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Мартин Лютер

Мартин Лютер OSA ( / ˈ l θ ər / LOO -thər ; [1] немецкий: [ˈmaʁtiːn ˈlʊtɐ] ; 10 ноября 1483[2]– 18 февраля 1546) был немецким священником,теологом, автором,сочинителем гимнов, профессором имонахом-августинцем.[3]Лютер был основополагающей фигуройпротестантской Реформации, и еготеологическиеубеждения составляют основулютеранства. Он широко рассматривается как одна из самых влиятельных фигур взападнойихристианской истории.[4]

Лютер был рукоположен в священники в 1507 году. Он пришел к тому, чтобы отвергнуть несколько учений и практик Римско-католической церкви ; в частности, он оспаривал точку зрения на индульгенции . Лютер попытался разрешить эти разногласия мирным путем, сначала предложив академическое обсуждение практики и эффективности индульгенций в Девяносто пяти тезисах , которые он написал в 1517 году. В 1520 году папа Лев X потребовал, чтобы Лютер отрекся от всех своих трудов, и когда Лютер отказался это сделать, отлучил его от церкви в январе 1521 года. Позже в том же году император Священной Римской империи Карл V осудил Лютера как преступника на Вормсском рейхстаге . Когда Лютер умер в 1546 году, отлучение папы Льва X все еще оставалось в силе.

Лютер учил, что спасение и, следовательно, вечная жизнь не зарабатываются добрыми делами; скорее, они принимаются только как свободный дар благодати Божьей через веру верующего в Иисуса Христа , который является единственным искупителем от греха. Теология Лютера бросала вызов авторитету и должности папы, уча, что Библия является единственным источником божественно явленного знания , [5] и выступала против священнодействия , считая всех крещеных христиан святым священством . [6] Те, кто идентифицирует более широкие учения Лютера, называются лютеранами, хотя Лютер выступал против этого названия, полагая, что тех, кто исповедует веру во Христа, следует называть «христианами» или «евангельскими».

Перевод Лютером Библии на немецкий язык с латыни сделал Библию гораздо более доступной для мирян, что оказало огромное влияние как на церковь, так и на немецкую культуру. Это способствовало развитию стандартной версии немецкого языка , добавило несколько принципов к искусству перевода, [7] и повлияло на написание английского перевода, Библии Тиндейла . [8] Его гимны повлияли на развитие пения в протестантских церквях. [9] Его брак с Катариной фон Бора , бывшей монахиней, установил модель для практики церковного брака , позволив протестантскому духовенству вступать в брак. [10]

В двух более поздних работах Лютер выражал антииудаистские взгляды , призывая к изгнанию евреев и сожжению синагог . [11] Эти работы также были направлены против католиков , анабаптистов и нетринитариев . [12] Основываясь на его учении, несмотря на то, что Лютер напрямую не выступал за убийство евреев, [13] [14] [15] некоторые историки утверждают, что его риторика способствовала развитию антисемитизма в Германии и возникновению, столетия спустя, нацистской партии . [16] [17] [18]

Ранняя жизнь и образование

Рождение и ранняя жизнь

Портреты родителей Лютера, Ганса и Маргарет Лютер, написанные Лукасом Кранахом Старшим в 1527 году.
В июле 1505 года Лютер поступил в монастырь Святого Августина в Эрфурте.
Резиденция Лютера в Виттенбергском университете , где он начал преподавать теологию в 1508 году.
Гравюра 1520 года, изображающая Лютера в образе монаха с тонзурой.

Мартин Лютер родился 10 ноября 1483 года у Ганса Людера (или Людера, позже Лютера) [19] и его жены Маргареты (урожденной Линдеманн) в Айслебене , графство Мансфельд , в Священной Римской империи . Лютер был крещён на следующее утро в день памяти Мартина Турского .

В 1484 году его семья переехала в Мансфельд , где его отец был арендатором медных рудников и плавильных заводов [20] и был одним из четырех представителей граждан в местном совете; в 1492 году он был избран городским советником. [21] [19] Религиовед Мартин Марти описывает мать Лютера как трудолюбивую женщину «торгового класса и среднего достатка», в отличие от врагов Лютера, которые называли ее шлюхой и банщицей. [19]

У него было несколько братьев и сестер, и известно, что он был близок с одним из них, Иаковом. [22]

Образование

Ганс Лютер, отец Мартина, был амбициозен для себя и своей семьи. Он был полон решимости увидеть Мартина, своего старшего сына, юристом. Он отправил Мартина в латинские школы в Мансфельде, затем в Магдебурге в 1497 году, где он посещал Братьев общей жизни , школу, управляемую мирской группой , и в Эйзенахе в 1498 году. [23] Три школы были сосредоточены на так называемом « тривиуме »: грамматике, риторике и логике. Позже Лютер сравнил свое образование там с чистилищем и адом . [24]

В 1501 году, в возрасте 17 лет, Мартин поступил в Эрфуртский университет , который он позже описывал как пивную и публичный дом. [25] Его заставляли просыпаться в 4 утра для «дня зубрежки и часто утомительных духовных упражнений». [25] Он получил степень магистра в 1505 году. [26]

В соответствии с желанием своего отца, Лютер поступил на юридический факультет, но почти сразу же бросил учёбу, посчитав, что юриспруденция — ненадёжная профессия. [26] Вместо этого Лютер искал уверенности в жизни и был привлечён теологией и философией, проявляя интерес к Аристотелю , Уильяму Оккаму и Габриэлю Билю . [26] На него оказали глубокое влияние два наставника, Бартоломей Арнольди фон Узинген и Йодокус Трутфеттер, которые научили его с подозрением относиться даже к величайшим мыслителям [26] и проверять всё самостоятельно на собственном опыте. [27]

Философия оказалась неудовлетворительной для Лютера, потому что она давала уверенность в использовании разума , но не в любви к Богу , что Лютер считал более важным. Лютер чувствовал, что разум не может привести людей к Богу, и впоследствии у него сложились отношения любви-ненависти с Аристотелем из-за акцента Аристотеля на разуме. [27] Для Лютера разум можно было использовать, чтобы задавать вопросы людям и учреждениям, но не Богу. Он считал, что люди могут узнать о Боге только через божественное откровение , что привело его к тому, что он стал считать писание все более важным. [27]

2 июля 1505 года, когда Лютер возвращался в университет верхом после поездки домой, во время грозы рядом с ним ударила молния. Позже он сказал отцу, что был в ужасе от смерти и божественного суда, и закричал: «Помоги! Святая Анна , я стану монахом!» [28] [29] Он стал рассматривать свой крик о помощи как обет, который он никогда не сможет нарушить. Он ушел из университета, продал свои книги и поступил в монастырь Святого Августина в Эрфурте 17 июля 1505 года. [30] Один из друзей обвинил в этом решении печаль Лютера из-за смерти двух друзей. Сам Лютер, казалось, был опечален этим шагом. Те, кто присутствовал на прощальном ужине, проводили его до дверей Черного монастыря. «Сегодня ты увидишь меня, и больше никогда», — сказал он. [27] Его отец был в ярости из-за того, что он считал пустой тратой образования Лютера. [31]

Монашеская жизнь

Посмертный портрет Лютера как монаха -августинца [32]

Лютер посвятил себя ордену августинцев , посвятив себя посту , долгим часам в молитвах , паломничеству и частой исповеди . [33] Лютер описал этот период своей жизни как период глубокого духовного отчаяния. Он сказал: «Я потерял связь со Христом Спасителем и Утешителем и сделал из него тюремщика и палача моей бедной души». [34]

Иоганн фон Штаупиц , его начальник, пришел к выводу, что Лютеру нужно больше работы, чтобы отвлечься от чрезмерного самоанализа, и приказал ему заняться академической карьерой. 3 апреля 1507 года Иероним Шульц, епископ Бранденбурга , рукоположил Лютера в Эрфуртском соборе .

В следующем году, в 1508 году, Лютер начал преподавать теологию в Виттенбергском университете . [35] Он получил две степени бакалавра: одну по библейским исследованиям 9 марта 1508 года и другую по «Сентенциям» Петера Ломбарда в 1509 году. [36] 19 октября 1512 года ему была присуждена степень доктора теологии .

Дальнейшая жизнь, служение и Реформация

Университет Виттенберга

21 октября 1512 года Лютер был принят в сенат теологического факультета Виттенбергского университета [37] , сменив фон Штаупица на посту заведующего кафедрой теологии. [38] Он провел остаток своей карьеры на этой должности в Виттенбергском университете.

В 1515 году он был назначен провинциальным викарием Саксонии и Тюрингии , что потребовало от него посетить и надзирать за одиннадцатью монастырями в его провинции. [39]

Лекции по Псалмам и оправданию верой

Лютер в Эрфурте , портрет 1861 года работы Джозефа Ноэля Патона, изображающий Лютера, открывающего доктрину sola fide (только верой)

С 1510 по 1520 год Лютер читал лекции по Псалмам и по книгам Евреям, Римлянам и Галатам. Изучая эти части Библии, он пришел к новому взгляду на использование таких терминов, как покаяние и праведность Католической церковью. Он убедился, что церковь была испорчена в своих путях и потеряла из виду то, что он считал несколькими центральными истинами христианства. Самым важным для Лютера было учение об оправдании — акте Бога, объявляющего грешника праведным — только верой через Божью благодать. Он начал учить, что спасение или искупление — это дар Божьей благодати , достижимый только через веру в Иисуса как Мессию . [40] «Эта единая и твердая скала, которую мы называем учением об оправдании», — пишет он, «является главной статьей всего христианского учения, которое охватывает понимание всякого благочестия». [41]

Лютер пришел к пониманию оправдания как полностью дела Божьего. Это учение Лютера было ясно выражено в его публикации 1525 года «О рабстве воли» , которая была написана в ответ на « О свободной воле» Дезидерия Эразма (1524). Лютер основывал свою позицию о предопределении на послании святого Павла к Ефесянам 2:8–10. Вопреки учению своего времени о том, что праведные деяния верующих совершаются в сотрудничестве с Богом, Лютер писал, что христиане получают такую ​​праведность полностью извне себя; что праведность не только исходит от Христа, но на самом деле является праведностью Христа, вмененной христианам (а не влитой в них) через веру. [42]

«Вот почему только вера делает кого-то праведным и исполняет закон», — пишет он. «Вера — это то, что приносит Святого Духа через заслуги Христа». [43] Вера для Лютера была даром от Бога; опыт оправдания верой был «как будто я родился заново». Его вхождение в Рай, не менее, было открытием о «праведности Божией» — открытием того, что «справедливый человек», о котором говорит Библия (как в Римлянам 1:17), живет верой. [44] Он объясняет свою концепцию «оправдания» в Шмалькальденских статьях :

Первая и главная статья такова: Иисус Христос, Бог и Господь наш, умер за грехи наши и воскрес для оправдания нашего (Римлянам 3:24–25). Он один есть Агнец Божий, Который берет на Себя грехи мира ( Иоанна 1:29), и Бог возложил на Него беззакония всех нас ( Исаии 53:6). Все согрешили и оправданы даром, без их собственных дел и заслуг, по Его благодати, через искупление, которое во Христе Иисусе, в Его крови (Римлянам 3:23–25). Это необходимо для веры. Этого нельзя приобрести или ухватить каким-либо другим делом, законом или заслугой. Поэтому ясно и определенно, что только эта вера оправдывает нас... Ничто из этой статьи не может быть уступлено или сдано, даже если небо и земля и все остальное падут ( Марка 13:31). [45]

Начало Реформации: 1516–1517 гг.

Продажа индульгенций католиками , изображенная на гравюре на дереве «Вопрос монетному двору » Йорга Брея Старшего из Аугсбурга, ок.  1530 г.

В 1516 году Иоганн Тетцель , доминиканский монах , был отправлен в Германию Римско-католической церковью для продажи индульгенций с целью сбора денег на восстановление собора Святого Петра в Риме. [46] Опыт Тецеля как проповедника индульгенций, особенно между 1503 и 1510 годами, привел к его назначению генеральным комиссаром Альбрехтом фон Бранденбургом, архиепископом Майнца , который, уже будучи глубоко в долгах, чтобы заплатить за большое накопление бенефициев, должен был внести значительную сумму в десять тысяч дукатов [47] на восстановление базилики. Альбрехт получил разрешение от папы Льва X провести продажу особой полной индульгенции (т. е. прощения временного наказания за грех), половину доходов от которой Альбрехт должен был потребовать для оплаты взносов своих бенефициев.

31 октября 1517 года Лютер написал своему епископу Альбрехту фон Бранденбургу, протестуя против продажи индульгенций. Он приложил к своему письму копию своего «Диспута о силе и эффективности индульгенций», [a], который стал известен как Девяносто пять тезисов . Ганс Хиллербранд пишет, что Лютер не собирался противостоять церкви, но рассматривал свой диспут как научное возражение церковным практикам, и тон письма соответственно «исследовательский, а не доктринерский». [49] Хиллербранд пишет, что тем не менее в нескольких тезисах есть скрытый вызов, особенно в тезисе 86, который спрашивает: «Почему папа, чье богатство сегодня больше, чем богатство самого богатого Красса , строит базилику Святого Петра на деньги бедных верующих, а не на свои собственные деньги?» [49]

Лютер возражал против высказывания, приписываемого Тецелю, что «Как только звенит монета в сундуке, душа из чистилища (также засвидетельствовано как «на небеса») выпрыгивает». [50] Он настаивал на том, что, поскольку прощение может даровать только Бог, те, кто утверждал, что индульгенции освобождают покупателей от всех наказаний и даруют им спасение, ошибались. Христиане, сказал он, не должны ослаблять следования за Христом из-за таких ложных заверений.

Тезисы Лютера выгравированы на двери церкви Всех Святых в Виттенберге ; латинская надпись над ней сообщает читателю, что оригинальная дверь была уничтожена пожаром и что в 1857 году король Пруссии Фридрих Вильгельм IV приказал сделать новую.

Согласно одному из сообщений, Лютер прибил свои Девяносто пять тезисов к двери церкви Всех Святых в Виттенберге 31 октября 1517 года. Ученые Вальтер Кремер, Гётц Тренклер, Герхард Риттер и Герхард Праузе утверждают, что история с объявлением на двери, хотя и стала одним из столпов истории, имеет мало оснований на истине. [51] [52] [53] [54] История основана на комментариях, сделанных соратником Лютера Филиппом Меланхтоном , хотя считается, что он не был в Виттенберге в то время. [55] С другой стороны, по словам Роланда Бейнтона , это правда. [56]

Латинские тезисы были напечатаны в нескольких местах в Германии в 1517 году. В январе 1518 года друзья Лютера перевели Девяносто пять тезисов с латыни на немецкий язык. [57] В течение двух недель копии тезисов распространились по всей Германии. Труды Лютера широко распространялись, достигнув Франции , Англии и Италии уже в 1519 году. Студенты толпами приезжали в Виттенберг, чтобы послушать выступления Лютера. Он опубликовал краткий комментарий к Посланию к Галатам и свою работу над Псалмами . Эта ранняя часть карьеры Лютера была одной из самых творческих и продуктивных. [58] Три из его самых известных работ были опубликованы в 1520 году: «К христианскому дворянству немецкой нации» , «О вавилонском пленении церкви » и «О свободе христианина» .

Разрыв с папством

Булла папы Льва X против ошибок Мартина Лютера , 1521 г., широко известная как Exsurge Domine

Архиепископ Альбрехт не ответил на письмо Лютера, содержащее Девяносто пять тезисов . Он проверил тезисы на ересь и в декабре 1517 года переслал их в Рим. [59] Доходы от индульгенций были ему нужны, чтобы выплатить папское разрешение на его пребывание в более чем одном епископстве . Как позже замечает Лютер, «папа тоже имел свой палец в пироге, потому что половина должна была пойти на строительство церкви Святого Петра в Риме». [60]

Папа Лев X привык к реформаторам и еретикам, [61] и он реагировал медленно, «с большой осторожностью, как и положено». [62] В течение следующих трех лет он направил против Лютера ряд папских теологов и посланников, что послужило лишь укреплению антипапской теологии реформатора. Сначала доминиканский теолог Сильвестр Маццолини составил дело о ереси против Лютера, которого Лев затем вызвал в Рим. Курфюрст Фридрих убедил папу допросить Лютера в Аугсбурге, где проходил императорский сейм . [63] В течение трех дней в октябре 1518 года, когда он находился в монастыре Святой Анны , Лютер защищал себя на допросе папского легата кардинала Каэтана . Право папы выдавать индульгенции было в центре спора между двумя мужчинами. [64] [65] Слушания переросли в крикливую перепалку. Помимо написания своих тезисов, противостояние Лютера с церковью сделало его врагом папы: «Его святейшество злоупотребляет Писанием», — парировал Лютер. «Я отрицаю, что он выше Писания». [66] [67] Первоначальные инструкции Каэтана состояли в том, чтобы арестовать Лютера, если он не отречется, но легат воздержался от этого. [68] С помощью монаха-кармелита Кристофа Лангенмантеля Лютер ночью выскользнул из города, не зная об этом Каэтана. [69]

Лютер (справа) встречается с кардиналом Каэтаном (слева)

В январе 1519 года в Альтенбурге в Саксонии папский нунций Карл фон Мильтиц занял более примирительную позицию. Лютер пошел на определенные уступки саксонцу, который был родственником курфюрста, и пообещал хранить молчание, если его оппоненты это сделают. [70] Однако теолог Иоганн Экк был полон решимости разоблачить учение Лютера на публичном форуме. В июне и июле 1519 года он организовал диспут с коллегой Лютера Андреасом Карлштадтом в Лейпциге и пригласил Лютера выступить. [71] Самым смелым утверждением Лютера в дебатах было то, что Матфей 16:18 не предоставляет папам исключительного права толковать Священное Писание, и что, следовательно, ни папы, ни церковные соборы не являются непогрешимыми. [72] За это Экк заклеймил Лютера как нового Яна Гуса , имея в виду чешского реформатора и еретика, сожженного на костре в 1415 году. С этого момента он посвятил себя разгрому Лютера. [73]

Отлучение от церкви

15 июня 1520 года Папа Римский предупредил Лютера папской буллой (эдиктом) Exsurge Domine , что он рискует быть отлученным , если в течение 60 дней не отречется от 41 предложения, взятых из его сочинений, включая Девяносто пять тезисов . Осенью того же года Экк провозгласил буллу в Мейсене и других городах. Фон Мильтиц попытался найти решение, но Лютер, который в октябре послал Папе копию « О свободе христианина» , публично поджег буллу и декреталии в Виттенберге 10 декабря 1520 года [74] , этот поступок он защищал в работах «Почему Папа и его последняя книга сожжены» и «Утверждения относительно всех статей» .

Лютер был отлучен от церкви папой Львом X 3 января 1521 года буллой Decet Romanum Pontificem . [75] И хотя Всемирная лютеранская федерация , методисты и Папский совет Католической церкви по содействию христианскому единству договорились (в 1999 и 2006 годах соответственно) о «общем понимании оправдания благодатью Божией через веру во Христа», Католическая церковь так и не сняла отлучение 1521 года. [76] [77] [78]

Вормсский рейхстаг (1521)

Лютер перед Вормсским рейхстагом , портрет кисти Антона фон Вернера, 1877 г.
Памятник Лютеру в Вормсе , статуя Лютера, окруженная фигурами его светских покровителей и ранних реформаторов Церкви, включая Джона Уиклифа , Яна Гуса и Джироламо Савонаролу.

Обеспечение запрета на « Девяносто пять тезисов» легло на плечи светских властей. 17 апреля 1521 года Лютер, как и было приказано, предстал перед Вормсским рейхстагом . Это было общее собрание сословий Священной Римской империи, которое состоялось в Вормсе , городе на Рейне . Оно проводилось с 28 января по 25 мая 1521 года под председательством императора Карла V. Принц Фридрих III, курфюрст Саксонии , обеспечил Лютеру охранную грамоту на встречу и обратно.

Иоганн Экк, выступая от имени империи в качестве помощника архиепископа Трирского , представил Лютеру копии своих сочинений, разложенные на столе, и спросил его, принадлежат ли эти книги ему и поддерживает ли он их содержание. Лютер подтвердил, что он является их автором, но попросил время, чтобы подумать над ответом на второй вопрос. Он помолился, посоветовался с друзьями и дал свой ответ на следующий день:

Если я не убежден свидетельством Писания или ясным разумом (ибо я не доверяю ни папе, ни соборам, поскольку хорошо известно, что они часто ошибались и противоречили сами себе), я связан Писанием, которое я процитировал, и моя совесть пленена Словом Божьим. Я не могу и не отрекусь ни от чего, поскольку идти против совести небезопасно и не правильно. Да поможет мне Бог. Аминь. [79]

В конце этой речи Лютер поднял руку «в традиционном приветствии рыцаря, победившего в схватке». Майкл Маллетт считает эту речь «мировой классикой эпохального ораторского искусства». [80]

Экк сообщил Лютеру, что тот действует как еретик, сказав:

Мартин, нет ни одной ереси, которая раздирала лоно церкви, которая не получила бы своего происхождения из различного толкования Писания. Сама Библия является арсеналом, из которого каждый новатор черпал свои обманчивые аргументы. Именно с помощью библейских текстов Пелагий и Арий поддерживали свои учения. Арий, например, нашел отрицание вечности Слова — вечности, которую вы признаете, в этом стихе Нового Завета — Иосиф не знал своей жены, пока она не родила своего первенца ; и он сказал, так же, как вы говорите, что этот отрывок сковывает его. Когда отцы Констанцского собора осудили это предложение Яна Гуса — Церковь Иисуса Христа есть только сообщество избранных , они осудили ошибку; ибо церковь, как добрая мать, охватывает в своих объятиях всех, кто носит имя христианина, всех, кто призван наслаждаться небесным блаженством. [81]

Лютер отказался отречься от своих трудов. Иногда его также цитируют как человека, говорящего: «Вот я стою. Я не могу поступить иначе». Современные исследователи считают доказательства этих слов ненадежными, поскольку они были вставлены перед «Да поможет мне Бог» только в более поздних версиях речи и не зафиксированы в свидетельских показаниях о ходе процесса. [82] Однако Маллетт предполагает, что, учитывая его натуру, «мы вольны полагать, что Лютер склонен был выбирать более драматичную форму слов». [80]

В течение следующих пяти дней проводились частные совещания, чтобы определить судьбу Лютера. Император представил окончательный проект Вормсского эдикта 25 мая 1521 года, объявив Лютера вне закона , запретив его литературу и потребовав его ареста: «Мы хотим, чтобы он был задержан и наказан как отъявленный еретик». [83] Он также сделал преступлением для любого человека в Германии предоставление Лютеру еды или убежища. Он разрешал любому человеку убить Лютера без юридических последствий.

Замок Вартбург (1521)

Замок Вартбург в Айзенахе
Комната Вартбурга , где Лютер перевел Новый Завет на немецкий язык ; оригинальное первое издание хранится в шкафу на столе.

Исчезновение Лютера во время его возвращения в Виттенберг было запланировано. Фридрих III перехватил его по дороге домой в лесу недалеко от Виттенберга всадниками в масках, изображавшими грабителей с большой дороги. Они сопроводили Лютера в безопасный замок Вартбург в Айзенахе . [84] Во время своего пребывания в Вартбурге, который он называл «моим Патмосом », [85] Лютер перевел Новый Завет с греческого на немецкий и излил доктринальные и полемические сочинения. Они включали возобновленную атаку на архиепископа Альбрехта Майнцского, которого он пристыдил, заставив прекратить продажу индульгенций в его епископатах, [86] и Опровержение аргумента Латомуса , в котором он изложил принцип оправдания Якобу Латомусу , ортодоксальному теологу из Лувена . [87] В этой работе, одном из его самых выразительных заявлений о вере, он утверждал, что всякое доброе дело, призванное привлечь благосклонность Бога, является грехом. [88] Все люди грешники по своей природе, объяснял он, и только Божья благодать (которую нельзя заслужить) может сделать их праведными. 1 августа 1521 года Лютер написал Меланхтону на ту же тему: «Будь грешником, и пусть твои грехи будут сильны, но пусть твоя вера во Христа будет сильнее, и радуйся во Христе, который является победителем греха, смерти и мира. Мы будем совершать грехи, пока мы здесь, ибо эта жизнь — не место, где обитает справедливость». [89]

Летом 1521 года Лютер расширил свою цель с индивидуальных благочестий, таких как индульгенции и паломничества, до доктрин, лежащих в основе церковной практики. В работе «Об отмене частной мессы » он осудил как идолопоклонство идею о том, что месса является жертвой, утверждая вместо этого, что это дар, который должен быть принят с благодарностью всей общиной. [90] Его эссе «Об исповеди, имеет ли Папа власть требовать ее» отвергало обязательную исповедь и поощряло частную исповедь и отпущение грехов , поскольку «каждый христианин является исповедником». [91] В ноябре Лютер написал «Суд Мартина Лютера о монашеских обетах » . Он заверил монахов и монахинь, что они могут нарушать свои обеты без греха, потому что обеты были незаконной и тщетной попыткой обрести спасение. [92]

Лютер, замаскированный под « Юнкера Йорга» в 1521 году

Лютер делал свои заявления из Вартбурга в контексте быстрых событий в Виттенберге, о которых он был полностью информирован. Андреас Карлштадт, поддерживаемый бывшим августинцем Габриэлем Цвиллингом , приступил к радикальной программе реформ в июне 1521 года, превзойдя все, что предполагал Лютер. Реформы спровоцировали беспорядки, включая восстание монахов-августинцев против своего приора, разрушение статуй и изображений в церквях и доносы на магистрат. После тайного посещения Виттенберга в начале декабря 1521 года Лютер написал « Искреннее увещевание Мартина Лютера всем христианам остерегаться мятежа и восстания» . [93] Виттенберг стал еще более нестабильным после Рождества, когда прибыла группа визионеров-ревнителей, так называемых пророков Цвиккау , проповедовавших революционные доктрины, такие как равенство людей, [ необходимо разъяснение ] крещение взрослых и скорое возвращение Христа. [94] Когда городской совет попросил Лютера вернуться, он решил, что его долг — действовать. [95]

Возвращение в Виттенберг и Крестьянская война: 1522–1525 гг.

Lutherhaus , резиденция Лютера в Виттенберге

Лютер тайно вернулся в Виттенберг 6 марта 1522 года. Он написал курфюрсту: «Во время моего отсутствия Сатана вошел в мою овчарню и совершил опустошения, которые я не могу исправить письмом, но только своим личным присутствием и живым словом». [96] В течение восьми дней Великого поста , начиная с воскресенья Инвокавита, 9 марта, Лютер проповедовал восемь проповедей, которые стали известны как «Проповеди Инвокавита». В этих проповедях он вдалбливал в сознание главенство основных христианских ценностей, таких как любовь, терпение, милосердие и свобода, и напоминал гражданам доверять слову Божьему, а не насилию, чтобы осуществить необходимые перемены. [97]

Знаете ли вы, что думает Дьявол, когда видит, как люди используют насилие для распространения Евангелия? Он сидит, скрестив руки, за огнем ада и говорит со злобным взглядом и ужасной ухмылкой: «Ах, как мудры эти безумцы, что играют в мою игру! Пусть они продолжают; я пожинаю плоды. Я наслаждаюсь этим». Но когда он видит, как Слово бежит и борется в одиночку на поле битвы, тогда он содрогается и трясется от страха. [98]

Эффект вмешательства Лютера был немедленным. После шестой проповеди виттенбергский юрист Иероним Шурф написал курфюрсту: «О, какую радость принесло нам возвращение доктора Мартина! Его слова, по божественному милосердию, ежедневно возвращают заблудших людей на путь истины». [98]

Затем Лютер приступил к отмене или изменению новых церковных практик. Работая вместе с властями над восстановлением общественного порядка, он обозначил свое переосмысление как консервативной силы в Реформации. [99] После изгнания пророков Цвиккау он столкнулся с битвой как с установленной Церковью, так и с радикальными реформаторами, которые угрожали новому порядку, разжигая социальные беспорядки и насилие. [100]

Двенадцать статей крестьянских требований, изданных в 1525 году

Несмотря на победу в Виттенберге, Лютер не смог подавить радикализм дальше. Такие проповедники, как Томас Мюнцер и пророк из Цвиккау Николас Шторх, нашли поддержку среди бедных горожан и крестьян между 1521 и 1525 годами . С 15 века крестьянство восставало в меньших масштабах. [101] Памфлеты Лютера против Церкви и иерархии, часто сформулированные с использованием «либеральной» фразеологии, заставили многих крестьян поверить, что он поддержит нападение на высшие классы в целом. [102] В 1524 году вспыхнули восстания во Франконии , Швабии и Тюрингии , даже получив поддержку недовольных дворян, многие из которых были в долгах. Набирая обороты под руководством радикалов, таких как Мюнцер в Тюрингии и Гиплер и Лотцер на юго-западе, восстания переросли в войну. [103]

Лютер сочувствовал некоторым недовольствам крестьян, как он показал в своем ответе на Двенадцать статей в мае 1525 года, но он напомнил обиженным о необходимости подчиняться светским властям. [104] Во время поездки по Тюрингии он пришел в ярость из-за широкомасштабного сожжения монастырей, монастырей, епископских дворцов и библиотек. В работе « Против убийственных, воровских орд крестьян» , написанной по возвращении в Виттенберг, он дал свою интерпретацию евангельского учения о богатстве, осудил насилие как дело дьявола и призвал дворян подавлять мятежников, как бешеных собак:

Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.[105]

Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's"; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7 that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the divine right of kings, or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants "outside the law of God and Empire", so they deserved "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers." Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves "Christian brethren" and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.[106] Only later in life did he develop the Beerwolf concept permitting some cases of resistance against the government.[107]

Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer's execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.[108] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the Anabaptist movement and other religious movements, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.[109] In 1526 Luther wrote: "I, Martin Luther, have during the rebellion slain all the peasants, for it was I who ordered them to be struck dead."[110]

Marriage

A 1526 portrait of Katharina von Bora, Luther's wife, by Lucas Cranach the Elder
Luther at his desk with family portraits

Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.[111] "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."[112] At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 years old and Luther was 41 years old.

On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged, with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses.[113] On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.[113] The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.[113]

Some priests and former members of religious orders had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.[114] He had long condemned vows of celibacy on biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.[115] Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."[116]Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.[117]

Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from Elector John the Steadfast. They embarked on what appears to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.[118] Katharina bore six children: Hans – June 1526; Elisabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534; and she helped the couple earn a living by farming and taking in boarders.[119] Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus."[120]

Organising the church: 1525–1529

Church orders, Mecklenburg 1650

By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His biblical ideal of congregations choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.[121] According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."[122]

From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms.[123] To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.[124] For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".[125]

The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.[126] At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.[127] The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.[128] The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.[129]

Lutheran church liturgy and sacraments

In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526.[130] He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."[131] Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice", and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.[132] He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.[133] Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther's service too papistic, and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic Mass.[134] Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the Creed.[135] To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of catechism.[136] He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.[137]

Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of the Electorate of Saxony, which began in 1527.[138] They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther writes, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."[139]

Catechisms

A stained glass portrayal of Luther

Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people.[140] The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, The Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper.[141] Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, "the way monkeys do it", but understood.[142]

The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism."[143] The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.[144] It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.

Luther's Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Large Catechism was effective for pastors.[145] Using the German vernacular, they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life.[146] That is, Luther depicts the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles' Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and The Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechetical teaching.[146]

Translation of the Old Testament: 1534–1535

Luther's 1534 Bible

Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.[147] Others had previously translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.[148]Two of the earlier translations were the Mentelin Bible (1456)[149] and the Koberger Bible (1484).[150] There were as many as fourteen in High German, four in Low German, four in Dutch, and various other translations in other languages before the Bible of Luther.[151]

Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.[152] He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."[153] Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it contributed a distinct flavor to the German language and literature.[154] Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.[155] The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as the Tyndale Bible (from 1525 forward), a precursor of the King James Bible.[156]

When he was criticised for inserting the word "alone" after "faith" in Romans 3:28,[157] he replied in part: "[T]he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law. ... But when works are so completely cut away—and that must mean that faith alone justifies—whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, 'Faith alone justifies us, and not works'."[158]

Luther did not include First Epistle of John 5:7–8,[159] the Johannine Comma in his translation, rejecting it as a forgery. It was inserted into the text by other hands after Luther's death.[160][161]

Hymnodist

An early printing of Luther's hymn "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"

Luther was a prolific hymnodist, authoring hymns such as "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God"), based on Psalm 46, and "Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her" ("From Heaven Above to Earth I Come"), based on Luke 2:11–12.[162] Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His tool of choice for this connection was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.[163] He often accompanied the sung hymns with a lute, later recreated as the waldzither that became a national instrument of Germany in the 20th century.[164]

Luther's hymns were frequently evoked by particular events in his life and the unfolding Reformation. This behavior started with his learning of the execution of Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos, the first individuals to be martyred by the Roman Catholic Church for Lutheran views, prompting Luther to write the hymn "Ein neues Lied wir heben an" ("A New Song We Raise"), which is generally known in English by John C. Messenger's translation by the title and first line "Flung to the Heedless Winds" and sung to the tune Ibstone composed in 1875 by Maria C. Tiddeman.[165]

Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "Wir glauben all an einen Gott" ("We All Believe in One True God") is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included "Wir glauben all" among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely used the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.[163]

Autograph of "Vater unser im Himmelreich", with the only notes extant in Luther's handwriting

Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, "Vater unser im Himmelreich", corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functions both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.[166]

Luther wrote "Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir" ("From depths of woe I cry to You") in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage his colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven other hymns were published in the Achtliederbuch, the first Lutheran hymnal. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of "Aus tiefer Not" was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.[167]

Luther wrote "Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein" ("Oh God, look down from heaven"). "Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland" (Now come, Savior of the gentiles), based on Veni redemptor gentium, became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to "Christum wir sollen loben schon" ("We should now praise Christ") and Veni Creator Spiritus to "Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist" ("Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God").[168] He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, "Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot" and "Mensch, willst du leben seliglich". His "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ" ("Praise be to You, Jesus Christ") became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost "Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist", and adopted for Easter "Christ ist erstanden" (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes. "Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin", a paraphrase of Nunc dimittis, was intended for Purification, but became also a funeral hymn. He paraphrased the Te Deum as "Herr Gott, dich loben wir" with a simplified form of the melody. It became known as the German Te Deum.

Luther's 1541 hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam" ("To Jordan came the Christ our Lord") reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J.S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.[163]

Luther's hymns were included in early Lutheran hymnals and spread the ideas of the Reformation. He supplied four of eight songs of the First Lutheran hymnal Achtliederbuch, 18 of 26 songs of the Erfurt Enchiridion, and 24 of the 32 songs in the first choral hymnal with settings by Johann Walter, Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn, all published in 1524. Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.

On the soul after death

Luther on the left with Lazarus being raised by Jesus from the dead, painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1558

In contrast to the views of John Calvin[169] and Philipp Melanchthon,[170] throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death.[171] Accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus.[172] This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace."[173] He also rejected the existence of purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.[174] He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles, he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."[175]

The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observes that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard.[176] Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran orthodoxy on this issue.[177]

Luther's Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes that "the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions".[178] Francis Blackburne argues that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther,[179] while Gottfried Fritschel points out that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.[180]

Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:

"Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."[181]

Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy

The Marburg Colloquy, by August Noack

In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.[182] Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist, the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, an issue crucial to Luther.[183] The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26).[184] Luther insisted on the Real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union,[185] while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.[186]

Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus' ability to be in more than one place at a time. Luther stressed the omnipresence of Jesus' human nature.[187] According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus' words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (John 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."[188] On his table Luther wrote the words "Hoc est corpus meum" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.[189]

Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.[190]

Epistemology of faith and reason

Some scholars have asserted that Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, "All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false."[191] and "[That] Reason in no way contributes to faith. [...] For reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things."[192] However, though seemingly contradictorily, he also wrote in the latter work that human reason "strives not against faith, when enlightened, but rather furthers and advances it",[193] bringing claims he was a fideist into dispute. Contemporary Lutheran scholarship, however, has found a different reality in Luther. Luther rather seeks to separate faith and reason in order to honor the separate spheres of knowledge that each applies to.

On Islam

The 16th century battle between the Turks and the Christians

At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army.[194] Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the biblical apocalypse that would destroy the Antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy and the Roman Church.[195] He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".[196] On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.[197] In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war.[198] By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.[199]He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.[200] Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".[201]

In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an.[202] He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk".[203] Though Luther saw the Muslim religion as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."[204] He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.[205]

Antinomian controversy

Pulpit of St Andreas Church, Eisleben, where Johannes Agricola and Luther preached

Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola—serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben—preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.[206] Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540.[207] He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians,[208] and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.[209]

In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.[210] Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.[211] Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians—thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church—does not eliminate the accusing law.[212] Claiming that the law—in any form—should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.[213]

Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments—when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law—positively teach how the Christian ought to live.[214] This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."[215] For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.[216]

The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.[217] Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.

Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse: 1539–1540

From December 1539, Luther became involved in the designs of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse to marry a lady-in-waiting of his wife, Christine of Saxony. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter because divorce was worse than bigamy.[218] As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Saale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. Philip's sister Elisabeth quickly made the scandal public, and Philip threatened to expose Luther's advice. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did.[219] Margarethe gave birth to nine children over a span of 17 years, giving Philip a total of 19 children. In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".[220] Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.[221] The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.[222]

Anti-Jewish polemics and antisemitism: 1543–1544

The original title page of On the Jews and Their Lies, written by Martin Luther in 1543

Luther wrote negatively about Jews throughout his career.[223] Though Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived in a locality which had expelled Jews roughly 90 years earlier.[224] He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus.[225] In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew and also aimed to convert them to Christianity.[226] When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.[227]

Luther's major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death.[228] Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people", and referred to them with violent language.[229][230] Citing Deuteronomy 13, wherein Moses commands the killing of idolaters and the burning of their cities and property as an offering to God, Luther called for a "scharfe Barmherzigkeit" ("sharp mercy") against the Jews "to see whether we might save at least a few from the glowing flames."[231] Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".[232] In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.[233] "God's anger with them is so intense," Luther concluded, "that gentle mercy will only tend to make them worse, while sharp mercy will reform them but little. Therefore, in any case, away with them!"[231]

Luther launched a polemic against vagrants in his 1528 preface to Liber Vagatorum, saying that the Jews had contributed Hebrew words as a main basis of the Rotwelsch cryptolect. He warned in the admonitory preface Christians not to give them alms as it was, in his opinion, to forsake the truly poor.[234][235]

Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.[236] Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."[237] Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially but did so when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.[236] Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.[238]

Tovia Singer, an Orthodox Jewish rabbi, remarking about Luther's attitude toward Jews, put it thus: "Among all the Church Fathers and Reformers, there was no mouth more vile, no tongue that uttered more vulgar curses against the Children of Israel than this founder of the Reformation."[239]

Final years, illness and death

Luther on his deathbed, a portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder
Luther's grave in Schlosskirche, Wittenberg

Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière's disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye.[240] From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, arthritis, and an ear infection which ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.[241]

His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."[242] In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.[243]

His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.[244] It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov.[245] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."[246] Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies ... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."[247]

Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.

The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8 p.m., he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1 a.m. on 18 February, he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.[248]

An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, in front of the pulpit.[249] The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon.[250] A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.[250]

A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German. The statement reads:

  1. No one can understand Virgil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years.
  2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years.
  3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles.


Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.

We are beggars: this is true.[251][252]

The tomb of Philipp Melanchthon, Luther's contemporary and fellow reformer, is also located in the All Saints' Church.[253][254][255][256][257]

Posthumous influence within Nazism

The statue outside the Frauenkirche in Dresden after the bombing of the city in World War II

Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and within Germany he acquired the status of a prophet.[260] According to the prevailing opinion among historians,[16] his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,[261] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews.[18] Reinhold Lewin writes that anybody who "wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in Nazi Germany contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler (albeit never a Lutheran, having been brought up Catholic) wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.[262] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically antisemitic tract ever published.[263] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by E.H. Schulz and R. Frercks.[264]

On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, professor of the history of the church at the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."[265] Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."[266]

"There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."

Martin Brecht[267]

At the heart of scholarly debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.[268] Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already antisemites that they revived Luther's work.[269][270] Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.[271] Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever [On the Jews and Their Lies] was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."[272][273]However, Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi era used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the antisemitic policies of the National Socialists.[274] The pro-Nazi Christian group Deutsche Christen drew parallels between Martin Luther and the "Führer" Adolf Hitler.[275]

Some scholars, such as Mark U. Edwards in his book Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46 (1983), suggest that since Luther's increasingly antisemitic views developed during the years his health deteriorated, it is possible they were at least partly the product of a state of mind. Edwards also comments that Luther often deliberately used "vulgarity and violence" for effect, both in his writings condemning the Jews and in diatribes against "Turks" (Muslims) and Catholics.[276]

Since the 1980s, Lutheran denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews[citation needed] and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.[citation needed][277][278] Strommen et al.'s 1970 survey of 4,745 North American Lutherans aged 15–65 found that, compared to the other minority groups under consideration, Lutherans were the least prejudiced toward Jews.[279] Nevertheless, Professor Richard Geary, former professor of modern history at the University of Nottingham and the author of Hitler and Nazism (Routledge 1993), published an article in the magazine History Today examining electoral trends in Weimar Germany between 1928 and 1933. Geary notes that, based on his research, the Nazi Party received disproportionately more votes from Protestant than Catholic areas of Germany.[280][281]

Legacy and commemoration

Worldwide Protestantism in 2010

Luther made effective use of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press to spread his views. He switched from Latin to German in his writing to appeal to a broader audience. Between 1500 and 1530, Luther's works represented one fifth of all materials printed in Germany.[282]

In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).[283]

Luther Monument in Eisenach, Germany

Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints. In the Church of England's Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October.[284] Luther is honored in various ways by Christian traditions coming out directly from the Protestant Reformation, i.e. Lutheranism, the Reformed tradition, and Anglicanism. Branches of Protestantism that emerged afterwards vary in their remembrance and veneration of Luther, ranging from a complete lack of a single mention of him to a commemoration almost comparable to the way Lutherans commemorate and remember his persona. There is no known condemnation of Luther by Protestants themselves.

Martin Luther College in New Ulm, Minnesota, U.S.

Various sites both inside and outside Germany (supposedly) visited by Martin Luther throughout his lifetime commemorate it with local memorials. Saxony-Anhalt has two towns officially named after Luther, Lutherstadt Eisleben and Lutherstadt Wittenberg. Mansfeld is sometimes called Mansfeld-Lutherstadt, although the state government has not decided to put the Lutherstadt suffix in its official name.

Reformation Day commemorates the publication of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517 by Martin Luther; it has been historically important in the following European entities. It is a civic holiday in the German states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. Two further states (Lower Saxony and Bremen) are pending a vote on introducing it. Slovenia celebrates it because of the profound contribution of the Reformation to its culture. Austria allows Protestant children not to go to school that day, and Protestant workers have a right to leave work in order to participate in a church service. Switzerland celebrates the holiday on the first Sunday after 31 October. It is also celebrated elsewhere around the world.

Luther and the swan

Luther is often depicted with a swan as his attribute, and Lutheran churches often have a swan for a weather vane. This association with the swan arises out of a prophecy reportedly made by the earlier reformer Jan Hus from Bohemia and endorsed by Luther. In the Bohemian language (now Czech), Hus's name meant "grey goose". In 1414, while imprisoned by the Council of Constance and anticipating his execution by burning for heresy, Hus prophesied, "Now they will roast a goose, but in a hundred years' time they'll hear a swan sing. They'd better listen to him." Luther published his Ninety-five Theses some 103 years later.[285][286][287]

Works and editions

Various books of the Weimar Edition of Luther's works

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Latin: "Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum" – The first printings of the Theses use an incipit rather than a title which summarizes the content. Luther usually called them "meine Propositiones" (my propositions).[48]

References

  1. ^ "Luther" Archived 27 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. ^ Luther himself, however, believed that he had been born in 1484. Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
  3. ^ Luther consistently referred to himself as a former monk. For example: "Thus formerly, when I was a monk, I used to hope that I would be able to pacify my conscience with the fastings, the praying, and the vigils with which I used to afflict my body in a way to excite pity. But the more I sweat, the less quiet and peace I felt; for the true light had been removed from my eyes." Martin Luther, Lectures on Genesis: Chapters 45–50, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 8 Luther's Works. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 5:326.
  4. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. (14 February 2024). "Martin Luther". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  5. ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, (Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
  6. ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
  7. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
  8. ^ Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
  9. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
  10. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
  11. ^ Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther" Archived 2 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN. Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther" Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003. In 1523, Luther wrote that Jesus Christ was born a Jew which discouraged mistreatment of the Jews and advocated their conversion by proving that the Old Testament could be shown to speak of Jesus Christ. However, as the Reformation grew, Luther began to lose hope in large-scale Jewish conversion to Christianity, and in the years his health deteriorated he grew more acerbic toward the Jews, writing against them with the kind of venom he had already unleashed on the Anabaptists, Zwingli, and the pope.
  12. ^ Schaff, Philip: History of the Christian Church, Vol. VIII: Modern Christianity: The Swiss Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, US, 1910, page 706.
  13. ^ Martin Brecht, Martin Luther (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1985–1993), 3:336.
  14. ^ Luther's letter to Rabbi Josel as cited by Gordon Rupp, Martin Luther and the Jews (London: The Council of Christians and Jews, 1972), 14. According to "Luther and the Jews". Archived from the original on 4 November 2005. Retrieved 21 March 2017., this paragraph is not available in the English edition of Luther's works.
  15. ^ Sydow, Michael (1 December 1999). "Journal of Theology: Martin Luther, Reformation Theologian and Educator" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  16. ^ a b "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented antisemitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
  17. ^ For similar views, see:
    • Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
    • Rose, Paul Lawrence. "Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner," (Princeton University Press, 1990), quoted in Berger, 28;
    • Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
    • Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242.
    • Poliakov, Leon. History of Anti-Semitism: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews. (N.P.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 216.
    • Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1993, 2000), 8–9.
  18. ^ a b Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
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  21. ^ "Martin Luther | Biography, Reformation, Works, & Facts". 17 May 2023.
  22. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
  23. ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
  24. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
  25. ^ a b Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
  26. ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
  27. ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
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  122. ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
  123. ^ Schroeder, Steven (2000). Between Freedom and Necessity: An Essay on the Place of Value. Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-420-1302-5.
  124. ^ Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
  125. ^ Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
  126. ^ Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (Notbischof).
  127. ^ Mullett, 186–187; Brecht, 2:264–265, 267.
  128. ^ Brecht, 2:264–265.
  129. ^ Brecht, 2:268.
  130. ^ Brecht, 2:251–254; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
  131. ^ Brecht, 2:255.
  132. ^ Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
  133. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
  134. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–266.
  135. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–270.
  136. ^ Brecht, 2:256–57.
  137. ^ Brecht, 2:258.
  138. ^ Brecht, 2:263.
  139. ^ Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
  140. ^ Marty, 123.
  141. ^ Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
  142. ^ Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
  143. ^ Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–173; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
  144. ^ Brecht, 2:277, 280.
  145. ^ See texts at English translation Archived 16 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  146. ^ a b Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. ISSN 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
  147. ^ Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
  148. ^ Mullett, 148–150.
  149. ^ "Mentelin Bible". The Library of Congress. 1466. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
  150. ^ "Koberger Bible". World Digital Library. 1483. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
  151. ^ Gow, Andrew C. (2009). "The Contested History of a Book: The German Bible of the Later Middle Ages and Reformation in Legend, Ideology, and Scholarship". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9. doi:10.5508/jhs.2009.v9.a13. ISSN 1203-1542.
  152. ^ Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
  153. ^ Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
  154. ^ Marius, 162.
  155. ^ Lohse, 112–117; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
  156. ^ Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation – Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
  157. ^ Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word "alone" (allein) after the word "faith" in his translation of St Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 3:28. The clause is rendered in the English Authorised Version as "Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law".
  158. ^ Lindberg, Carter. "The European Reformations: Sourcebook". Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. p. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from Luther's Works. St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955–86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pp. 182, 187–189, 195.
  159. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (1994). A textual commentary on the Greek New Testament: a companion volume to the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament (fourth revised edition) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. pp. 647–649. ISBN 978-3-438-06010-5.
  160. ^ Criticus, (Rev. William Orme) (1830). Memoir of The Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly Witnesses, I John V.7. London: (1872, Boston, "a new edition, with notes and an appendix by Ezra Abbot"). p. 42.
  161. ^ White, Andrew Dickson (1896). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. 2. New York: Appleton. p. 304.
  162. ^ For a short collection see online hymns Archived 16 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  163. ^ a b c Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
  164. ^ "Waldzither – Bibliography of the 19th century". Studia Instrumentorum. Retrieved 23 March 2014. Es ist eine unbedingte Notwendigkeit, dass der Deutsche zu seinen Liedern auch ein echt deutsches Begleitinstrument besitzt. Wie der Spanier seine Gitarre (fälschlich Laute genannt), der Italiener seine Mandoline, der Engländer das Banjo, der Russe die Balalaika usw. sein Nationalinstrument nennt, so sollte der Deutsche seine Laute, die Waldzither, welche schon von Dr. Martin Luther auf der Wartburg im Thüringer Walde (daher der Name Waldzither) gepflegt wurde, zu seinem Nationalinstrument machen. Liederheft von C.H. Böhm (Hamburg, March 1919)
  165. ^ "Flung to the heedless winds". Hymntime. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
  166. ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
  167. ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.
  168. ^ Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; pp. 215–219 (in German).
  169. ^ Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
  170. ^ Liber de Anima 1562
  171. ^ D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the soul which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."
  172. ^ Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F.A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
  173. ^ Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25:7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther's Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."
  174. ^ "Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12". Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  175. ^ "Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28". Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  176. ^ Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
  177. ^ Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen."
  178. ^ Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homo enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, XXV, 1535–1545)"
  179. ^ Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p121
  180. ^ Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"
  181. ^ Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 (1898). Emphasis added.
  182. ^ Mullett, 194–195.
  183. ^ Brecht, 2:325–334; Mullett, 197.
  184. ^ Wilson, 259.
  185. ^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299–300.
  186. ^ Oberman, 237.
  187. ^ Marty, 140–141; Lohse, 74–75.
  188. ^ Quoted by Oberman, 237.
  189. ^ Brecht 2:329.
  190. ^ Oberman, 238.
  191. ^ Martin Luther, Werke, VIII
  192. ^ Martin Luther, Table Talk.
  193. ^ Martin Luther, "On Justification CCXCIV", Table Talk
  194. ^ Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
  195. ^ Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–240; Marty, 164.
  196. ^ From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
  197. ^ Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
  198. ^ Mullett, 238–239; Lohse, 59–61.
  199. ^ Brecht, 2:364.
  200. ^ Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–365.
  201. ^ Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
  202. ^ Brecht, 3:354.
  203. ^ Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
  204. ^ From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
  205. ^ Brecht, 3:355.
  206. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
  207. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 11–15. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
  208. ^ Cf. Luther's Works 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord's Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).
  209. ^ Cf. Luther's Works 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, "about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit," but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).
  210. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
  211. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 170–172
  212. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 76, 105–107.
  213. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 140, 157.
  214. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 75, 104–105, 172–173.
  215. ^ The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
  216. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 110.
  217. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,, 43–44, 91–93.
  218. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206. For a more extensive list of quotes from Luther on the topic of polygamy, see page 11 and following of Luther's Authentic Voice on Polygamy Archived 20 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine Nathan R. Jastram, Concordia Theological Journal, Fall 2015/Spring 2016, Volume 3
  219. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
  220. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
  221. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–215.
  222. ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
  223. ^ Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242.
  224. ^ Edwards, Mark. Luther's Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
  225. ^ Brecht, 3:341–343; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
  226. ^ Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
  227. ^ Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
  228. ^ Brecht, 3:341–347.
  229. ^ Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
  230. ^ Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
  231. ^ a b Gritsch, Eric W. (2012). Martin Luther's Anti-Semitism: Against His Better Judgment. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-6676-9. pp. 86–87.
  232. ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–271.
  233. ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.
  234. ^ Rosenfeld, Moshe N. (1988). "Chapter 9. Early Yiddish in Non-Jewish Books". In Katz, Dovid (ed.). Dialects of the Yiddish Language: Winter Studies in Yiddish, Volume 2. Papers from the Second Annual Oxford Winter Symposium in Yiddish Language and Literature, 14–16 December 1986. Pergamon Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0080365640. OCLC 17727332. Retrieved 22 February 2023 – via Google Books.
  235. ^ Considine, John P. (2017). "Chapter 5. first curiosity-driven wordlists: Rotwelsch". Small Dictionaries and Curiosity: Lexicography and Fieldwork in Post-medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 37. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198785019.001.0001. ISBN 978-0198785019. OCLC 955312844. Retrieved 22 February 2023 – via Google Books.
  236. ^ a b Michael, 117.
  237. ^ Quoted by Michael, 110.
  238. ^ Michael, 117–118.
  239. ^ Singer, Tovia (30 April 2014). "A Closer Look at the "Crucifixion Psalm"". Outreach Judaism. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  240. ^ Iversen OH (1996). "Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death". Tidsskr. Nor. Legeforen. (in Norwegian). 116 (30): 3643–3646. PMID 9019884.
  241. ^ Edwards, 9.
  242. ^ Spitz, 354.
  243. ^ Die Beziehungen des Reformators Martin Luther zu Halle Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine buergerstiftung-halle.de (in German)
  244. ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.
  245. ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
  246. ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York): Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
  247. ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's Admonition can be found in Wikisource. s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
  248. ^ Reeves, Michael. "The Unquenchable Flame". Nottingham: IVP, 2009, p. 60.
  249. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–379.
  250. ^ a b McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-01673-5.
  251. ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther" Archived 4 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. 16 February 1546.
  252. ^ Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm [de], Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
  253. ^ "Slide Collection". Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  254. ^ Fairchild, Mary. "Martin Luther's Great Accomplishments". Learn Religions. Archived from the original on 22 November 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  255. ^ "OurRedeermLCMS.org". Archived from the original on 22 November 2003.
  256. ^ McKim, Donald K (10 July 2003). The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01673-5.
  257. ^ SignatureToursInternational.comArchived 1 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  258. ^ Dorfpredigten: Biblische Einsichten aus Deutschlands 'wildem Süden'. Ausgewählte Predigten aus den Jahren 1998 bis 2007 Teil II 2002–2007 by Thomas O.H. Kaiser, p. 354
  259. ^ Martin Luther's Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany Archived 29 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine artdaily.com
  260. ^ Gritsch, 113–114; Michael, 117.
  261. ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
  262. ^ Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."
  263. ^ Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism" Archived 10 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. "Hitler and the Holocaust". Baylor University. Archived from the original on 22 April 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2006..
  264. ^ See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
  265. ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
  266. ^ Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), Die Deutschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
  267. ^ Brecht 3:351.
  268. ^ Wallmann, 72–97.
  269. ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
  270. ^ Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
  271. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."
  272. ^ Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
  273. ^ For similar views, see:
    • Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
    • Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
    • Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
    • Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
    • Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
    • Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
    • Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
    • Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
  274. ^ Christopher J. Probst, Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany Archived 11 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Indiana University Press in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2012, ISBN 978-0-253-00100-9
  275. ^ "Der Deutsche Luthertag 1933 und die Deutschen Christen" by Hansjörg Buss. In: Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte Vol. 26, No. 2
  276. ^ Dr. Christopher Probst. "Martin Luther and "The Jews" A Reappraisal". The Theologian. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
  277. ^ Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther's negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements Archived 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  278. ^ Lull, Timothy Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
  279. ^ See Merton P. Strommen et al., A Study of Generations (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing, 1972), p. 206. P. 208 also states "The clergy [ALC, LCA, or LCMS] are less likely to indicate anti-Semitic or racially prejudiced attitudes [compared to the laity]."
  280. ^ Richard (Dick) Geary, "Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers' Party)", in History Today, 1 October 1998, Vol. 48, Issue 10, pp. 8–14
  281. ^ "Special Interests at the Ballot Box? Religion and the Electoral Success of the Nazis" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  282. ^ Wall Street Journal, "The Monk Who Shook the World", Richard J. Evans, 31 March 2017
  283. ^ Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). "Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers". American Historical Review. 115 (2): 351–362. doi:10.1086/ahr.115.2.351. ISSN 0002-8762. PMID 20509226.
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Sources

Further reading

For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther's works at Wikisource.

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