulldozer. Military experts cited the D9 as a key factor in keeping IDF casualties low.
The Israeli Air Force (IAF) AH-64 Apache were used as platform for shooting guided missiles at Palestinian targets and employed at the targeted killings policy against senior militants and terrorists leaders.

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) countered Palestinian attacks with incursions against militant targets into the West Bank and Gaza Strip, adopting highly effective urban combat tactics. The IDF stressed the safety of their troops, using such heavily armored equipment as the Merkava heavy tank and armored personnel carriers, and carried out airstrikes with various military aircraft including F-16s, drone aircraft and helicopter gunships to strike militant targets. Much of the ground fighting was conducted house-to-house by well-armed and well-trained infantry. Due to its superior training, equipment, and numbers, the IDF had the upper hand during street fighting. Palestinian armed groups suffered heavy losses during combat, but the operations were often criticized internationally due to the civilian casualties often caused. Palestinian metalworking shops and other business facilities suspected by Israel of being used to manufacture weapons were regularly targeted by airstrikes, as well as Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels.

Israeli Caterpillar D9 armored bulldozers were routinely employed to detonate booby traps and IEDs, to demolish houses along the border with Egypt that were used for shooting at Israeli troops, to create "buffer zones", and to support military operations in the West Bank. Until February 2005, Israel had in place a policy to demolish the family homes of suicide bombers after giving them a notice to evacuate. Due to the considerable number of Palestinians living in single homes, the large quantity of homes destroyed, and collateral damage from home demolitions, it became an increasingly controversial tactic. Families began providing timely information to Israeli forces regarding suicide bombing activities in order to prevent the demolition of their homes, although families doing so risked being executed or otherwise punished for collaboration, either by the Palestinian Authority or extrajudicially by Palestinian militants. The IDF committee studying the issue recommended ending the practice because the policy was not effective enough to justify its costs to Israel's image internationally and the backlash it created among Palestinians.[237]

With complete ground and air superiority, mass arrests were regularly conducted by Israeli military and police forces; at any given time, there were about 6,000 Palestinian prisoners detained in Israeli prisons, about half of them held temporarily without a final indictment, in accordance with Israeli law.

The tactic of military "curfew" – long-term lockdown of civilian areas – was used extensively by Israel throughout the Intifada. The longest curfew was in Nablus, which was kept under curfew for over 100 consecutive days, with generally under two hours per day allowed for people to get food or conduct other business.

Security checkpoints and roadblocks were erected inside and between Palestinian cities, subjecting all people and vehicles to security inspection for free passage. Israel defended those checkpoints as being necessary to stop militants and limit the ability to move weapons around. However some Palestinian, Israeli and International observers and organizations have criticized the checkpoints as excessive, humiliating, and a major cause of the humanitarian situation in the Occupied Territories. Transit could be delayed by several hours, depending on the security situation in Israel. Sniper towers were used extensively in the Gaza Strip before the Israeli pullout.

The Israeli intelligence services Shin Bet and Mossad penetrated Palestinian militant organizations by relying on moles and sources within armed groups, tapping communication lines, and aerial reconnaissance.[238] The intelligence gathered allowed the IDF, Israel Border Police, and Israel Police, including Yamam and Mistaravim special forces units, to thwart hundreds of planned suicide bombings. The intelligence gathered also helped create a list of Palestinians marked for targeted killings.

Israel extensively used targeted killings, the assassinations of Palestinians involved in organizing attacks against Israelis, to eliminate imminent threats and to deter others from following suit, relying primarily on airstrikes and covert operations to carry them out. The strategy of targeted killings had been proposed by Shin Bet, which determined that while it was impossible to stop every single suicide bomber, suicide bombings could be stopped by directly attacking the conspiratorial infrastructure behind them by killing operational commanders, recruiters, couriers, weapons procurers, maintainers of safehouses, and smugglers of money which financed the bombings.[239] Israel was criticized for the use of helicopter gunships in urban assassinations, which often resulted in civilian casualties. Israel criticized what it described as a practice of militant leaders hiding among civilians in densely populated areas, thus turning them into unwitting human shields. Throughout the Intifada, the Palestinian leadership suffered heavy losses through targeted killings.

The practice has been widely condemned as extrajudicial executions by the international community,[240][241] while the Israeli High Court ruled that it is a legitimate measure of self-defense against terrorism.[242] Many[who?] criticize the targeted killings for placing civilians at risk, though its supporters believe it reduces civilian casualties on both sides.

In response to repeated rocket attacks from the Gaza Strip, the Israeli Navy imposed a maritime blockade on the area. Israel also sealed the border and closed Gaza's airspace in coordination with Egypt, and subjected all humanitarian supplies entering the Strip to security inspection before transferring them through land crossings. Construction materials were declared banned due to their possible use to build bunkers.[243] The blockade has been internationally criticized as a form of "collective punishment" against Gaza's civilian population.[244]

Although Israel's tactics also have been condemned internationally, Israel insists they are vital for security reasons in order to thwart terrorist attacks. Some cite figures, such as those published in Haaretz newspaper, to prove the effectiveness of these methods (Graph 1: Thwarted attacks (yellow) vs successful attacks (red) – Graph 2: Suicide bombing within the "green line" per quarter).

International involvement

The international community has long taken an involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and this involvement has only increased during the al-Aqsa Intifada. Israel currently receives $3 billion in annual military aid from the United States, excluding loan guarantees.[245] Even though Israel is a developed industrial country, it has remained as the largest annual recipient of US foreign assistance since 1976.[246] It is also the only recipient of US economic aid that does not have to account for how it is spent.[246] The Palestinian Authority receives $100 million annually in military aid from the United States and $2 billion in global financial aid, including "$526 million from Arab League, $651 million from the European Union, $300 million from the US and about $238 million from the World Bank".[247] According to the United Nations, the Palestinian territories are among the leading humanitarian aid recipients.[248][249]

Additionally, private groups have become increasingly involved in the conflict, such as the International Solidarity Movement on the side of the Palestinians, and the American Israel Public Affairs Committee on the side of the Israelis.

In the 2001 and 2002 Arab League Summits, the Arab states pledged support for the Second Intifada just as they had pledged support for the First Intifada in two consecutive summits in the late 1980s.[250]

Impact on the Oslo Accords

Since the start of the Second Intifada and its emphasis on suicide bombers deliberately targeting civilians riding public transportation (buses), the Oslo Accords began to be viewed with increasing disfavor by the Israeli public. In May 2000, seven years after the Oslo Accords and five months before the start of the Second Intifada, a survey[251] by the Tami Steinmetz Center for Peace Research at the Tel Aviv University found that 39% of all Israelis support the Accords and that 32% believe that the Accords will result in peace in the next few years. In contrast, a survey in May 2004 found that 26% of all Israelis support the Accords and 18% believe that the Accords will result in peace in the next few years; decreases of 13% and 16% respectively. Furthermore, a later survey found that 80% of all Israelis believe the Israel Defense Forces have succeeded in dealing with the Second Intifada militarily.[252]

Economic effects

Israel

The Israeli commerce experienced a significant negative effect, particularly due to a sharp drop in tourism. A representative of Israel's Chamber of Commerce estimated the cumulative economic damage caused by the crisis at 150 to 200 billion shekels (US$35–45 billion) – against an annual GDP of $122 billion in 2002.[253] The Israeli economy recovered after 2005 with the sharply decrease in suicide bombings, following IDF's and Shin-Bet's efforts.

Palestinian Authority

The Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process (UNSCO) estimated the damage to the Palestinian economy at over $1.1 billion in the first quarter of 2002, compared to an annual GDP of $4.5 billion.[253]

See also

Directly connected to the Second Intifada and its aftermath

References

Citations

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Sources

Books

Cohen, Hillel (March 2013). The Rise and Fall of Arab Jerusalem: Palestinian Politics and the City Since 1967. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-85266-4.

Journal articles

Articles

External links