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Британское владычество

Британское владычество ( / rɑː / RAHJ ; от хиндустани rāj , «правление», «правительство» или «правительство») [ 10] было правлением Британской короны на Индийском субконтиненте , [11] продолжавшимся с 1858 по 1947 год. [12] Его также называют правлением короны в Индии , [13] или прямым правлением в Индии . [14] Регион под британским контролем обычно назывался Индией в современном использовании и включал области, напрямую управляемые Соединенным Королевством , которые в совокупности назывались Британской Индией , и области, управляемые коренными правителями, но под британским верховенством , называемые княжествами . Этот регион иногда называли Индийской империей , хотя и неофициально. [15]

Эта система управления была учреждена 28 июня 1858 года, когда после Индийского восстания 1857 года власть Ост -Индской компании была передана короне в лице королевы Виктории [16] (которая в 1876 году была провозглашена императрицей Индии ). Она просуществовала до 1947 года, когда Британская Индия была разделена на два суверенных государства -доминиона : Индийский Союз (позднее Республика Индия ) и Пакистан (позднее Исламская Республика Пакистан ). Позднее Народная Республика Бангладеш получила независимость от Пакистана. На момент возникновения Индии в 1858 году Нижняя Бирма уже была частью Британской Индии; Верхняя Бирма была присоединена в 1886 году, и образовавшийся союз, Бирма , управлялся как автономная провинция до 1937 года, когда она стала отдельной британской колонией, получив свою собственную независимость в 1948 году. Она была переименована в Мьянму в 1989 году. Провинция главного комиссара Аден также была частью Британской Индии в момент зарождения британского владычества и стала отдельной колонией, известной как колония Аден , в 1937 году.

Как Индия , она была одним из основателей Лиги Наций и одним из основателей Организации Объединенных Наций в Сан-Франциско в 1945 году . [17] Индия была государством-участником летних Олимпийских игр в 1900 , 1920 , 1928 , 1932 и 1936 годах .

Географическая протяженность

Британское владычество распространялось почти на всю территорию современной Индии, Пакистана, Бангладеш и Мьянмы, за исключением небольших владений других европейских стран, таких как Гоа и Пондичерри . [18] Эта территория очень разнообразна, в нее входят Гималайские горы, плодородные поймы, Индо-Гангская равнина , длинная береговая линия, тропические сухие леса, засушливые возвышенности и пустыни Тар . [19] Кроме того, в разное время она включала Аден (с 1858 по 1937 год), [20] Нижнюю Бирму (с 1858 по 1937 год), Верхнюю Бирму (с 1886 по 1937 год), Британский Сомалиленд (кратковременно с 1884 по 1898 год) и Стрейтс-Сетлментс (кратковременно с 1858 по 1867 год). Бирма была отделена от Индии и напрямую управлялась Британской короной с 1937 года до обретения ею независимости в 1948 году. Договорные государства Персидского залива и другие государства, входившие в состав Резиденции Персидского залива, теоретически были княжествами, а также президентствами и провинциями Британской Индии до 1947 года и использовали рупию в качестве своей денежной единицы. [21]

Среди других стран региона, Цейлон , который в то время относился к прибрежным районам и северной части острова (ныне Шри-Ланка ), был передан Великобритании в 1802 году по Амьенскому договору . Эти прибрежные районы временно управлялись под руководством Мадрасского президентства между 1793 и 1798 годами, [22] но в более поздние периоды британские губернаторы подчинялись Лондону, и он не был частью Раджа. Королевства Непал и Бутан , ведя войны с британцами, впоследствии подписали с ними договоры и были признаны британцами в качестве независимых государств. [23] [24] Королевство Сикким было создано как княжеское государство после англо-сиккимского договора 1861 года; однако вопрос суверенитета остался неопределенным. [25] Мальдивские острова были британским протекторатом с 1887 по 1965 год, но не являлись частью Британской Индии. [26]

История

1858–1868: последствия восстания, критика и отклики

Хотя индийское восстание 1857 года потрясло британское предприятие в Индии, оно не пустило его под откос. До 1857 года британцы, особенно под руководством лорда Далхаузи , спешно строили Индию, которую они представляли себе наравне с самой Британией по качеству и силе ее экономических и социальных институтов. После восстания они стали более осмотрительными. Много размышлений было посвящено причинам восстания, и были извлечены три основных урока. Во-первых, на практическом уровне считалось, что необходимо больше общения и товарищества между британцами и индийцами — не только между офицерами британской армии и их индийским персоналом, но и в гражданской жизни. [27] Индийская армия была полностью реорганизована: подразделения, состоящие из мусульман и брахманов Объединенных провинций Агра и Ауд , которые составили ядро ​​восстания, были расформированы. Были сформированы новые полки, такие как сикхи и белуджи, состоящие из индийцев, которые, по оценкам британцев, продемонстрировали стойкость. С тех пор индийская армия должна была оставаться неизменной в своей организации до 1947 года. [28] Перепись 1861 года показала, что английское население в Индии составляло 125 945 человек. Из них только около 41 862 были гражданскими лицами по сравнению с примерно 84 083 европейскими офицерами и солдатами армии. [29] В 1880 году постоянная индийская армия состояла из 66 000 британских солдат, 130 000 туземцев и 350 000 солдат в княжеских армиях. [30]

Во-вторых, также считалось, что и принцы, и крупные землевладельцы, не присоединившись к восстанию, оказались, по словам лорда Каннинга, «волнорезами во время шторма». [27] Они также были вознаграждены в новом британском владычестве, будучи интегрированными в британско-индийскую политическую систему и имея гарантированные территории. [31] В то же время считалось, что крестьяне, ради чьей выгоды были предприняты крупные земельные реформы Соединенных провинций, проявили нелояльность, во многих случаях сражаясь за своих бывших землевладельцев против британцев. Следовательно, в течение следующих 90 лет больше не проводилось земельных реформ: Бенгалия и Бихар должны были оставаться королевствами крупных земельных владений (в отличие от Пенджаба и Уттар-Прадеша ). [32]

В-третьих, британцы были разочарованы реакцией индийцев на социальные изменения. До восстания они с энтузиазмом продвигали социальные реформы, такие как запрет на сати лордом Уильямом Бентинком . [33] Теперь считалось, что традиции и обычаи в Индии слишком сильны и слишком жестки, чтобы их можно было легко изменить; следовательно, больше не было британского социального вмешательства, особенно в вопросах, связанных с религией, [34] даже когда британцы были очень сильны в этом вопросе (как в случае с повторным браком вдов-индуистов). [35] Это было дополнительно проиллюстрировано в Прокламации королевы Виктории, выпущенной сразу после восстания. В прокламации говорилось, что «Мы отказываемся как от нашего права, так и от желания навязывать наши убеждения любому из наших подданных»; [36] демонстрируя официальную британскую приверженность воздержанию от социального вмешательства в Индии.

1858–1880: железные дороги, каналы, Кодекс о голоде

Во второй половине XIX века как прямое управление Индией со стороны британской короны , так и технологические изменения, вызванные промышленной революцией, привели к тесному переплетению экономик Индии и Великобритании. [37] Фактически, многие из основных изменений в транспорте и коммуникациях (которые обычно ассоциируются с правлением короны в Индии) начались еще до мятежа. Поскольку Далхаузи принял технологические изменения, которые тогда бушевали в Великобритании, Индия также увидела быстрое развитие всех этих технологий. Железные дороги, дороги, каналы и мосты быстро строились в Индии, и телеграфные связи были столь же быстро установлены, так что сырье, такое как хлопок, из внутренних районов Индии можно было более эффективно транспортировать в порты, такие как Бомбей , для последующего экспорта в Англию. [38] Аналогичным образом готовые товары из Англии перевозились обратно для продажи на растущих индийских рынках. [39] В отличие от Великобритании, где рыночные риски развития инфраструктуры несли частные инвесторы, в Индии именно налогоплательщики — в первую очередь фермеры и сельскохозяйственные рабочие — несли риски, которые в конечном итоге составили 50 миллионов фунтов стерлингов. [40] Несмотря на эти затраты, для индийцев было создано очень мало квалифицированных рабочих мест. К 1920 году, с четвертой по величине железнодорожной сетью в мире и историей ее строительства в 60 лет, только десять процентов «главных должностей» на индийских железных дорогах занимали индийцы. [41]

Стремительный рост технологий также изменил сельскохозяйственную экономику в Индии: к последнему десятилетию 19-го века большая часть некоторых видов сырья — не только хлопка, но и некоторых продовольственных зерновых — экспортировалась на далекие рынки. [42] Многие мелкие фермеры, зависящие от прихотей этих рынков, теряли землю, животных и оборудование из-за ростовщиков. [42] Во второй половине 19-го века также наблюдалось увеличение числа крупномасштабных голодовок в Индии . Хотя голод не был чем-то новым для субконтинента, он был особенно жестоким, с десятками миллионов умирающих, [ необходима цитата ] и со многими критиками, как британскими, так и индийскими, возлагавшими вину на пороги громоздких колониальных администраций. [42] Были и благотворные эффекты: коммерческое земледелие, особенно в недавно проложенном каналом Пенджабе, привело к увеличению производства продовольствия для внутреннего потребления. [43] Железнодорожная сеть оказала решающую помощь голодающим, [44] в частности, значительно снизила стоимость перевозки товаров, [44] и помогла зарождающейся индийской промышленности. [43] После Великого голода 1876–1878 годов в 1880 году был опубликован доклад Комиссии по голоду в Индии, и были введены Кодексы голода в Индии , самые ранние шкалы голода и программы по предотвращению голода. [45] В той или иной форме они будут применяться во всем мире Организацией Объединенных Наций и Продовольственной и сельскохозяйственной организацией вплоть до 1970-х годов. [ необходима ссылка ]

1880–1890-е годы: средний класс, Индийский национальный конгресс

К 1880 году в Индии возник новый средний класс, который распространился по всей стране. Более того, среди его членов росла солидарность, созданная «совместными стимулами поощрения и раздражения». [46] Поощрение, которое ощущал этот класс, исходило от его успехов в образовании и его способности воспользоваться преимуществами этого образования, такими как занятость на индийской гражданской службе . Оно также исходило из прокламации королевы Виктории 1858 года, в которой она заявила: «Мы связываем себя с коренными жителями наших индийских территорий теми же обязательствами долга, которые связывают нас со всеми нашими другими подданными». [47] Индейцы были особенно воодушевлены, когда Канада получила статус доминиона в 1867 году и установила автономную демократическую конституцию. [47] Наконец, поощрение пришло от работ современных востоковедов, таких как Монье Монье-Вильямс и Макс Мюллер , которые в своих работах представляли древнюю Индию как великую цивилизацию. С другой стороны, раздражение вызывалось не только случаями расовой дискриминации со стороны британцев в Индии, но и действиями правительства, такими как использование индийских войск в имперских кампаниях (например, во Второй англо-афганской войне ) и попытками контролировать местную прессу (например, Закон о местной прессе 1878 года ). [48]

Однако именно частичная отмена вице-королем лордом Рипоном законопроекта Ильберта (1883 г.), законодательной меры, которая предлагала поставить индийских судей в Бенгальском президентстве на равные с британскими, превратила недовольство в политические действия. [49] 28 декабря 1885 г. профессионалы и интеллектуалы из этого среднего класса — многие из которых получили образование в новых британских университетах в Бомбее, Калькутте и Мадрасе и были знакомы с идеями британских политических философов, особенно утилитаристов, собравшихся в Бомбее, — основали Индийский национальный конгресс . 70 человек избрали Вомеша Чандера Бонерджи первым президентом. Членство состояло из западной элиты, и в то время не было предпринято никаких усилий для расширения базы. [ необходима цитата ]

В течение первых 20 лет Конгресс в основном обсуждал британскую политику в отношении Индии. Его дебаты создали новый индийский взгляд, который возлагал на Великобританию ответственность за истощение богатств Индии. Британия сделала это, утверждали националисты, посредством несправедливой торговли, ограничения местной индийской промышленности и использования индийских налогов для выплаты высоких зарплат британским государственным служащим в Индии. [50]

Томас Баринг был вице-королем Индии в 1872–1876 годах. Главные достижения Баринга были достигнуты как энергичного реформатора, который был предан делу повышения качества управления в британском Радже. Он начал масштабную помощь голодающим, снизил налоги и преодолел бюрократические препятствия в попытке сократить как голод, так и широко распространенные социальные беспорядки. Хотя он был назначен либеральным правительством, его политика была во многом такой же, как у вице-королей, назначенных консервативными правительствами. [51]

Социальная реформа витала в воздухе к 1880-м годам. Например, Пандита Рамабай , поэт, знаток санскрита и поборник эмансипации индийских женщин, занялся вопросом повторного брака вдов, особенно вдов брахманов, позже принявших христианство. [52] К 1900 году реформаторские движения укоренились в Индийском национальном конгрессе. Член Конгресса Гопал Кришна Гокхале основал Общество слуг Индии , которое лоббировало законодательную реформу (например, закон, разрешающий повторный брак вдов-индуистов), и члены которого давали обет бедности и работали среди неприкасаемых . [53]

К 1905 году образовалась глубокая пропасть между умеренными во главе с Гокхале, которые преуменьшали значение общественной агитации, и новыми «экстремистами», которые не только выступали за агитацию, но и считали стремление к социальным реформам отвлечением от национализма. Видным среди экстремистов был Бал Гангадхар Тилак , который пытался мобилизовать индийцев, апеллируя к явно индуистской политической идентичности, демонстрируемой, например, в ежегодных публичных фестивалях Ганапати , которые он открыл в Западной Индии. [54]

1905–1911: Раздел Бенгалии,свадеши, насилие

Вице-король лорд Керзон (1899–1905) был необычайно энергичен в стремлении к эффективности и реформам. [55] Его повестка дня включала создание Северо-Западной пограничной провинции ; небольшие изменения в гражданских службах; ускорение работы секретариата; установление золотого стандарта для обеспечения стабильной валюты; создание Железнодорожного совета; ирригационная реформа; сокращение крестьянских долгов; снижение стоимости телеграмм; археологические исследования и сохранение древностей; улучшения в университетах; реформы полиции; повышение роли коренных штатов; новый Департамент торговли и промышленности; содействие промышленности; пересмотр политики доходов от земли; снижение налогов; создание сельскохозяйственных банков; создание Сельскохозяйственного департамента; спонсирование сельскохозяйственных исследований; создание Императорской библиотеки; создание Императорского кадетского корпуса; новые кодексы о голоде; и, конечно же, уменьшение неприятностей, связанных с дымом в Калькутте. [56]

Проблемы возникли у Керзона, когда он разделил крупнейшую административную единицу в Британской Индии, провинцию Бенгалия , на провинцию с мусульманским большинством Восточная Бенгалия и Ассам и провинцию с индуистским большинством Западная Бенгалия (современные индийские штаты Западная Бенгалия , Бихар и Одиша ). Акт Керзона, Раздел Бенгалии , рассматривался различными колониальными администрациями со времен лорда Уильяма Бентинка, но так и не был реализован. Хотя некоторые считали его административно удачным, он был общественно обоснованным. Он посеял семена разногласий среди индийцев в Бенгалии, преобразовав националистическую политику как ничто другое до этого. Индуистская элита Бенгалии, среди которых было много тех, кто владел землей в Восточной Бенгалии, сдаваемой в аренду мусульманским крестьянам, яростно протестовала. [57]

После раздела Бенгалии , который был стратегией, разработанной лордом Керзоном для ослабления националистического движения, Тилак поощрял движение Свадеши и движение Бойкота. [58] Движение состояло из бойкота иностранных товаров, а также социального бойкота любого индийца, который использовал иностранные товары. Движение Свадеши состояло из использования товаров местного производства. После того, как иностранные товары были бойкотированы, образовался пробел, который должен был быть заполнен производством этих товаров в самой Индии. Бал Гангадхар Тилак сказал, что движения Свадеши и Бойкота являются двумя сторонами одной медали. Многочисленный бенгальский индуистский средний класс (Бхадралок ) , расстроенный перспективой того, что бенгальцы будут превосходить по численности в новой провинции Бенгалия бихарцев и орийцев, посчитал, что поступок Керзона был наказанием за их политическую напористость. Повсеместные протесты против решения Керзона приняли форму преимущественно кампании « Свадеши» («покупай индийское»), возглавляемой дважды президентом Конгресса Сурендранатом Банерджи , и включали бойкот британских товаров. [59]

Объединяющим кличем для обоих типов протеста был лозунг Bande Mataram («Слава Матери»), который взывал к богине-матери, которая по-разному олицетворяла Бенгалию, Индию и индуистскую богиню Кали . Шри Ауробиндо никогда не выходил за рамки закона, когда редактировал журнал Bande Mataram ; он проповедовал независимость, но в рамках мира, насколько это возможно. Его целью было пассивное сопротивление. [60] Волнения распространились из Калькутты на близлежащие районы Бенгалии, когда студенты вернулись домой в свои деревни и города. Некоторые вступили в местные политические молодежные клубы, возникшие в Бенгалии в то время, некоторые занимались грабежами, чтобы купить оружие, и даже пытались лишить жизни чиновников Раджа. Однако заговоры, как правило, терпели неудачу перед лицом интенсивной работы полиции. [61] Движение бойкота Свадеши сократило импорт британского текстиля на 25%. Ткань свадеши , хотя и была более дорогой и несколько менее удобной, чем ее ланкаширский конкурент, носилась как знак национальной гордости людьми по всей Индии. [62]

1870-е годы–1906 годы: Мусульманские общественные движения, Мусульманская лига

Подавляющий, но преимущественно индуистский протест против раздела Бенгалии и страх перед реформами в пользу индуистского большинства, вызванный этим, побудил мусульманскую элиту Индии встретиться с новым вице-королем лордом Минто в 1906 году и потребовать отдельных избирательных округов для мусульман. [39] Вместе они потребовали пропорционального законодательного представительства, отражающего как их статус бывших правителей, так и их историю сотрудничества с британцами. Это привело [ требуется ссылка ] в декабре 1906 года к основанию Всеиндийской мусульманской лиги в Дакке . Хотя Керзон к тому времени уже оставил свой пост из-за спора со своим военачальником лордом Китченером и вернулся в Англию, Лига поддержала его план раздела. [63] Позиция мусульманской элиты, которая отражалась в позиции Лиги, постепенно кристаллизовалась в течение предыдущих трех десятилетий, начиная с разоблачений переписи населения Британской Индии в 1871 году, [ требуется цитата ] в которой впервые была оценена численность населения в регионах с мусульманским большинством [63] (со своей стороны, желание Керзона расположить к себе мусульман Восточной Бенгалии возникло из-за беспокойства британцев с момента переписи 1871 года — и в свете истории борьбы мусульман с ними во время мятежа 1857 года и Второй англо-афганской войны — по поводу восстания индийских мусульман против короны). [ требуется цитата ] В течение трех десятилетий с тех пор мусульманские лидеры по всей северной Индии периодически сталкивались с публичной враждебностью со стороны некоторых новых индуистских политических и социальных групп. [63] Например, Арья Самадж не только поддерживал Общества защиты коров в их агитации, [ 64 ] но и — расстроенный численностью мусульман в переписи 1871 года — организовывал мероприятия по «реконверсии» с целью приветствовать мусульман обратно в индуистскую лоно. [63] В 1905 году, когда Тилак и Ладжпат Рай попытались занять руководящие должности в Конгрессе, а сам Конгресс сплотился вокруг символики Кали, мусульманские страхи возросли. [65] Например, многие мусульмане не упустили из виду, что боевой клич «Банде Матарам» впервые появился в романе «Ананд Мат» , в котором индусы сражались со своими мусульманскими угнетателями. [65] Наконец, мусульманская элита, и среди нее Дакка Наваб , Хваджа Салимулла , который провел первую встречу Лиги в своем особняке в Шахбаге, понимал, что новая провинция с мусульманским большинством принесет прямую пользу мусульманам, стремящимся к политической власти. [65]

Первые шаги к самоуправлению в Британской Индии были предприняты в конце XIX века с назначением индийских советников для консультирования британского вице-короля и созданием провинциальных советов с индийскими членами; впоследствии британцы расширили участие в законодательных советах с помощью Закона об индийских советах 1892 года . Для местного управления были созданы муниципальные корпорации и окружные советы; в их состав входили избранные индийские члены.

Закон об индейских советах 1909 года , известный как реформы Морли-Минто ( Джон Морли был государственным секретарем Индии, а Минто был вице-королем), предоставил индийцам ограниченные роли в центральных и провинциальных законодательных органах. Индийцы высшего класса, богатые землевладельцы и бизнесмены были в фаворе. Мусульманская община была сделана отдельным электоратом и получила двойное представительство. Цели были довольно консервативными, но они действительно продвигали принцип выборности. [66]

Раздел Бенгалии был отменен в 1911 году и объявлен на Делийском Дурбаре, на который король Георг V прибыл лично и был коронован императором Индии . Он объявил, что столица будет перенесена из Калькутты в Дели. В этот период возросла активность революционных групп , в том числе бенгальской Anushilan Samiti и пенджабской Ghadar Party . Однако британские власти смогли быстро подавить агрессивных мятежников, отчасти потому, что основная масса образованных индийских политиков выступала против насильственной революции. [67]

1914–1918: Первая мировая война, Лакхнауский пакт, лиги самоуправления

Первая мировая война оказалась водоразделом в имперских отношениях между Британией и Индией. Незадолго до начала войны правительство Индии указало, что оно может предоставить две дивизии плюс кавалерийскую бригаду, с дополнительной дивизией в случае чрезвычайной ситуации. [68] Около 1,4  миллиона индийских и британских солдат Британской индийской армии приняли участие в войне, в основном в Ираке и на Ближнем Востоке . Их участие имело более широкие культурные последствия, поскольку распространились новости о том, как храбро солдаты сражались и умирали рядом с британскими солдатами, а также солдатами из таких доминионов, как Канада и Австралия. [69] Международный авторитет Индии вырос в 1920-х годах, поскольку она стала одним из основателей Лиги Наций в 1920 году и участвовала под названием «Les Indes Anglaises» (Британская Индия) в летних Олимпийских играх 1920 года в Антверпене. [70] Вернувшись в Индию, особенно среди лидеров Индийского национального конгресса , война привела к призывам к большему самоуправлению для индийцев. [69]

В начале Первой мировой войны переброска большей части британской армии из Индии в Европу и Месопотамию заставила предыдущего вице-короля лорда Хардинга беспокоиться о «рисках, связанных с лишением Индии войск». [69] Революционное насилие уже вызывало беспокойство в Британской Индии; следовательно, в 1915 году, чтобы укрепить свои полномочия в то время, которое оно считало временем возросшей уязвимости, правительство Индии приняло Закон о защите Индии 1915 года , который позволял ему интернировать политически опасных диссидентов без надлежащей правовой процедуры и добавлял к уже имеющимся полномочиям по Закону об индийской прессе 1910 года возможность заключать журналистов в тюрьму без суда и подвергать прессу цензуре. [71] Именно в соответствии с Законом о защите Индии братья Али были заключены в тюрьму в 1916 году, а Анни Безант , европейская женщина, которую обычно было сложнее посадить в тюрьму, была арестована в 1917 году. [71] Теперь, когда конституционная реформа начала обсуждаться всерьез, британцы начали думать о том, как можно привлечь новых умеренных индийцев в лоно конституционной политики и, одновременно, как можно укрепить руку устоявшихся конституционалистов. Однако, поскольку правительство Индии хотело застраховаться от любого саботажа процесса реформ со стороны экстремистов, и поскольку его план реформ был разработан в то время, когда экстремистское насилие пошло на убыль в результате усиления государственного контроля, оно также начало думать о том, как некоторые из его военных полномочий можно было бы распространить на мирное время. [71]

После раскола 1906 года между умеренными и экстремистами в Индийском национальном конгрессе организованная политическая деятельность Конгресса оставалась раздробленной до 1914 года, когда Бал Гангадхар Тилак был освобожден из тюрьмы и начал зондировать других лидеров Конгресса о возможном воссоединении. Однако это пришлось ждать до кончины главных умеренных оппонентов Тилака, Гопала Кришны Гокхале и Ферозешаха Мехты , в 1915 году, после чего было достигнуто соглашение о повторном вхождении изгнанной группы Тилака в Конгресс. [69] На сессии Конгресса в Лакхнау в 1916 году сторонники Тилака смогли протолкнуть более радикальную резолюцию, в которой британцам предлагалось объявить, что их «целью и намерением ... является предоставление самоуправления Индии в кратчайшие сроки». [69] Вскоре в публичных заявлениях стали появляться и другие подобные ропоты: в 1917 году в Имперском законодательном совете Мадан Мохан Малавия говорил об ожиданиях, которые война породила в Индии: «Я осмелюсь сказать, что война перевела часы... на пятьдесят лет вперед... (Реформы) после войны должны быть такими,... которые удовлетворят стремления ее (индийского) народа принять законное участие в управлении своей собственной страной». [69]

Сессия Конгресса в Лакхнау 1916 года также стала местом непредвиденных совместных усилий Конгресса и Мусульманской лиги, поводом для которых послужило военное партнерство между Германией и Турцией. Поскольку турецкий султан , или халиф , также время от времени заявлял о своей опеке над исламскими святынями Меккой , Мединой и Иерусалимом , а британцы и их союзники теперь находились в конфликте с Турцией, среди некоторых индийских мусульман начали расти сомнения относительно «религиозного нейтралитета» британцев, сомнения, которые уже всплыли в результате воссоединения Бенгалии в 1911 году, решения, которое было расценено как неблагоприятное для мусульман. [72] В Пакте Лакхнау Лига присоединилась к Конгрессу в предложении о большем самоуправлении, за которое агитировали Тилак и его сторонники; взамен Конгресс принял отдельные избирательные округа для мусульман в провинциальных законодательных органах, а также в Имперском законодательном совете. В 1916 году Мусульманская лига насчитывала от 500 до 800  членов и еще не имела такого широкого круга последователей среди индийских мусульман, как в последующие годы; в самой Лиге пакт не имел единодушной поддержки, поскольку в основном был согласован группой мусульман из «Молодой партии» из Соединенных провинций (UP), в первую очередь двумя братьями Мохаммадом и Шаукатом Али , которые поддержали панисламистское дело; [72] однако, он получил поддержку молодого юриста из Бомбея Мухаммеда Али Джинны , который позже занял руководящие должности как в Лиге, так и в движении за независимость Индии. В последующие годы, по мере того как разворачивались все последствия пакта, он рассматривался как выгодный для элиты мусульманского меньшинства провинций, таких как UP и Бихар, больше, чем для мусульманского большинства Пенджаба и Бенгалии; Тем не менее, в то время «Лакхнауский пакт» был важной вехой в националистической агитации и рассматривался британцами именно так. [72]

В 1916 году в Индийском национальном конгрессе Тилаком и Анни Безант были основаны две Лиги за самоуправление , соответственно, для продвижения идеи самоуправлений среди индийцев, а также для повышения статуса основателей в самом Конгрессе. [73] Безант, со своей стороны, также стремилась продемонстрировать превосходство этой новой формы организованной агитации, которая достигла определенного успеха в ирландском движении за самоуправление , над политическим насилием, которое периодически терзало субконтинент в 1907–1914 годах. [73] Две Лиги сосредоточили свое внимание на взаимодополняющих географических регионах: Тилак в западной Индии, в южном Бомбейском президентстве , а Безант в остальной части страны, но особенно в Мадрасском президентстве и в таких регионах, как Синд и Гуджарат , которые до сих пор считались Конгрессом политически бездействующими. [73] Обе лиги быстро приобрели новых членов — примерно по тридцать тысяч каждая чуть больше чем за год — и начали издавать недорогие газеты. Их пропаганда также обратилась к плакатам, памфлетам и политико-религиозным песням, а позже к массовым собраниям, которые не только привлекли большее количество людей, чем на предыдущих сессиях Конгресса, но и совершенно новые социальные группы, такие как небрахманы , торговцы, фермеры, студенты и низшие государственные служащие. [73] Хотя они не достигли масштабов или характера общенационального массового движения, лиги самоуправления как углубили, так и расширили организованную политическую агитацию за самоуправление в Индии. Британские власти отреагировали на это введением ограничений для лиг, включая исключение студентов из собраний и запрет двум лидерам на поездки в определенные провинции. [73] 

1915–1918: возвращение Ганди

Махатма Ганди (сидит в экипаже справа, опустив глаза, в черной шляпе с плоским верхом) получает радушный прием в Карачи в 1916 году после своего возвращения в Индию из Южной Африки
Ганди во время Кхеда Сатьяграха, 1918 г.

В 1915 году в Индию также вернулся Мохандас Карамчанд Ганди . Уже известный в Индии по своим протестам за гражданские свободы от имени индийцев в Южной Африке, Ганди последовал совету своего наставника Гопала Кришны Гокхале и решил не делать никаких публичных заявлений в течение первого года своего возвращения, а вместо этого провел год, путешествуя, наблюдая за страной своими глазами и занимаясь написанием статей. [74] Ранее, во время своего пребывания в Южной Африке, Ганди, юрист по профессии, представлял индийскую общину, которая, хотя и была небольшой, была достаточно разнообразной, чтобы быть микрокосмом самой Индии. Решая задачу удержания этой общины вместе и одновременного противостояния колониальной власти, он создал технику ненасильственного сопротивления, которую он назвал Сатьяграха (или Стремление к истине). [75] Для Ганди Сатьяграха отличалась от « пассивного сопротивления », к тому времени уже знакомого метода социального протеста, который он считал практической стратегией, принятой слабыми перед лицом превосходящей силы; с другой стороны, Сатьяграха была для него «последним средством тех, кто достаточно силен в своей приверженности истине, чтобы претерпеть страдания ради нее». [75] Ахимса или «ненасилие», составлявшее основу Сатьяграхи , стало представлять собой двойной столп, вместе с Истиной, неортодоксального религиозного взгляда Ганди на жизнь. [75] В 1907–1914 годах Ганди опробовал метод Сатьяграхи в ряде протестов от имени индийской общины в Южной Африке против несправедливых расовых законов. [75]

Кроме того, во время своего пребывания в Южной Африке, в своем эссе « Hind Swaraj » (1909) Ганди сформулировал свое видение свараджа , или «самоуправления» для Индии, основанное на трех жизненно важных компонентах: солидарности между индийцами разных вероисповеданий, но больше всего между индуистами и мусульманами; устранении неприкасаемости из индийского общества; и осуществлении свадеши — бойкота иностранных товаров и возрождения индийской кустарной промышленности . [74] Первые два, как он чувствовал, были необходимы для того, чтобы Индия стала эгалитарным и толерантным обществом, соответствующим принципам Истины и Ахимсы , в то время как последний, сделав индийцев более самостоятельными, разорвет цикл зависимости, который увековечивал не только направление и тон британского правления в Индии, но и британскую приверженность ему. [74] По крайней мере до 1920 года британское присутствие само по себе не было камнем преткновения в концепции свараджа Ганди ; скорее, это была неспособность индийцев создать современное общество. [74]

Ганди дебютировал в политической жизни Индии в 1917 году в округе Чампаран в Бихаре , недалеко от границы с Непалом, куда его пригласила группа недовольных фермеров-арендаторов, которых в течение многих лет заставляли сажать индиго (для красителей) на части их земли, а затем продавать его по ценам ниже рыночных британским плантаторам, которые сдавали им землю в аренду. [76] По прибытии в округ к Ганди присоединились другие агитаторы, включая молодого лидера Конгресса Раджендру Прасада из Бихара, который стал верным сторонником Ганди и впоследствии сыграл видную роль в движении за независимость Индии. Когда местные британские власти приказали Ганди уехать, он отказался по моральным соображениям, объявив свой отказ формой индивидуальной сатьяграхи . Вскоре под давлением вице-короля в Дели, который стремился сохранить внутренний мир во время войны, провинциальное правительство отменило приказ о высылке Ганди и позже согласилось на официальное расследование дела. Хотя британские плантаторы в конечном итоге сдались, они не были привлечены на сторону фермеров и, таким образом, не дали оптимального результата Сатьяграхи, на который надеялся Ганди; аналогично, сами фермеры, хотя и были довольны резолюцией, отреагировали не слишком восторженно на параллельные проекты расширения прав и возможностей сельских жителей и образования, которые Ганди инициировал в соответствии со своим идеалом свараджа . В следующем году Ганди запустил еще две Сатьяграхи — обе в своем родном Гуджарате — одну в сельском округе Кайра , где землевладельцы-фермеры протестовали против увеличения доходов от земли, а другую в городе Ахмадабад , где рабочие на индийской текстильной фабрике были обеспокоены своей низкой заработной платой. Сатьяграха в Ахмадабаде приняла форму поста Ганди и поддержки рабочих в забастовке, что в конечном итоге привело к урегулированию. В Кайре, напротив, хотя дело фермеров получило огласку благодаря присутствию Ганди, сама сатьяграха, которая состояла в коллективном решении фермеров задержать выплату, не была немедленно успешной, поскольку британские власти отказались отступить. Агитация в Кайре принесла Ганди еще одного пожизненного помощника в лице Сардара Валлаббхаи Пателя , который организовал фермеров и который также продолжил играть руководящую роль в движении за независимость Индии. [77]

1916–1919: реформы Монтегю-Челмсфорда

В 1916 году, столкнувшись с новой силой, продемонстрированной националистами с подписанием Лакхнауского пакта и основанием лиг гомруля , а также осознанием после катастрофы в Месопотамской кампании того, что война, скорее всего, продлится дольше, новый вице-король, лорд Челмсфорд , предупредил, что правительству Индии необходимо быть более отзывчивым к мнению индийцев. [78] К концу года, после обсуждений с правительством в Лондоне, он предложил британцам продемонстрировать свою добрую волю — в свете роли индийской войны — посредством ряда публичных действий, включая награждение титулами и почестями принцев, предоставление индийским офицерам армейских должностей и отмену столь порицаемого акцизного сбора на хлопок, но, что наиболее важно, объявление о будущих планах Великобритании в отношении Индии и указание некоторых конкретных шагов. После дополнительных обсуждений в августе 1917 года новый либеральный государственный секретарь по делам Индии Эдвин Монтегю объявил о цели Великобритании «увеличения ассоциации индийцев во всех ветвях администрации и постепенного развития самоуправляющихся институтов с целью постепенной реализации ответственного правительства в Индии как неотъемлемой части Британской империи». [78] Хотя план изначально предусматривал ограниченное самоуправление только в провинциях — причем Индия была подчеркнуто в пределах Британской империи — он представлял собой первое британское предложение о какой-либо форме представительного правительства в не-белой колонии.

Монтегю и Челмсфорд представили свой отчет в июле 1918 года после долгой ознакомительной поездки по Индии предыдущей зимой. [79] После дополнительных обсуждений правительством и парламентом в Великобритании и еще одного визита Комитета по избирательным правам и функциям с целью определения того, кто из индийского населения может голосовать на будущих выборах, в декабре 1919 года был принят Закон о правительстве Индии 1919 года (также известный как реформы Монтегю-Челмсфорда ). [79] Новый закон расширил как провинциальные, так и имперские законодательные советы и отменил обращение правительства Индии к «официальному большинству» при неблагоприятных голосованиях. [79] Хотя такие департаменты, как оборона, иностранные дела, уголовное право, коммуникации и подоходный налог, были сохранены вице-королем и центральным правительством в Нью-Дели, другие департаменты, такие как здравоохранение, образование, земельные доходы, местное самоуправление, были переданы в провинции. [79] Теперь сами провинции должны были управляться в рамках новой диархической системы, в соответствии с которой некоторые области, такие как образование, сельское хозяйство, развитие инфраструктуры и местное самоуправление, стали прерогативой индийских министров и законодательных органов, а в конечном итоге и индийских избирателей, в то время как другие, такие как ирригация, земельные доходы, полиция, тюрьмы и контроль над средствами массовой информации, оставались в компетенции британского губернатора и его исполнительного совета. [79] Новый закон также упростил для индийцев прием на государственную службу и в офицерский корпус армии.

Большее число индийцев теперь получили избирательные права, хотя для голосования на национальном уровне они составляли всего 10% от общего числа взрослых мужчин, многие из которых все еще были неграмотными. [79] В провинциальных законодательных органах британцы продолжали осуществлять определенный контроль, выделяя места для особых интересов, которые они считали кооперативными или полезными. В частности, сельским кандидатам, в целом симпатизирующим британскому правлению и менее конфронтационным, было предоставлено больше мест, чем их городским коллегам. [79] Места также были зарезервированы для небрахманов, землевладельцев, бизнесменов и выпускников колледжей. Принцип «общинного представительства», неотъемлемая часть реформ Минто-Морли и совсем недавно Пакта Конгресса-Мусульманской лиги в Лакхнау, был подтвержден, причем места были зарезервированы для мусульман, сикхов , индийских христиан , англо-индийцев и постоянно проживающих европейцев как в провинциальных, так и в имперских законодательных советах. [79] Реформы Монтегю-Челмсфорда предоставили индийцам самую значительную возможность для осуществления законодательной власти, особенно на провинциальном уровне; однако эта возможность также была ограничена все еще ограниченным числом имеющих право голоса избирателей, небольшими бюджетами, доступными провинциальным законодательным органам, и наличием сельских и специальных мест, которые рассматривались как инструменты британского контроля. [79] Ее масштаб был неудовлетворительным для индийского политического руководства, как это было известно выражено Анни Безант , как нечто «недостойное того, чтобы Англия предложила это, и того, чтобы Индия приняла это». [80]

1917–1919: Закон Роулэтта

Сидни Роулатт , британский судья, под председательством которого Комитет Роулатта рекомендовал ужесточить антимятежные законы

В 1917 году, когда Монтегю и Челмсфорд составляли свой отчет, комитет под председательством британского судьи Сиднея Роулатта получил задание расследовать «революционные заговоры» с невысказанной целью расширения полномочий правительства в военное время. [78] Комитет Роулатта состоял из четырех британских и двух индийских членов, включая сэра Бэзила Скотта и Дивана Бахадура сэра К. В. Кумарасвами Шастри , нынешнего и будущего главных судей Верховного суда Бомбея и Верховного суда Мадраса . Он представил свой отчет в июле 1918 года и определил три региона заговорщического мятежа: Бенгалия , Бомбейское президентство и Пенджаб . [78] Для борьбы с подрывной деятельностью в этих регионах комитет единогласно рекомендовал правительству использовать чрезвычайные полномочия, аналогичные полномочиям военного времени, которые включали возможность рассматривать дела о подстрекательстве к мятежу коллегией из трех судей и без присяжных, взыскание залога с подозреваемых, правительственный надзор за местами проживания подозреваемых [78] и полномочия провинциальных правительств арестовывать и заключать подозреваемых под стражу в краткосрочные следственные изоляторы и без суда. [81]

Заголовки о законопроектах Роулатта (1919) из националистической газеты в Индии. Хотя все неофициальные индийцы в Законодательном совете проголосовали против законопроектов Роулатта, правительство смогло заставить их принять, используя свое большинство. [81]

С окончанием Первой мировой войны также произошли изменения в экономическом климате. К концу 1919 года 1,5  миллиона индийцев служили в вооруженных силах в боевых или не боевых ролях, и Индия предоставила 146  миллионов фунтов стерлингов дохода для войны. [82] Повышение налогов в сочетании с перебоями как во внутренней, так и во внешней торговле привели к примерно удвоению индекса общих цен в Индии между 1914 и 1920 годами. [82] Возвращение ветеранов войны, особенно в Пенджабе, привело к растущему кризису безработицы, [ 83] а послевоенная инфляция привела к продовольственным бунтам в провинциях Бомбей, Мадрас и Бенгалия, [83] ситуация, которая только ухудшилась из-за отсутствия муссонов 1918–1919 годов, а также из-за спекуляции и наживы. [82] Глобальная эпидемия гриппа и большевистская революция 1917 года добавили к общему беспокойству; первые — среди населения, уже испытывающего экономические трудности, [83] а вторые — среди правительственных чиновников, опасающихся подобной революции в Индии. [84]

Чтобы бороться с тем, что оно считало надвигающимся кризисом, правительство теперь изложило рекомендации комитета Роулатта в двух законопроектах Роулатта . [81] Хотя законопроекты были одобрены для законодательного рассмотрения Эдвином Монтегю, это было сделано неохотно, с сопровождающим заявлением: «Я с первого взгляда испытываю отвращение к предложению сохранить Закон о защите Индии в мирное время в той степени, в какой Роулатт и его друзья считают это необходимым». [78] В ходе последовавшего обсуждения и голосования в Имперском законодательном совете все индийские члены высказались против законопроектов. Правительство Индии, тем не менее, смогло использовать свое «официальное большинство», чтобы обеспечить принятие законопроектов в начале 1919 года. [78] Однако то, что оно приняло, из уважения к индийской оппозиции, было уменьшенной версией первого законопроекта, который теперь допускал внесудебные полномочия, но на период ровно в три года и для преследования исключительно «анархических и революционных движений», полностью отбросив второй законопроект, предполагавший изменение индийского Уголовного кодекса . [78] Тем не менее, когда он был принят, новый Закон Роулэтта вызвал широкое возмущение по всей Индии и вывел Ганди на передовые позиции националистического движения. [81]

1919–1929: Джаллианвала, отказ от сотрудничества

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or "Amritsar massacre", took place in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of Amritsar. After days of unrest Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men, women, and children without warning. Casualty estimates vary widely, with the Government of India reporting 379 dead, with 1,100 wounded.[85] The Indian National Congress estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj.[86] Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India.[87]

In 1920, after the British government refused to back down, Gandhi began his campaign of non-cooperation, prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours, to resign from the civil services, and to again boycott British goods. In addition, Gandhi reorganised the Congress, transforming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to even the poorest Indians. Although Gandhi halted the non-cooperation movement in 1922 after the violent incident at Chauri Chaura, the movement revived again, in the mid-1920s.

The visit, in 1928, of the British Simon Commission, charged with instituting constitutional reform in India, resulted in widespread protests throughout the country.[88] Earlier, in 1925, non-violent protests of the Congress had resumed too, this time in Gujarat, and led by Patel, who organised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes; the success of this protest, the Bardoli Satyagraha, brought Gandhi back into the fold of active politics.[88]

At its annual session in Lahore, the Indian National Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, issued a demand for Purna Swaraj (Hindustani language: "complete independence"), or Purna Swarajya. The declaration was drafted by the Congress Working Committee, which included Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. Gandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil disobedience, culminating in 1930 with the Salt Satyagraha, in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt, by marching to the sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Although, many, including Gandhi, were arrested, the British government eventually gave in, and in 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the Round Table Conferences.[citation needed]

Government of India Act, 1935

In local terms, British control rested on the Indian Civil Service (ICS), but it faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and the continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was divided loyalty between the Empire and independence.[89] The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.[90]

In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1935, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future Constitution of independent India was based on this act.[91] However, it divided the electorate into 19 religious and social categories, e.g., Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, Landholders, Commerce and Industry, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, etc., each of which was given separate representation in the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category.[citation needed]

The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from 473,000 in 1935 to 4.5 million in 1939.[92]

In the 1937 elections Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India.[93] Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. The widespread voter support for the Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body.[94] The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as a ploy to exclude Burmese from any further Indian reforms.[95]

1939–1945: World War II

With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces, Bengal, Sind and the Punjab.[96]

While the Muslim League had been a small elite group in 1927 with only 1300 members, it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses, reaching 500,000 members in Bengal in 1944, 200,000 in Punjab, and hundreds of thousands elsewhere.[97] Jinnah now was well positioned to negotiate with the British from a position of power.[98] Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. On 24 March 1940 in Lahore, the League passed the "Lahore Resolution", demanding that, "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign."[99] Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Ab'ul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A. K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Fazl-i-Hussain of the landlord-dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd al-Ghaffar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmatgar (popularly, "red shirts") in the North West Frontier Province,[100] the British, over the next six years, were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.

The Congress was secular and strongly opposed to having any religious state.[97] It insisted there was a natural unity to India, and repeatedly blamed the British for "divide and rule" tactics based on prompting Muslims to think of themselves as alien from Hindus.[citation needed] Jinnah rejected the notion of a united India, and emphasised that religious communities were more basic than an artificial nationalism. He proclaimed the Two-Nation Theory,[101] stating at Lahore on 23 March 1940:

[Islam and Hinduism] are not religions in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality ... The Hindu and Muslim belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature [sic]. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and indeed they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspects on life and of life are different ... To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state.[102]

While the regular Indian army in 1939 included about 220,000 native troops, it expanded tenfold during the war,[103] and small naval and air force units were created. Over two million Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army. They played a major role in numerous campaigns, especially in the Middle East and North Africa. Casualties were moderate (in terms of the world war), with 24,000 killed; 64,000 wounded; 12,000 missing (probably dead), and 60,000 captured at Singapore in 1942.[104]

London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army, which had the effect of erasing India's national debt; it ended the war with a surplus of £1,300 million. In addition, heavy British spending on munitions produced in India (such as uniforms, rifles, machine-guns, field artillery, and ammunition) led to a rapid expansion of industrial output, such as textiles (up 16%), steel (up 18%), and chemicals (up 30%). Small warships were built, and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. The railway system, with 700,000 employees, was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared.[105]

The British government sent the Cripps mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended. Top officials in Britain, most notably Prime Minister Winston Churchill, did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.[106]

Congress launched the Quit India Movement in July 1942 demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national, provincial and local Congress leaders, holding tens of thousands of them until 1945. The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. The large wartime British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks;[107] nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.[107] In other parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive; however, it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943.[108]

Earlier, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the Indian National Congress in the late 1920s and 1930s, had risen to become Congress President from 1938 to 1939.[109] However, he was ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the high command,[110] and subsequently placed under house arrest by the British before escaping from India in early 1941.[111] He turned to Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan for help in gaining India's independence by force.[112] With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese in the Battle of Singapore. As the war turned against them, the Japanese came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, and in addition, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind, presided by Bose.[112]

Bose's effort, however, was short-lived. In mid-1944 the British Army first halted and then reversed the Japanese U-Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose's Indian National Army largely disintegrated during the subsequent fighting in Burma, with its remaining elements surrendering with the recapture of Singapore in September 1945. Bose died in August from third degree burns received after attempting to escape in an overloaded Japanese plane which crashed in Taiwan,[113] which many Indians believe did not happen.[114][115][116] Although Bose was unsuccessful, he roused patriotic feelings in India.[117]

1946–1947: Independence, Partition

In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.[118] The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the secretary of state for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.[118]

Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers.[119] The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences, created positive propaganda for the Congress, which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.[120] The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout British India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.[121]

Later that year, the British Exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, and the Labour government conscious that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India,[122][123] decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.[96]

As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.[124][96] With the partition of India, the end of the British rule in India in August 1947 saw the creation of two separate states of India and Pakistan.[125]

On 15 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan (later Islamic Republic of Pakistan), with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as the governor-general; and the Dominion of India, (later Republic of India) with Jawaharlal Nehru as the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first governor-general came into being; with official ceremonies taking place in Karachi on 14 August and New Delhi on 15 August. This was done so that Mountbatten could attend both ceremonies.[126]

The great majority of Indians remained in place with independence, but in border areas millions of people (Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu) relocated across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders, among both the refugee and resident populations of the three faiths, died in the violence.[127]

Timeline of major events, legislation, and public works

British India and the princely states

India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: British India and the Native States (or Princely States).[139] In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions in Section 18:

(4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinates to the Governor-General of India.

(5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinates to the Governor-General of India.[1]

In general, the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) to refer also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858.[140] The term has also been used to refer to the "British in India".[141]

The terms "Indian Empire" and "Empire of India" (like the term "British Empire") were not used in legislation. The monarch was officially known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victoria's Queen's Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. In addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878.

Suzerainty over 175 princely states, some of the largest and most important, was exercised (in the name of the British Crown) by the central government of British India under the viceroy; the remaining approximately 500 states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner (as the case might have been).[142] A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.[142]

Major provinces

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor.

During the partition of Bengal (1905–1913), the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[143]

Minor provinces

In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a chief commissioner:[144]

Princely states

A Princely State, also called a Native State or an Indian State, was a British vassal state in India with an indigenous nominal Indian ruler, subject to a subsidiary alliance.[145] There were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India (i.e. the presidencies and provinces), as they were not directly under British rule. The larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had; in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control.[citation needed] The British also exercised a general influence over the states' internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the great majority were very small and contracted out the business of government to the British. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 square kilometres (10 square miles).[145] The last vestige of the Mughal Empire in Delhi which was under Company authority prior to the advent of British Raj was finally abolished and seized by the Crown in the aftermath of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 for its support to the rebellion.[146][147]

The princely states were grouped into agencies and residencies.

Organisation

Sir Charles Wood (1800–1885) was President of the Board of Control of the East India Company from 1852 to 1855; he shaped British education policy in India, and was Secretary of State for India from 1859 to 1866.

Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (usually called the Indian Mutiny by the British), the Government of India Act 1858 made changes in the governance of India at three levels:

  1. in the imperial government in London,
  2. in the central government in Calcutta, and
  3. in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces).[148]

In London, it provided for a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India and a fifteen-member Council of India, whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before.[149] Although the secretary of state formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. However, the secretary of state also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated.[150] From 1858 until 1947, twenty-seven individuals served as Secretary of State for India and directed the India Office; these included: Sir Charles Wood (1859–1866), the Marquess of Salisbury (1874–1878; later British prime minister), John Morley (1905–1910; initiator of the Minto–Morley Reforms), E. S. Montagu (1917–1922; an architect of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms), and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence (1945–1947; head of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India). The size of the Advisory Council was reduced over the next half-century, but its powers remained unchanged. In 1907, for the first time, two Indians were appointed to the Council.[151] They were K.G. Gupta and Syed Hussain Bilgrami.

Lord Canning, the last Governor-General of India under Company rule and the first viceroy of India under Crown rule
Lord Salisbury was Secretary of State for India from 1874 to 1878.

In Calcutta, the governor-general remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states; he was, however, now responsible to the secretary of state in London and through him to Parliament. A system of "double government" had already been in place during the Company's rule in India from the time of Pitt's India Act of 1784. The governor-general in the capital, Calcutta, and the governor in a subordinate presidency (Madras or Bombay) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (i.e. the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). The Company's system of "double government" had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been intermittent feuding between the governor-general and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance.[151] However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead, so he requested the "portfolio system" of an Executive Council in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single council member.[151] Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, but important decisions required the consent of the governor-general and, in the absence of such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the Indian Councils Act 1861.

If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed official) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed non-official) and serving only in an advisory capacity.[152] All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the secretary of state in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second secretary of state, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home".[151] Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by Sayyid Ahmad Khan, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative.[153] Even so, the "...  tiny advances in the practice of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion, which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion".[154] Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British Parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.[155]

With the promulgation of the Government of India Act 1935, the Council of India was abolished with effect from 1 April 1937 and a modified system of government enacted. The secretary of state for India represented the Government of India in the UK. He was assisted by a body of advisers numbering from 8–12 individuals, at least half of whom were required to have held office in India for a minimum of 10 years, and had not relinquished office earlier than two years prior to their appointment as advisers to the secretary of state.[156]

The viceroy and governor-general of India, a Crown appointee, typically held office for five years though there was no fixed tenure, and received an annual salary of Rs. 250,800 p.a. (£18,810 p.a.).[156][157] He headed the Viceroy's Executive Council, each member of which had responsibility for a department of the central administration. From 1 April 1937, the position of Governor-General in Council, which the viceroy and governor-general concurrently held in the capacity of representing the Crown in relations with the Indian princely states, was replaced by the designation of "HM Representative for the Exercise of the Functions of the Crown in its Relations with the Indian States", or the "Crown Representative". The Executive Council was greatly expanded during the Second World War, and in 1947 comprised 14 members (secretaries), each of whom earned a salary of Rs. 66,000 p.a. (£4,950 p.a.). The portfolios in 1946–1947 were:

Until 1946, the viceroy held the portfolio for External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, as well as heading the Political Department in his capacity as the Crown representative. Each department was headed by a secretary excepting the Railway Department, which was headed by a Chief Commissioner of Railways under a secretary.[158]

The viceroy and governor-general was also the head of the bicameral Indian Legislature, consisting of an upper house (the Council of State) and a lower house (the Legislative Assembly). The viceroy was the head of the Council of State, while the Legislative Assembly, which was first opened in 1921, was headed by an elected president (appointed by the Viceroy from 1921 to 1925). The Council of State consisted of 58 members (32 elected, 26 nominated), while the Legislative Assembly comprised 141 members (26 nominated officials, 13 others nominated and 102 elected). The Council of State existed in five-year periods and the Legislative Assembly for three-year periods, though either could be dissolved earlier or later by the Viceroy. The Indian Legislature was empowered to make laws for all persons resident in British India including all British subjects resident in India, and for all British Indian subjects residing outside India. With the assent of the King-Emperor and after copies of a proposed enactment had been submitted to both houses of the British Parliament, the Viceroy could overrule the legislature and directly enact any measures in the perceived interests of British India or its residents if the need arose.[158]

Effective from 1 April 1936, the Government of India Act created the new provinces of Sind (separated from the Bombay Presidency) and Orissa (separated from the Province of Bihar and Orissa). Burma and Aden became separate Crown Colonies under the Act from 1 April 1937, thereby ceasing to be part of the Indian Empire. From 1937 onwards, British India was divided into 17 administrations: the three Presidencies of Madras, Bombay and Bengal, and the 14 provinces of the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Orissa, Sind, British Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Panth Piploda. The Presidencies and the first eight provinces were each under a governor, while the latter six provinces were each under a chief commissioner. The viceroy directly governed the chief commissioner provinces through each respective chief commissioner, while the Presidencies and the provinces under governors were allowed greater autonomy under the Government of India Act.[159] Each Presidency or province headed by a governor had either a provincial bicameral legislature (in the Presidencies, the United Provinces, Bihar and Assam) or a unicameral legislature (in the Punjab, Central Provinces and Berar, NWFP, Orissa and Sind). The governor of each presidency or province represented the Crown in his capacity, and was assisted by a ministers appointed from the members of each provincial legislature. Each provincial legislature had a life of five years, barring any special circumstances such as wartime conditions. All bills passed by the provincial legislature were either signed or rejected by the governor, who could also issue proclamations or promulgate ordinances while the legislature was in recess, as the need arose.[160]

Each province or presidency comprised a number of divisions, each headed by a commissioner and subdivided into districts, which were the basic administrative units and each headed by a district magistrate, collector or deputy commissioner; in 1947, British India comprised 230 districts.[160]

Legal system

Elephant Carriage of the Maharaja of Rewa, Delhi Durbar, of 1903

Singha argues that after 1857 the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. New legislation merged the Crown and the old East India Company courts and introduced a new penal code as well as new codes of civil and criminal procedure, based largely on English law. In the 1860s–1880s the Raj set up compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages, as well as adoptions, property deeds, and wills. The goal was to create a stable, usable public record and verifiable identities. However, there was opposition from both Muslim and Hindu elements who complained that the new procedures for census-taking and registration threatened to uncover female privacy. Purdah rules prohibited women from saying their husband's name or having their photograph taken. An all-India census was conducted between 1868 and 1871, often using total numbers of females in a household rather than individual names. Select groups which the Raj reformers wanted to monitor statistically included those reputed to practice female infanticide, prostitutes, lepers, and eunuchs.[161]

Murshid argues that women were in some ways more restricted by the modernisation of the laws. They remained tied to the strictures of their religion, caste, and customs, but now with an overlay of British Victorian attitudes. Their inheritance rights to own and manage property were curtailed; the new English laws were somewhat harsher. Court rulings restricted the rights of second wives and their children regarding inheritance. A woman had to belong to either a father or a husband to have any rights.[162]

Official flags and emblems

The government of India used a variety of flags for different purposes. The Viceroy flew an official banner based on the Union Jack,[163] featuring the Star of India badge; this flag was also considered to represent India itself.[164][165] In 1921 the Viceroy, Lord Reading, declared[166] the government's intention to retain this design as the flag for imperial India, a purpose it began to serve after 1861.[165] The Governor-General was also assigned an official badge, defined and published in the British Admiralty flag book.[167] A Red Ensign bearing the star emblem was also used as an Indian flag prior to 1947, particularly at international events.[168]

The rulers of the Princely states also had their own banners, ceremonially presented to them during Queen Victoria's 1877 Durbar,[169] and the states also had their own official emblems.[170] The Royal Indian Navy flew a blue jack flag bearing the Star of India,[171] which was also used as an ensign.[172]

Economy

Economic trends

One Mohur depicting Queen Victoria (1862)

All three sectors of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and services—accelerated in the postcolonial India. In agriculture a huge increase in production took place in the 1870s. The most important difference between colonial and postcolonial India was the use of land surplus with productivity-led growth by using high-yielding variety seeds, chemical fertilizers and more intensive application of water. All these three inputs were subsidised by the state.[181] The result was, on average, no long-term change in per capita income levels, though cost of living had grown higher. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw materials for Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee and tea.[182] India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than 5% in the colonial period.[183] Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school (following Nehru) arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.[184]

Mike Davis writes that much of the economic activity in British India was for the benefit of the British economy and was carried out relentlessly through repressive British imperial policies and with negative repercussions for the Indian population. This is reified in India's large exports of wheat to Britain: despite a major famine that claimed between 6 and 10 million lives in the late 1870s, these exports remained unchecked. A colonial government committed to laissez-faire economics refused to interfere with these exports or provide any relief.[185]

Industry

With the end of the state-granted monopoly of the East India Trading Company in 1813, the importation into India of British manufactured goods, including finished textiles, increased dramatically, from approximately 1 million yards of cotton cloth in 1814 to 13 million in 1820, 995 million in 1870, to 2050 million by 1890. The British imposed "free trade" on India, while continental Europe and the United States erected stiff tariff barriers ranging from 30% to 70% on the importation of cotton yarn or prohibited it entirely. As a result of the less expensive imports from more industrialized Britain, India's most significant industrial sector, textile production, shrank, such that by 1870–1880 Indian producers were manufacturing only 25%–45% of local consumption. Deindustrialization of India's iron industry was even more extensive during this period.[186]

Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.[187]

In the 1890s, he launched plans to move into heavy industry using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but, aware of Britain's declining position against the US and Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India. It promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell.[188] The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), now headed by his son Dorabji Tata (1859–1932), began constructing its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908, using American technology, not British.[189] According to The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, TISCO became the leading iron and steel producer in India, and "a symbol of Indian technical skill, managerial competence, and entrepreneurial flair".[187] The Tata family, like most of India's big businessmen, were Indian nationalists but did not trust the Congress because it seemed too aggressively hostile to the Raj, too socialist, and too supportive of trade unions.[190]

Railways

The railway network of India in 1871, all major cities, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, as well as Delhi, are connected.
The railway network of India in 1909, when it was the fourth largest railway network in the world
"The most magnificent railway station in the world", says the caption of the stereographic tourist picture of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, which was completed in 1888.

British India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century, which was the fourth largest in the world. At first the railways were privately owned and operated. They were run by British administrators, engineers and craftsmen. At first, only the unskilled workers were Indians.[191]

The East India Company (and later the colonial government) encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to 5% during the initial years of operation. The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the government having the option to buy them earlier.[192] Two new railway companies, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) and the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) began to construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta in 1853–54. The first passenger railway line in North India, between Allahabad and Kanpur, opened in 1859. Eventually, five British companies came to own all railway business in India,[193] and operated under a profit maximization scheme.[194] Further, there was no government regulation of these companies.[193]

In 1854, Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees, investment flowed in and a series of new rail companies was established, leading to rapid expansion of the rail system in India.[195] Soon several large princely states built their own rail systems and the network spread to the regions that became the modern-day states of Assam, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The route mileage of this network increased from 1,349 to 25,495 kilometres (838 to 15,842 mi) between 1860 and 1890, mostly radiating inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.[196]

After the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, and subsequent Crown rule over India, the railways were seen as a strategic defense of the European population, allowing the military to move quickly to subdue native unrest and protect Britons.[197] The railway thus served as a tool of the colonial government to control India as they were "an essential strategic, defensive, subjugators and administrative 'tool'" for the Imperial Project.[198]

Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers.[199] The system was heavily built, using a broad gauge, sturdy tracks and strong bridges. By 1900 India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, metre and narrow gauge networks. In 1900, the government took over the GIPR network, while the company continued to manage it.[199] During the First World War, the railways were used to transport troops and grain to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, Mesopotamia, and East Africa.[citation needed] With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became much more difficult; critical workers entered the army; workshops were converted to making munitions; the locomotives, rolling stock, and track of some entire lines were shipped to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the increased demand.[200] By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated for lack of maintenance and were not profitable. In 1923, both GIPR and EIR were nationalised.[201][202]

Headrick shows that until the 1930s, both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive engineers. The hard physical labor was left to the Indians. The colonial government was chiefly concerned with the welfare of European workers, and any Indian deaths were "either ignored or merely mentioned as a cold statistical figure."[203][204] The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms.[202] The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives.[205]

After independence in 1947, forty-two separate railway systems, including thirty-two lines owned by the former Indian princely states, were amalgamated to form a single nationalised unit named the Indian Railways.

India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well-built system designed for military purposes (after the Rebellion of 1857), in the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and too expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. Christensen (1996), who looked at colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests, concluded that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the current needs of the railways or of their passengers.[206]

Irrigation

The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems.[207] The Ganges Canal reached 560 kilometres (350 miles) from Haridwar to Cawnpore (now Kanpur), and supplied thousands of kilometres of distribution canals. By 1900 the Raj had the largest irrigation system in the world. One success story was Assam, a jungle in 1840 that by 1900 had 1,600,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres) under cultivation, especially in tea plantations. In all, the amount of irrigated land rose eightfold. Historian David Gilmour says:[208]

By the 1870s the peasantry in the districts irrigated by the Ganges Canal were visibly better fed, housed and dressed than before; by the end of the century the new network of canals in the Punjab had produced an even more prosperous peasantry there.

Policies

The Queen's Own Madras Sappers and Miners, 1896

In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British Crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain.[209] In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown rule of India) had already begun before the Rebellion. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological revolution underway in Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established so that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England.[210] Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back, just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. Massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government railway jobs and pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil services for the first time. The Indian Civil Service was prestigious and paid well. It remained politically neutral.[211] Imports of British cotton cloth captured more than half the Indian market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[212] Industrial production as it developed in European factories was unknown until the 1850s when the first cotton mills were opened in Bombay, posing a challenge to the cottage-based home production system based on family labour.[213]

Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most of India's population; with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national income during Mughal times compared with 1% at the end of the colonial period. The percentage of national income for the village economy increased from 44% during Mughal times to 54% by the end of colonial period. India's per capita GDP decreased from 1990 Int'l$550 in 1700 to $520 by 1857, although it later increased to $618, by 1947.[214]

Economic impact of the Raj

Historians continue to debate whether the long-term intention of British rule was to accelerate the economic development of India, or to distort and delay it. In 1780, the conservative British politician Edmund Burke raised the issue of India's position: he vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder" and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of the Mughal Empire.[215] Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and of imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible Bengal famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.[216]

P. J. Marshall shows that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy.[217] He argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past, which largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation.

The East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the produce of Indian cultivators.[215] Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Marshall presents the interpretation (supported by many scholars in India and the West) that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent co-operation with Indian elites.[217] Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still highly controversial among many historians.[218]

Studies suggest that from 1765 to 1938 around $45 trillion was stolen by the British as a result of their direct control of India.[219][220][221]

Demography

The 1921 census of British India shows 69 million Muslims and 217 million Hindus out of a total population of 316 million.

The population of the territory that became the British Raj was 100 million by 1600 and remained nearly stationary until the 19th century. The population of the Raj reached 255 million according to the first census taken in 1881 of India.[222][223][224][225]

Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, growth rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Bombay, and Calcutta.[226]

Mortality rates fell in the 1920–1945 era, primarily due to biological immunisation. Other factors included rising incomes and better living conditions, improved nutrition, a safer and cleaner environment, and better official health policies and medical care.[227]

Severe overcrowding in the cities caused major public health problems, as noted in an official report from 1938:[228]

In the urban and industrial areas ... cramped sites, the high values of land and the necessity for the worker to live in the vicinity of his work ... all tend to intensify congestion and overcrowding. In the busiest centres houses are built close together, eave touching eave, and frequently back to back .... Space is so valuable that, in place of streets and roads, winding lanes provide the only approach to the houses. Neglect of sanitation is often evidenced by heaps of rotting garbage and pools of sewage, whilst the absence of latrines enhance the general pollution of air and soil.

Religion

Famines, epidemics, and public health


During the British Raj, India experienced some of the worst famines ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–1878, in which 6.1 million to 10.39 million Indians perished[251] and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million Indians perished.[252] Recent research, including work by Mike Davis and Amartya Sen,[253] argue that famines in India were made more severe by British policies in India.

Child who starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943

The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[citation needed] Estimated deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917.[254] The Third plague pandemic which started in China in the middle of the 19th century, eventually spread to all inhabited continents and killed 10 million Indians in India alone.[255] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, became the first microbiologist to develop and deploy vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the Haffkine Institute.

Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century.[256] Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta, finally proved in 1898 that mosquitoes transmit malaria, while on assignment in the Deccan at Secunderabad, where the Centre for Tropical and Communicable Diseases is now named in his honour.[257]

In 1881 there were around 120,000 leprosy patients. The central government passed the Lepers Act of 1898, which provided legal provision for forcible confinement of people with leprosy in India.[258] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination.[259] Mass vaccination in India resulted in a major decline in smallpox mortality by the end of the 19th century.[260] In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox.[261] Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from smallpox.[262]

Sir Robert Grant directed his attention to establishing a systematic institution in Bombay for imparting medical knowledge to the natives.[263] In 1860, Grant Medical College became one of the four recognised colleges for teaching courses leading to degrees (alongside Elphinstone College, Deccan College and Government Law College, Mumbai).[217]

Massacres of Indian civilians by the army

This is the list of civilian massacre of Indians, in most cases unarmed peaceful crowds, by the army.

Education

The University of Lucknow, founded by the British in 1867

Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859) presented his Whiggish interpretation of English history as an upward progression always leading to more liberty and more progress. Macaulay simultaneously was a leading reformer involved in transforming the educational system of India. He would base it on the English language so that India could join the mother country in a steady upward progress. Macaulay took Burke's emphasis on moral rule and implemented it in actual school reforms, giving the British Empire a profound moral mission to "civilise the natives".

Yale professor Karuna Mantena has argued that the civilising mission did not last long, for she says that benevolent reformers were the losers in key debates, such as those following the 1857 rebellion in India, and the scandal of Edward Eyre's brutal repression of the Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. The rhetoric continued but it became an alibi for British misrule and racism. No longer was it believed that the natives could truly make progress, instead, they had to be ruled by heavy hand, with democratic opportunities postponed indefinitely. As a result:

The central tenets of liberal imperialism were challenged as various forms of rebellion, resistance and instability in the colonies precipitated a broad-ranging reassessment....the equation of 'good government' with the reform of native society, which was at the core of the discourse of liberal empire, would be subject to mounting scepticism.[282]

English historian Peter Cain, has challenged Mantena, arguing that the imperialists truly believed that British rule would bring to the subjects the benefits of 'ordered liberty', thereby Britain could fulfil its moral duty and achieve its own greatness. Much of the debate took place in Britain itself, and the imperialists worked hard to convince the general population that the civilising mission was well under-way. This campaign served to strengthen imperial support at home, and thus, says Cain, to bolster the moral authority of the gentlemanly elites who ran the Empire.[283]

The University of Calcutta, established in 1857, is one of the three oldest modern state universities in India.

Universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established in 1857, just before the Rebellion. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil services appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top-level civil services positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree.[284] The government, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 universities and colleges of higher education by 1911; they enrolled 36,000 students (over 90% men). By 1939 the number of institutions had doubled and enrolment reached 145,000. The curriculum followed classical British standards of the sort set by Oxford and Cambridge and stressed English literature and European history. Nevertheless, by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism.[285]

Missionary work

St. Paul's Cathedral was built in 1847 and served as the chair of the Bishop of Calcutta, who served as the metropolitan of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon.[286]

In 1889, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury stated, "It is not only our duty but is in our interest to promote the diffusion of Christianity as far as possible throughout the length and breadth of India".[287]

The growth of the British Indian Army led to the arrival of many Anglican chaplains in India.[288] Following the arrival of the Church of England's Church Mission Society in 1814, the Diocese of Calcutta of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC) was erected, with its St. Paul's Cathedral being built in 1847.[289] By 1930, the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon had fourteen dioceses across the Indian Empire.[290]

Missionaries from other Christian denominations came to British India as well; Lutheran missionaries, for example, arrived in Calcutta in 1836 and by "the year 1880 there were over 31,200 Lutheran Christians spread out in 1,052 villages".[287] Methodists began arriving in India in 1783 and established missions with a focus on "education, health ministry, and evangelism".[291][292] In the 1790s, Christians from the London Missionary Society and Baptist Missionary Society, began doing missionary work in the Indian Empire.[293] In Neyoor, the London Missionary Society Hospital "pioneered improvements in the public health system for the treatment of diseases even before organised attempts were made by the colonial Madras Presidency, reducing the death rate substantially".[294]

Christ Church College (1866) and St. Stephen's College (1881) are two examples of prominent church-affiliated educational institutions founded during the British Raj.[295] Within educational institutions established during the British Raj, Christian texts, especially the Bible, were a part of the curricula.[296] During the British Raj, Christian missionaries developed writing systems for Indian languages that previously did not have one.[297][298] Christian missionaries in India also worked to increase literacy and also engaged in social activism, such as fighting against prostitution, championing the right of widowed women to remarry, and trying to stop early marriages for women.[299] Among British women, zenana missions became a popular method to win converts to Christianity.[296]

Legacy

The old consensus among historians held that British imperial authority was quite secure from 1858 to World War II. Recently, however, this interpretation has been challenged. For example, Mark Condos and Jon Wilson argue that imperial authority was chronically insecure. Indeed, the anxiety of generations of officials produced a chaotic administration with minimal coherence. Instead of a confident state capable of acting as it chose, these historians find a psychologically embattled one incapable of acting except in the abstract, small scale, or short term. Meanwhile, Durba Ghosh offers an alternative approach.[300]

Ideological impact

At independence and after the independence of India, the country has maintained such central British institutions as parliamentary government, one-person, one-vote and the rule of law through nonpartisan courts.[215] It retained as well the institutional arrangements of the Raj such as the civil services, administration of sub-divisions, universities and stock exchanges. One major change was the rejection of its former separate princely states. Metcalf shows that over the course of two centuries, British intellectuals and Indian specialists made the highest priority bringing peace, unity and good government to India.[301] They offered many competing methods to reach the goal. For example, Cornwallis recommended turning Bengali Zamindar into the sort of English landlords that controlled local affairs in England.[301] Munro proposed to deal directly with the peasants. Sir William Jones and the Orientalists promoted Sanskrit, while Macaulay promoted the English language.[302] Zinkin argues that in the long-run, what matters most about the legacy of the Raj is the British political ideologies which the Indians took over after 1947, especially the belief in unity, democracy, the rule of law and a certain equality beyond caste and creed.[301] Zinkin sees this not just in the Congress party but also among Hindu nationalists in the Bharatiya Janata Party, which specifically emphasises Hindu traditions.[303][304]

Cultural impact

A supporter of the Indian cricket team at a match. Cricket, a British-origin sport, has been described as a major unifying force in South Asia.[305]

The British colonisation of India influenced South Asian culture noticeably. The most noticeable influence is the English language which emerged as the administrative and lingua franca of India and Pakistan (and which also greatly influenced the native South Asian languages)[306] followed by the blend of native and gothic/sarcenic architecture. Similarly, the influence of the South Asian languages and culture can be seen on Britain, too; for example, many Indian words entering the English language,[307] and also the adoption of South Asian cuisine.[308]

British sports (particularly hockey early on, but then largely replaced by cricket in recent decades, with football also popular in certain regions of the subcontinent)[309][310] were cemented as part of South Asian culture during the British Raj, with the local games largely having been diminished in the process.[311] During the Raj, soldiers would play British sports as a way of maintaining fitness, since the mortality rate for foreigners in India was high at the time, as well as to maintain a sense of Britishness; in the words of an anonymous writer, playing British sports was a way for soldiers to "defend themselves from the magic of the land".[312] Though the British had generally excluded Indians from their play during the time of Company rule, over time they began to see the inculcation of British sports among the native populace as a way of spreading British values.[312][313] At the same time, some of the Indian elite began to move towards British sports as a way of adapting to British culture and thus helping themselves to rise up the ranks;[314][315] later on, more Indians began to play British sports in an effort to beat the British at their own sports,[316] as a way of proving that the Indians were equal to their colonisers.[317]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a quasi-federation of presidencies and provinces directly governed by the British Crown through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India
  2. ^ governed by Indian rulers, under the suzerainty of The British Crown exercised through the Viceroy of India)
  3. ^ Simla was the summer capital of the Government of British India, not of the British Raj, i.e. the British Indian Empire, which included the Princely States.[3]
  4. ^ The proclamation for New Delhi to be the capital was made in 1911, but the city was inaugurated as the capital of the Raj in February 1931.
  5. ^ English was the language of the courts and government.
  6. ^ Urdu was also given official status in large parts of northern India, as were vernaculars elsewhere.[4][5][6][7][8][page needed][9]
  7. ^ Outside northern India, the local vernaculars were used as official language in the lower courts and in government offices.[8]
  8. ^ Seated l. to r. are: Jiddhu Krisnamurthi, Besant, and Charles Webster Leadbeater.
  9. ^ The only other emperor during this period, Edward VIII (reigned January to December 1936), did not issue any Indian currency under his name.
  10. ^ 1872 census: Includes all "Hindu" (187,937,450 persons), "Brahmo" (1,147 persons), "Satnami" (398,409 persons), "Kabirpanthi" (347,994 persons), and "Kumbhipatia" (913 persons) responses.

    1891 census: Includes all "Brahmanic" (207,688,724 persons), "Arya" (39,952 persons), and "Brahmo" (1,147 persons) responses.

    1901 census:Includes all "Brahmanic" (207,050,557 persons), "Arya" (92,419 persons), and "Brahmo" (4,050 persons) responses.

    1911 census: Includes all "Brahmanic" (217,337,943 persons), "Arya" (243,445 persons), and "Brahmo" (5,504 persons) responses.

    1921 census: Includes all "Brahmanic" (216,260,620 persons), "Arya" (467,578 persons), and "Brahmo" (6,388 persons) responses.

    1931 census: Includes all "Brahmanic" (219,300,645 persons), "Arya" (990,233 persons), "Brahmo" (5,378 persons), "Ad-Dharmi" (418,789 persons), and "Other Hindu" (18,898,884 persons) responses.

    1941 census: Includes all "Scheduled Caste" (48,813,180 persons), "Ad-Dharmi" (349,863 persons), and "Other Hindu" (206,117,326 persons) responses.
  11. ^ 1941 census: Includes all "Indian Christian" (6,040,665 persons), "Anglo-Indian" (140,422 persons), and "Other Christian" (135,462 persons) responses.
  12. ^ 1881 census: Includes all "Tribal" (6,426,511 persons) and "Nat Worship" (143,581 persons) responses.
  13. ^ 1872 census: Includes all "Others" (5,025,721 persons) and "Not Known" (425,175 persons) responses.

    1891 census: Includes all "Unitarians" (5 persons), "Theists" (47 persons), "Deists" (12 persons), "Atheists" (27 persons), "Freethinkers" (5 persons), "Agnostics" (69 persons), "Positivists" (2 persons), "No religion" (18 persons), and "Religion not Returned" (42,578 persons) responses.

    1931 census: Includes all "No religion" (153 persons), "Indefinite Beliefs" (940 persons), "Chinese (Confucian, Ancestor Worship, and Taoist)" (150,240 persons), and "Others" (1,065 persons) responses.

References

  1. ^ a b Interpretation Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 63), s. 18.
  2. ^ "Calcutta (Kalikata)", The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. IX, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260, archived from the original on 24 May 2022, retrieved 24 May 2022, —Capital of the Indian Empire, situated in 22° 34' N and 88° 22' E, on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river, within the Twenty-four Parganas District, Bengal
  3. ^ "Simla Town", The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XXII, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260, archived from the original on 24 May 2022, retrieved 24 May 2022, —Head-quarters of Simla District, Punjab, and the summer capital of the Government of India, situated on a transverse spur of the Central Himālayan system system, in 31° 6' N and 77° 10' E, at a mean elevation above sea-level of 7,084 feet.
  4. ^ Lelyveld, David (1993). "Colonial Knowledge and the Fate of Hindustani". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 35 (4): 665–682. doi:10.1017/S0010417500018661. ISSN 0010-4175. JSTOR 179178. S2CID 144180838. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023. The earlier grammars and dictionaries made it possible for the British government to replace Persian with vernacular languages at the lower levels of the judicial and revenue administration in 1837, that is, to standardize and index terminology for official use and provide for its translation to the language of the ultimate ruling authority, English. For such purposes, Hindustani was equated with Urdu, as opposed to any geographically defined dialect of Hindi and was given official status through large parts of north India. Written in the Persian script with a largely Persian and, via Persian, an Arabic vocabulary, Urdu stood at the shortest distance from the previous situation and was easily attainable by the same personnel. In the wake of this official transformation, the British government began to make its first significant efforts on behalf of vernacular education.
  5. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2004) [1998]. "Hindi". A Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages. A & C Black Publishers. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7136-7841-3. In the government of northern India Persian ruled. Under the British Raj, Persian eventually declined, but, the administration remaining largely Muslim, the role of Persian was taken not by Hindi but by Urdu, known to the British as Hindustani. It was only as the Hindu majority in India began to assert itself that Hindi came into its own.
  6. ^ Vejdani, Farzin (2015), Making History in Iran: Education, Nationalism, and Print Culture, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 24–25, ISBN 978-0-8047-9153-3, Although the official languages of administration in India shifted from Persian to English and Urdu in 1837, Persian continued to be taught and read there through the early twentieth century.
  7. ^ Everaert, Christine (2010), Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu, Leiden and Boston: BRILL, pp. 253–254, ISBN 978-90-04-17731-4, It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.
  8. ^ a b Dhir, Krishna S. (2022). The Wonder That Is Urdu. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-4301-1. The British used the Urdu language to effect a shift from the prior emphasis on the Persian language. In 1837, the British East India Company adopted Urdu in place of Persian as the co-official language in India, along with English. In the law courts in Bengal and the North-West Provinces and Oudh (modern day Uttar Pradesh) a highly technical form of Urdu was used in the Nastaliq script, by both Muslims and Hindus. The same was the case in the government offices. In the various other regions of India, local vernaculars were used as official language in the lower courts and in government offices. ... In certain parts South Asia, Urdu was written in several scripts. Kaithi was a popular script used for both Urdu and Hindi. By 1880, Kaithi was used as court language in Bihar. However, in 1881, Hindi in Devanagari script replaced Urdu in the Nastaliq script in Bihar. In Panjab, Urdu was written in Nastaliq, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Gurumukhi.
    In April 1900, the colonial government of the North-West Provinces and Oudh granted equal official status to both, Devanagari and Nastaliq scripts. However, Nastaliq remained the dominant script. During the 1920s, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi deplored the controversy and the evolving divergence between Urdu and Hindi, exhorting the remerging of the two languages as Hindustani. However, Urdu continued to draw from Persian, Arabic, and Chagtai, while Hindi did the same from Sanskrit. Eventually, the controversy resulted in the loss of the official status of the Urdu language.
  9. ^ Bayly, C. A. (1988). Indian Society and the making of the British Empire. New Cambridge History of India series. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0-521-25092-7. The use of Persian was abolished in official correspondence (1835); the government's weight was thrown behind English-medium education and Thomas Babington Macaulay's Codes of Criminal and Civil Procedure (drafted 1841–2, but not completed until the 1860s) sought to impose a rational, Western legal system on the amalgam of Muslim, Hindu and English law which had been haphazardly administered in British courts. The fruits of the Bentinck era were significant. But they were only of general importance in so far as they went with the grain of social changes which were already gathering pace in India. The Bombay and Calcutta intelligentsia were taking to English education well before the Education Minute of 1836. Flowery Persian was already giving way in north India to the fluid and demotic Urdu. As for changes in the legal system, they were only implemented after the Rebellion of 1857 when communications improved and more substantial sums of money were made available for education.
  10. ^
    • "Raj, the". The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-860981-0. Raj, the: British sovereignty in India before 1947 (also called, the British Raj). The word is from Hindi rāj 'reign'
    • "RAJ definition and meaning". Collins Online Dictionary. raj: (often cap; in India) rule, esp. the British rule prior to 1947
  11. ^
    • Hirst, Jacqueline Suthren; Zavros, John (2011), Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-44787-4, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 24 May 2022, As the (Mughal) empire began to decline in the mid-eighteenth century, some of these regional administrations assumed a greater degree of power. Amongst these ... was the East India Company, a British trading company established by Royal Charter of Elizabeth I of England in 1600. The Company gradually expanded its influence in South Asia, in the first instance through coastal trading posts at Surat, Madras and Calcutta. (The British) expanded their influence, winning political control of Bengal and Bihar after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. From here, the Company expanded its influence dramatically across the subcontinent. By 1857, it had direct control over much of the region. The great rebellion of that year, however, demonstrated the limitations of this commercial company's ability to administer these vast territories, and in 1858 the Company was effectively nationalized, with the British Crown assuming administrative control. Hence began the period known as the British Raj, which ended in 1947 with the partition of the subcontinent into the independent nation-states of India and Pakistan.
    • Salomone, Rosemary (2022), The Rise of English: Global Politics and the Power of Language, Oxford University Press, p. 236, ISBN 978-0-19-062561-0, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 24 May 2022, Between 1858, when the British East India Company transferred power to British Crown rule (the "British Raj"), and 1947, when India gained independence, English gradually developed into the language of government and education. It allowed the Raj to maintain control by creating an elite gentry schooled in British mores, primed to participate in public life, and loyal to the Crown.
  12. ^
    • Vanderven, Elizabeth (2019), "National Education Systems: Asia", in Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education, Oxford University Press, pp. 213–227, 222, ISBN 978-0-19-934003-3, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 24 May 2022, During the British East India Company's domination of the Indian subcontinent (1757–1858) and the subsequent British Raj (1858–1947), it was Western-style education that came to be promoted by many as the base upon which a national and uniform education system should be built.
    • Lapidus, Ira M. (2014), A History of Islamic Societies (3 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 393, ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9, retrieved 24 May 2022, Table 14. Muslim India: outline chronology
      Mughal Empire ... 1526–1858
      Akbar I ... 1556–1605
      Aurengzeb ... 1658–1707
      British victory at Plassey ... 1757
      Britain becomes paramount power ... 1818
      British Raj ... 1858–1947
  13. ^
    • Steinback, Susie L. (2012), Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain, London and New York: Routledge, p. 68, ISBN 978-0-415-77408-6, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 24 May 2022, The rebellion was put down by the end of 1858. The British government passed the Government of India Act, and began direct Crown rule. This era was referred to as the British Raj (though in practice much remained the same).
    • Ahmed, Omar (2015), Studying Indian Cinema, Auteur (now an imprint of Liverpool University Press), p. 221, ISBN 978-1-80034-738-0, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 24 May 2022, The film opens with what is a lengthy prologue, contextualising the time and place through a detailed voice-over by Amitabh Bachchan. We are told that the year is 1893. This is significant as it was the height of the British Raj, a period of crown rule lasting from 1858 to 1947.
    • Wright, Edmund (2015), A Dictionary of World History, Oxford University Press, p. 537, ISBN 978-0-19-968569-1, More than 500 Indian kingdoms and principalities [...] existed during the 'British Raj' period (1858–1947) The rule is also called Crown rule in India
    • Fair, C. Christine (2014), Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War, Oxford University Press, p. 61, ISBN 978-0-19-989270-9, [...] by 1909 the Government of India, reflecting on 50 years of Crown rule after the rebellion, could boast that [...]
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