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Юнионизм в Ирландии

Опасности отделения от Великобритании. Юнионистская открытка (1912)

Юнионизм в Ирландии — это политическая традиция, которая исповедует лояльность короне Соединенного Королевства и союзу, который она представляет с Англией , Шотландией и Уэльсом . Подавляющее чувство протестантского меньшинства Ирландии , юнионизм мобилизовался в десятилетия после католической эмансипации в 1829 году, чтобы противостоять восстановлению отдельного ирландского парламента . После раздела в 1921 году, как ольстерский юнионизм, его целью было сохранение Северной Ирландии в качестве автономного региона в составе Соединенного Королевства и сопротивление перспективе создания всеирландской республики . В рамках Белфастского соглашения 1998 года , которое завершило три десятилетия политического насилия, юнионисты разделили офис с ирландскими националистами в реформированной Ассамблее Северной Ирландии . С февраля 2024 года они больше не делают этого как более крупная фракция: они служат в исполнительном органе с ирландским республиканцем ( Шинн Фейн ) Первым министром .

Юнионизм стал всеобъемлющей партийной принадлежностью в Ирландии в конце девятнадцатого века. Обычно пресвитерианские либералы аграрной реформы объединились с традиционно англиканскими консерваторами Ордена оранжистов против ирландских законопроектов о самоуправлении 1886 и 1893 годов. Присоединившись к лоялистским рабочим, накануне Первой мировой войны эта широкая оппозиция ирландскому самоуправлению сосредоточилась в Белфасте и его пригородах как ольстерский юнионизм и подготовила вооруженное сопротивление — Ольстерских добровольцев .

В рамках соглашения о разделе 1921 года, по которому остальная часть Ирландии получила отдельную государственность , ольстерские юнионисты приняли самоуправление для шести северо-восточных графств, оставшихся в Соединенном Королевстве. В течение следующих 50 лет Ольстерская юнионистская партия осуществляла делегированные полномочия парламента Северной Ирландии с незначительной внутренней оппозицией и вне правящей партийно-политической системы в Вестминстере .

В 1972 году британское правительство приостановило эту договоренность. На фоне растущего политического насилия и ссылаясь на необходимость рассмотреть вопрос о том, как католики Северной Ирландии могут быть интегрированы в ее гражданскую и политическую жизнь, оно распустило парламент в Белфасте.

В течение последующих трех десятилетий Смуты юнионисты разделились в своих ответах на предложения о разделении власти , представленные, по согласованию с Республикой Ирландия , последовательными британскими правительствами. После Белфастского соглашения 1998 года , в соответствии с которым и республиканские , и лоялистские военизированные формирования обязались соблюдать постоянное прекращение огня, юнионисты приняли принципы совместного управления и параллельного согласия в новом законодательном и исполнительном органе Северной Ирландии .

Пересмотренные в 2006 году, отношения в рамках этого консоциативного соглашения оставались напряженными. Юнионисты, с уменьшающейся электоральной силой, обвинили своих националистических партнеров в правительстве в проведении антибританской культурной повестки дня и, после Brexit , в поддержке торгового режима, Североирландского протокола , который продвигает общеирландскую повестку дня. В феврале 2024 года, через два года после их выхода из ЕС и краха децентрализованных институтов, на основе новых заверений британского правительства они вернулись в Ассамблею, чтобы сформировать первое правительство Северной Ирландии, в котором юнионисты составляют меньшинство.

Ирландский юнионизм 1800–1904 гг.

Акт об унии 1800 г.

Деталь битвы при Баллинахинче 1798 года, Томас Робинсон. Правительственные йомены готовятся повесить мятежника из Объединенной ирландской партии Хью Маккалока, бакалейщика.

В последние десятилетия существования Королевства Ирландия (1542–1800) протестанты в общественной жизни выдвинули себя в качестве ирландских патриотов. Центром их патриотизма был парламент в Дублине . Ограниченный узким кругом привилегий для членов-землевладельцев устоявшейся англиканской общины ( англо-ирландское « протестантское господство »), парламент отказывал в равной защите и государственной службе инакомыслящим (неангликанским протестантам) и обездоленному римско-католическому большинству королевства. Высшей точкой этого парламентского патриотизма стало формирование во время Американской войны за независимость ирландских добровольцев и, когда эта милиция маршировала в Дублине, обеспечение в 1782 году законодательной независимости парламента от британского правительства в Лондоне. [1] [2]

На северо-востоке объединения пресвитерианских торговцев, купцов и фермеров-арендаторов протестовали против непредставительного парламента и против исполнительной власти в Дублинском замке , по-прежнему назначаемой через офис лорда -лейтенанта английскими министрами. [3] : 107–108  Видя мало перспектив дальнейших реформ и надеясь, что им может помочь республиканская Франция , эти объединенные ирландцы стремились к революционному союзу «католиков, протестантов и диссентеров» (т. е. католиков и протестантов всех убеждений). [4] Их решимость была сломлена поражением их восстания в 1798 году и сообщениями о повстанческих беспорядках против протестантских лоялистов на Юге. [5] : 291 

Британское правительство, которому пришлось развернуть собственные силы для подавления восстания в Ирландии и повернуть назад и победить французскую интервенцию, решило на союз с Великобританией. Положение об освобождении католиков [6] было исключено из Акта об унии, с трудом протолкнутого через парламент в Дублине. [7] Хотя отдельный ирландский исполнительный орган в Дублине был сохранен, представительство, по-прежнему полностью протестантское, было передано в Вестминстер .

На пресвитерианском северо-востоке ирландский парламент не был оплакан. Отвергнув призывы к реформе — расширить представительство и обуздать коррупцию — мало кто видел причину сожалеть о его принятии. [5] : 292 

Католическая эмансипация и «протестантское единство»

Грошовая печать 1899 года речи Генри Кука 1841 года в «ответе Дэниелу О'Коннеллу»

Союзу потребовалось тридцать лет, чтобы выполнить обещание католической эмансипации (1829) — допустить католиков в парламент — и разрешить эрозию протестантской монополии на положение и влияние. Возможность интегрировать католиков через их возрождающиеся имущие и профессиональные классы как меньшинство в Соединенном Королевстве, возможно, была упущена. [8] : 291  [9] В 1830 году лидер Католической ассоциации Дэниел О'Коннелл пригласил протестантов присоединиться к кампании по отмене Союза и восстановлению Королевства Ирландия в соответствии с Конституцией 1782 года .

В то же время в Ирландии гарантия эмансипации состояла в пятикратном увеличении порога для имущественного права . Протестантский союзник О'Коннелла на севере, Джордж Энсор , заметил, что это нарушило связь между католической инклюзивностью и демократической реформой. [10] [11]

В Ольстере сопротивление призыву О'Коннелла было усилено религиозным возрождением. С его акцентом на «личном свидетельстве» Новая Реформация , казалось, превзошла церковные различия между различными протестантскими конфессиями. [12] одновременно запуская их в «гораздо более осознанное чувство отделенности от Римской церкви», [13] затем переживая свою собственную религиозную революцию. [14] Ведущий пресвитерианский евангелист Генри Кук воспользовался случаем, чтобы проповедовать протестантское единство. В 1834 году на массовой демонстрации, устроенной в его поместье третьим маркизом Даунширом , Кук предложил «христианский брак» между двумя основными протестантскими конфессиями (англиканской и пресвитерианской). Оставив в стороне оставшиеся разногласия, они будут сотрудничать по всем «вопросам общей безопасности». [15]

Избиратели-пресвитериане, как правило, отдавали предпочтение реформаторски настроенным вигам или, как они позже выяснили, либералам , выступавшим за права арендаторов и свободную торговлю , а не кандидатам от консерваторов и оранжистов из земельного господства . [16] [17] Но по мере того, как ирландские партийно-политические преемники движения О'Коннелла за отмену амбиций получили представительство и влияние в Вестминстере, призыв Кука к единству был услышан в постепенном возникновении панпротестантского юнионизма. [12]

Ирландский партийный вызов в Вестминстере и Земельная война

Уильям Гладстон пишет законодательство под давлением Земельной лиги. Карикатура 1881 года.

Вплоть до и во время Великого голода 1840-х годов сменявшие друг друга правительства, Виги и Тори, отказывались от политической ответственности за аграрные условия в Ирландии. Проблемы войны арендаторов и землевладельцев на низком уровне пришли в Вестминстер в 1852 году, когда всеирландская Лига прав арендаторов помогла вернуть 48 депутатов в Вестминстер, где они заседали как Независимая ирландская партия . [18] : 354–355  То, что молодой ирландец Гаван Даффи называл Лигой Севера и Юга [19], вскоре распалось. На Юге Церковь одобрила нарушение католическими депутатами своего обещания быть независимой оппозицией и принять правительственные должности. [20] [21] На Севере протестантские сторонники прав арендаторов Уильям Шарман Кроуфорд и Джеймс Макнайт были разогнаны оранжистами . [22]

Для юнионизма более важный вызов лежал в основе Акта о реформе 1867 года . В Англии и Уэльсе он породил электорат, который больше не отождествлял себя инстинктивно с консервативными интересами в Ирландии и был более открыт для компромисса «самоуправления», который теперь предлагали националисты. Ирландия осталась бы в составе Соединенного Королевства, но с парламентом в Дублине, осуществляющим полномочия, переданные из Вестминстера. [23] [24] Тем временем в Ирландии сочетание тайного голосования и возросшего представительства городов уменьшило электоральное влияние землевладельцев и их агентов и способствовало триумфу в 1874 году Лиги самоуправлений . [25] Пятьдесят девять членов были возвращены в Вестминстер, где они заседали как Ирландская парламентская партия (ИПП). [18] : 381 

В своем первом министерстве (1868-1874) либеральный премьер Уильям Эварт Гладстон пытался примирить. В 1869 году он упразднил Церковь Ирландии , а в 1870 году ввел Закон о землевладельцах и арендаторах (Ирландия) . В обеих мерах консервативные юристы определили угрозы целостности союза. Упразднение означало отказ от обещания «единой протестантской епископальной церкви» для Британии и Ирландии в соответствии со статьей V Акта об Союзе (Ассоциация защиты протестантов Ольстера заявила о нарушении договора), [26] и, хотя они были слабыми, положения о компенсации арендаторам и покупке создали отдельный аграрный режим для Ирландии, противоречащий преобладающей английской концепции прав собственности. [27]

В Длительную депрессию 1870-х годов Земельная война усилилась. С 1879 года она была организована Ирландской национальной земельной лигой прямого действия , возглавляемой южным протестантом Чарльзом Стюартом Парнеллом . [28] В 1881 году в новом Законе о земле Гладстон признал три F — справедливую арендную плату, свободную продажу и фиксированность владения. Признавая, что «земельные обиды были узами недовольства между Ольстером и остальной Ирландией и в этом смысле представляли опасность для союза», ирландские консерваторы не выступали против этой меры. [29] Протестанты в восточных графствах признали лидерами движения за права арендаторов таких людей, как преподобный Джеймс Армор из Баллимони , которые в лучшем случае были агностиками в отношении союза, [30] в то время как на западе провинции (в графствах Арма , Каван , Фермана и Тирон ) даже оранжисты начали присоединяться к Земельной лиге. [31] [32]

Окончательный и решительный сдвиг в пользу конституционных уступок произошел после Третьего акта о реформе 1884 года . Почти всеобщее допущение к избирательному праву мужчин — глав домохозяйств утроило электорат в Ирландии. Выборы 1885 года вернули ИПП, теперь под руководством Парнелла, из 85 членов (включая 17 от Ольстера, где консерваторы и либералы разделили голоса юнионистов). [33] Гладстон, чьи либералы потеряли все 15 своих ирландских мест, смог сформировать свое второе министерство только при их поддержке в Палате общин.

Реакция на законопроекты Гладстона о самоуправлении

Боже, храни королеву , Эрин Го Браг , Ольстерский съезд юнионистов, Белфаст, 1892 г.

В июне 1886 года Гладстон внес на рассмотрение законопроект о правительстве Ирландии , который в значительной степени был его собственной разработкой. [34] Юнионисты не были убеждены включением им мер по ограничению полномочий Дублинского законодательного органа и уменьшению веса народного голосования (около 200 всенародно избранных членов должны были заседать на сессии с 28 ирландскими пэрами и еще 75 членами, избранными на основе крайне ограничительного имущественного права). [35] Независимо от того, как он был составлен, они считали, что ирландский парламент (подстрекаемый «американскими ирландцами») [36] вступит в конфликт с «имперским парламентом» в Лондоне, который можно было разрешить только путем «полного разделения». [37] [38] : 186 

Высшие и средние классы нашли в Британии и Империи «широкий спектр прибыльных карьер — в армии, на государственной службе, в торговле — от которых они могли бы быть отрезаны, если бы связь между Ирландией и Великобританией ослабла или разорвалась». [18] : 398–399  Эта же связь была критически важна для всех, кто был занят в крупных экспортных отраслях промышленности Севера — текстильной, машиностроительной, судостроительной. Для них ирландские внутренние районы были менее важны, чем промышленный треугольник, который связывал Белфаст и регион с Клайдсайдом и севером Англии. [39] [40] Однако самым популярным резюме дела против ирландского самоуправления оставалось сообщение, переданное в «великом возрождении» Ордена оранжистов [41] — «Гомруль означает Римское правление ». [42]

На севере конкуренция, представленная растущим числом католиков, прибывающих к воротам заводов и фабрик, уже дала некогда в основном сельскому (и англиканскому ) Ордену Оранжистов новую жизнь среди протестантских рабочих. [8] : 389–396  [43] Сама по себе эта модель не была уникальной для Белфаста и его сателлитов. Глазго , Манчестер , Ливерпуль и другие британские центры, испытывавшие масштабную ирландскую иммиграцию, разработали похожую политику оранжевых и нативистских приходов и рабочих мест, [44] с которой юнионисты, организованные в Лоялистский союз противников отмены, стремились связаться. [45] [46] : 195–196  С переходом Гладстона на самоуправление политики, которые держались в стороне от Ордена, теперь приняли его воинственность. Полковник Эдвард Сондерсон , представлявший Кавана как либерала, надел оранжевую ленту , «потому что», как он сказал, «только оранжевое общество способно справиться с состоянием анархии и мятежа, царящим в Ирландии». [47]

В феврале 1886 года, разыгрывая, по его собственным словам, «оранжевую карту», ​​лорд Рэндольф Черчилль заверил на «гигантском собрании» Союза противников отмены в Белфасте, что английские консерваторы «свяжут свою судьбу» с лоялистами в сопротивлении гомрулю, и позже он придумал фразу, которая стала лозунгом северного юнионизма: «Ольстер будет бороться, и Ольстер будет прав». [46] : 297 

Собственная партия Гладстона раскололась по вопросу о самоуправлении, а Палата представителей разделилась против этой меры. В 1891 году либеральные юнионисты Ольстера , часть более крупного либерального разрыва с Гладстоном, вошли в Ирландский юнионистский альянс Сондерсона и в Вестминстере заняли консервативный пост . [48]

В 1892 году, несмотря на ожесточенное разделение из-за лично скомпрометированного руководства Парнелла, националисты смогли помочь Гладстону занять третье министерство. Результатом стал второй законопроект о самоуправлении . Он был встречен более развитой и лучше организованной оппозицией Ольстера. В Белфасте состоялся большой съезд юнионистов Ольстера, организованный либеральным юнионистом Томасом Синклером , которого пресса отметила как критика оранжизма. [49] Ораторы и наблюдатели подробно остановились на разнообразии вероисповедания, класса и партии, представленных среди 12 300 присутствовавших делегатов. Как сообщал Northern Whig , там были «старые защитники прав арендаторов «шестидесятых»… стойкие реформаторы Антрима… унитарианцы Дауна , всегда прогрессивные в своей политике… старомодные тори графств… современные консерваторы… оранжисты… Все эти различные элементы — виги, либералы, радикалы, пресвитериане, епископалы , унитариане и методисты … объединились как один человек». [50]

Хотя ссылки на католиков носили примирительный характер, Конвент постановил:

сохранить неизменным наше нынешнее положение как неотъемлемой части Соединенного Королевства и самым недвусмысленным образом протестовать против принятия любой меры, которая лишила бы нас нашего наследия в Имперском парламенте, под защитой которого были инвестированы наши капиталы и который охранял наш дом и права; что мы заявляем о своей решимости не иметь ничего общего с парламентом, который, несомненно, будет контролироваться людьми, ответственными за преступления и произвол Земельной лиги... многие из которых показали себя готовым инструментом духовного господства. [51]

После гигантских парламентских сессий законопроект, который допускал ирландских депутатов, был принят незначительным большинством в Палате общин, но потерпел поражение в подавляющем большинстве в Палате лордов , состоявшей из консерваторов . Консерваторы сформировали новое министерство.

Конструктивный юнионизм

Флаг Совета по перенаселенным районам Ирландии , 1893–1907 гг.

Преемник Гладстона от Консервативной партии в 1886 году, лорд Солсбери , считал, что его правительство должно «оставить самоуправление спать сном несправедливых». [52] : 418  В 1887 году Дублинскому замку было предоставлено постоянное право приостанавливать действие habeas corpus . Однако, будучи главным секретарем Ирландии , племянник Солсбери Артур Бальфур решил придерживаться конструктивного курса. Он проводил реформы, направленные, как некоторые считали, на то, чтобы убить самоуправление «добротой». [53]

Для явной цели облегчения бедности и сокращения эмиграции в перенаселенных районах запада Балфур инициировал программу не только общественных работ, но и субсидирования местных ремесленных производств. Возглавляемый бывшим депутатом-юнионистом от Южного Дублина , Горацием Планкеттом , [54] новый Департамент сельского хозяйства и технических инструкций порвал с традициями ирландских советов, объявив, что его цель — «быть в контакте с общественным мнением классов, которых касается его работа, и в значительной степени полагаться на их активную помощь и сотрудничество в своем успехе». [55] : 210  Он поддерживал и поощрял молочные кооперативы, маслозаводы, которые должны были стать важным институтом в появлении нового класса независимых мелких землевладельцев. [52] : 421–423 

Более масштабная реформа последовала, когда при поддержке отколовшейся Либеральной юнионистской партии Солсбери вернулся к власти в 1895 году. Закон о земле 1896 года впервые ввел принцип принудительной продажи арендаторам, поскольку его применение было ограничено обанкротившимися поместьями. «Можно было бы предположить», сказал сэр Эдвард Карсон , дублинский адвокат и ведущий представитель ирландских консерваторов, «что правительство было революционерами, граничащими с социализмом». [55] : 209  Будучи сначала вынужденным отказаться от своего влияния на местное самоуправление (переданное одним махом в 1898 году демократически избранным советам), старый класс землевладельцев имел условия своей отставки, установленные Законом о земле Уиндема 1903 года. [38] : 218–219, 233 

Это уменьшило, но само по себе не разрешило аграрную напряженность, даже на севере. В 1906 году Томас Рассел, депутат парламента , сын выселенного шотландского фермера , порвал с консерваторами в Ирландском юнионистском альянсе, чтобы вернуться в Вестминстер из Южного Тирона в качестве поборника Союза фермеров и рабочих Ольстера. [56] [57] Вместе с депутатом парламента города Корк Уильямом О'Брайеном Рассел помог инициировать программу, в рамках которой было построено около 40 000 коттеджей площадью в один акр, принадлежащих рабочим. [58]

В конструктивистские 1890-е годы и до того, как либеральное правительство возродило перспективы самоуправления, юнионисты, казалось, более непринужденно относились к ирландской культуре. Первое Ольстерское отделение Гэльской лиги было сформировано в 1895 году в восточном Белфасте под патронажем преподобного Джона Батиста Крозье и доктора Джона Сент-Клера Бойда , оба признанных юнионистов, [59] и Великого магистра Ордена Оранжистов, преподобного Ричарда Ратледжа Кейна . [60]

Но для многих ирландских юнионистов пост главного секретаря Джорджа Уиндема стал «последней каплей». [61] : 419  В феврале 1905 года они узнали, что его заместитель, сэр Энтони Макдоннелл , католик, помог разработать схему административной децентрализации, включающую ирландский совет как избираемых, так и назначаемых членов. Бальфур, теперь уже премьер-министр, был вынужден дезавуировать схему, а Уиндем, которого заставили отрицать свое соучастие, ушел в отставку. [62] Этот шум помог либералу вернуться в офис в декабре. [18] : 418 

Католические юнионисты

Путь к идентификации католицизма с конституционным ирландским национализмом был «далеко не гладким и непосредственным», [63] [64] и католическая традиция поддержки союза, сосредоточенная на ценности стабильности и империи, пережила первый кризис самоуправления. Но она не разделяла убеждения большинства юнионистов в том, что любая мера деволюции в Соединенном Королевстве должна привести к разделению. Она также не снабжала юнионизм эквивалентом протестантов, которые по отдельности играли видную роль в политике самоуправления и сепаратизма. [65]

Горстка ирландских консерваторов, набранных из католического дворянства , была возвращена в Палату общин до принятия Закона о реформе 1884 года. «Уникальное место» занял сэр Денис Генри (1864-1925). [66] Когда он выиграл свое родное место в Южном Лондондерри на дополнительных выборах 1916 года, он стал первым католиком, представлявшим юнионистский избирательный округ в Ольстере, а когда он сохранил это место в 1918 году, будущий лорд-главный судья Северной Ирландии стал последним. [66]

«Ольстерский вариант» 1905–1920 гг.

Профсоюзный труд

День Ольстера, 28 сентября 1912 г.

В 1905 году был создан Совет юнионистов Ольстера, чтобы объединить юнионистов на севере, включая, с 50 из 200 мест, Орден оранжистов . До тех пор юнионизм в значительной степени ставил себя на сторону англо-ирландских аристократов, которых ценили за их связи на высоком уровне в Великобритании . UUC все еще предоставлял им определенную степень приоритета. Потомок Каслри и бывший лорд-лейтенант Ирландии , 6-й маркиз Лондондерри , председательствовал в его исполнительном комитете. Совет также сохранил услуги Карсона, с 1892 года депутата Тринити-колледжа в Дублине , и поддерживал его с 1910 года в качестве лидера Ирландской юнионистской парламентской партии. Но под руководством капитана Джеймса Крейга , миллионера-директора белфастской компании Dunville Whiskey , именно северные работодатели взяли на себя настоящую политическую и организационную работу. [67] [55] : 226–228 

В отличие от южных землевладельцев, которые были политически настроены против своих католических арендаторов, производители и торговцы Белфаста и соседних промышленных районов могли, как правило, рассчитывать на голосование с большинством своей рабочей силы. Но лояльность протестантских рабочих не была безусловной. В сознании многих рабочих-юнионистов не было противоречия между защитой протестантских принципов и политическим радикализмом, «действительно, они часто рассматривались как одно и то же, потому что именно богатые были наиболее склонны к примирению и предательству». [68] : 102 

Используя право голоса нового рабочего , в 1868 году лоялисты в Белфасте выбрали своего собственного «консерватора», отвергнув владельца мельницы и вернув евангелического оранжиста Уильяма Джонстона в Вестминстер. Джонстон продолжил предлагать и голосовать за защиту труда , права арендаторов , тайное голосование и избирательное право для женщин [69] [70] В 1902 году преемник Джонстона на посту депутата от Южного Белфаста , Томас Слоан , снова не был выбором работодателей. Кампания кандидата от Белфастской протестантской ассоциации была отмечена тем, что его оппоненты считали классическим примером фанатизма. Слоан протестовал против освобождения католических монастырей от инспекции Комиссией по гигиене ( католическая церковь не должна быть «государством в государстве»). Но именно как профсоюзный деятель он критиковал «шубную бригаду» в руководстве юнионизма. Вместе с Р. Линдси Кроуфордом и их Независимым Орденом Оранжистов Слоан поддержал рабочих доков и льнокомбинатов во главе с синдикалистом Джеймсом Ларкиным во время великого локаута в Белфасте в 1907 году . [68] : 101–104  [71]

В июле 1912 года лоялисты выгнали около 3000 рабочих с верфей и машиностроительных заводов в Белфасте. В отличие от предыдущих инцидентов, среди высланных были не только католики, но и около 600 протестантов, преследуемых в основном потому, что они поддерживали организацию труда по религиозному признаку. [72] Профсоюзная пресса изображала любую связь как с британскими лейбористами (которые провели свою первую партийную конференцию в Белфасте в 1907 году), так и с Ирландским конгрессом тред-юнионов как равносильную поддержке гомруля. Тем не менее, лоялисты-рабочие возмущались идеей, что они были слугами «больших профсоюзных деятелей». Манифест, подписанный весной 1914 года двумя тысячами рабочих, отвергал предположение радикальной и социалистической прессы о том, что Ольстером манипулирует «аристократический заговор». Если сэр Эдвард Карсон возглавил битву за Союз, то это было «потому, что мы, рабочие, народ, демократия Ольстера, выбрали его». [73] Большинство подписавших были бы организованы в британские профсоюзы, [74] и могли бы указать на растущий политический вес британских рабочих в таких мерах реформ, как Закон о трудовых спорах 1906 года , Народный бюджет 1910 года и Закон о национальном страховании 1911 года . Националисты не пытались убедить их, что коллективные переговоры, прогрессивное налогообложение и социальное обеспечение являются принципами, для которых большинство можно было бы легко найти в ирландском парламенте. [75] [76] [77]

Юнионизм и избирательное право женщин

Подписание Декларации Ольстерского соглашения, «День Ольстера» 1912 г.

В то, что должно было стать высшей точкой мобилизации в Ольстере против гомруля, Кампании за Соглашение в сентябре 1912 года, руководство юнионистов решило, что мужчины в одиночку не могут говорить о решимости юнионистского народа защищать «их равное гражданство в Соединенном Королевстве». Женщинам было предложено подписать не Соглашение, чья приверженность «всем средствам, которые могут быть сочтены необходимыми» подразумевала готовность носить оружие, а их собственную Декларацию о присоединении. В общей сложности 234 046 женщин подписали Декларацию женщин Ольстера; 237 368 мужчин подписали Торжественную лигу и Соглашение . [78]

Женщины-юнионисты участвовали в политической агитации со времени первого законопроекта о самоуправлении в 1886 году. [79] Некоторые из них были активными суфражистками . Изабелла Тод , либералка, выступавшая против самоуправлений и выступавшая за образование девочек, была одним из первых пионеров. Решительное лоббирование ее Общества женского избирательного права Северной Ирландии обеспечило принятие Закона 1887 года, создающего новый муниципальный статус города для Белфаста (пилотируемый через Палату общин Уильямом Джонстоном ) [70] и предоставляющего право голоса лицам, а не мужчинам. Это произошло за одиннадцать лет до того, как женщины в других частях Ирландии получили право голоса на выборах в органы местного самоуправления. [80]

WSS не впечатлили ни женская Ольстерская декларация, ни Совет юнионистов Ольстера (UWUC) — крупнейшая женская политическая организация в Ирландии, насчитывающая более 100 000 членов. [81] Элизабет Мак-Кракен отметила неспособность женщин-юнионистов сформулировать «какие-либо требования от своего имени или от имени своего пола». [82] Тем не менее, в сентябре 1913 года Мак-Кракен праздновала «брак юнионизма и женского избирательного права». [83] После сообщений о том, что воинствующий Женский социально-политический союз (WPSU) начнет организовываться в Ольстере, секретарь Совета юнионистов Ольстера сообщил UWUC, что проекты статей Временного правительства Ольстера включают голоса для женщин. Националисты не будут брать на себя такие обязательства в отношении парламента в Дублине. [84] [85]

Брак продлился недолго. В марте 1914 года Карсон , после того как в течение четырех дней к ней приставали представители WSPU, постановила, что избирательное право женщин — слишком спорный вопрос для юнионистов. Затем последовала серия поджогов имущества, принадлежащего юнионистам и связанного с ними, кульминацией которых стал поджог Лиллиан Метге собора в Лисберне . [86] [87] На последующем судебном процессе организатор WPSU Дороти Эванс подняла шум, требуя объяснить, почему Джеймс Крейг, тогда вооружавший ольстерских волонтеров немецкими винтовками, не предстает перед судом по тем же обвинениям в хранении оружия и взрывчатых веществ. [85]

В августе 1914 года суфражистки Ольстера приостановили свою агитацию на время Европейской войны. Их наградой стало предоставление женщинам избирательного права в 1918 году и (спустя шесть лет после того, как оно было предоставлено в Ирландском свободном государстве ) равных избирательных прав в 1928 году .

Кризис гомруля 1912 года

Знамя Ордена оранжистов, на котором изображено подписание Карсоном Ольстерского соглашения 1912 года.

В 1911 году либеральная администрация снова зависела от ирландских националистических депутатов. В 1912 году премьер-министр Х. Х. Асквит представил Третий законопроект о самоуправлении . Более щедрое разрешение, чем предыдущие законопроекты, оно впервые дало бы ирландскому парламенту ответственную исполнительную власть. [88] Он был принят в Палате общин большинством в десять голосов. Как и ожидалось, он был отклонен в Палате лордов, но в результате кризиса, вызванного оппозицией пэров Народному бюджету 1910 года, у Лордов теперь было только право отсрочки. Самоуправление стало законом в 1914 году.

Долгое время шли дискуссии о предоставлении «опциона Ольстеру». Еще в 1843 году Северный виг рассуждал, что если различия в этнической принадлежности («расе») и интересах говорят в пользу отделения Ирландии от Великобритании, они могли бы с таким же успехом выступать за разделение севера и юга, сделав Белфаст столицей своего собственного «отдельного королевства». [89] В ответ на первый законопроект о самоуправлении в 1886 году радикальные юнионисты (либералы, которые предлагали федерализировать отношения между всеми странами Соединенного Королевства) также утверждали, что «протестантская часть Ольстера должна получить особое отношение... на основаниях, идентичных тем, которые поддерживают общее утверждение о самоуправлении» [90] Протестанты Ольстера не выражали интереса к парламенту Белфаста (они не развивали свой собственный выраженный национализм), [91] но, подводя итоги «Дела против самоуправлений» (1912), Л. С. Эмери настаивал на том, что «если ирландский национализм образует нацию, то Ольстер тоже является нацией». [92] : 78 

Столкнувшись с возможным принятием закона о самоуправлении, Карсон, по-видимому, настаивал на этом аргументе. 28 сентября 1912 года, в День Ольстера, он первым подписал в мэрии Белфаста Торжественную лигу и Соглашение Ольстера . Это обязывало подписавших «стоять друг за друга, защищая для себя и наших детей наше положение равного гражданства в Соединенном Королевстве, и использовать все средства, которые могут быть сочтены необходимыми для того, чтобы победить нынешний заговор с целью создания парламента самоуправлений в Ирландии». [93] [94]

В январе 1913 года Карсон высказался за исключение Ольстера и призвал к набору до 100 000 ковенантеров в качестве обученных и вооруженных добровольцев Ольстера . [95] 23 сентября, во второй День Ольстера, он принял председательство во Временном правительстве, организованном Крейгом. Если будет введено самоуправление, «мы будем управляться как завоеванное сообщество и никак иначе». [92] : 79  К июлю 1914 года Ольстерский ковенант был дополнен Британским ковенантом, организованным Альфредом Милнером через Лигу обороны Союза . Почти два миллиона подписавших заявили о своей готовности «поддержать любые действия, которые могут быть эффективными», чтобы не допустить лишения жителей Ольстера «их прав граждан Соединенного Королевства». [3] : 134–135  [96]

Разделение

Результаты всеобщих выборов 1918 года в Ирландии. Шинн Фейн побеждает на юге и западе

4 августа 1914 года Соединенное Королевство объявило войну Германии . Несколько недель спустя законопроект о самоуправлении получил королевское одобрение , но его реализация была приостановлена ​​на время военных действий в Европе. Поскольку вопрос об исключении Ольстера не был решен, лидеры обеих сторон искали расположения правительства и британской общественности, посвятив себя и своих добровольцев военным действиям.

Стратегия была оспорена националистической стороной. Как видели это активисты, контингенты республиканских ирландских добровольцев и Гражданской армии Коннолли гарантировали, что в то время как ирландцы, по настоянию Редмонда, жертвовали собой ради Бельгии , Британию можно было увидеть на улицах Дублина на Пасху 1916 года, подавляющей ирландскую забастовку за свободу. После Восстания и в ходе общенациональной кампании против воинской повинности доверие к ИПП было исчерпано. [97]

На выборах Купона в декабре 1918 года, первом опросе в Вестминстере с 1910 года и первом, где все взрослые мужчины и женщины в возрасте от тридцати лет имели право голоса (электорат утроился), ИПП была почти полностью заменена в националистических округах партией Шинн Фейн . [98] Действуя по своему мандату, депутаты Шинн Фейн встретились в Дублине в январе 1919 года, когда Dáil Éireann , национальное собрание Республики, провозгласило в 1916 году, и потребовали эвакуации «английского гарнизона». В шести северо-восточных графствах юнионисты заняли 22 из 29 мест.

Насилие против католиков в Белфасте, изгнание с рабочих мест и нападения в их районах, а также бойкот товаров Белфаста, сопровождавшийся грабежами и разрушениями на Юге, помогли консолидировать «реальный раздел, духовный и добровольный» в преддверии конституционного раздела. [92] : 99–100  Это в остальном бескомпромиссные республиканцы считали, по крайней мере на данный момент, неизбежным. В августе 1920 года Имон де Валера , президент Палаты представителей, высказался в пользу «предоставления каждому округу права голосовать за выход из Республики, если он того пожелает». [99]

В надежде на достижение компромисса, который все же мог бы удержать Ирландию под юрисдикцией Вестминстера, правительство приступило к принятию Закона о правительстве Ирландии 1920 года . Он предусматривал два подчиненных парламента. В Белфасте североирландский парламент собирался бы для шести, а не для девяти округов Ольстера (в трех, признал Крейг, партия Шинн Фейнерс сделает правительство «абсолютно невозможным для нас»). [100] Оставшиеся двадцать шесть округов острова, Южная Ирландия, были бы представлены в Дублине. В совместном Совете два парламента могли бы свободно заключать общеирландские соглашения.

В 1921 году выборы в эти парламенты были проведены должным образом. Но в Южной Ирландии это был парламент, который, по британскому соглашению, теперь должен был объявить себя Dáil Éireann Ирландского свободного государства . Согласно условиям англо-ирландского договора , двадцать шесть графств должны были иметь «такой же конституционный статус в Сообществе Наций, известном как Британская империя, как и Доминион Канада » . [ 101] В то время не всем сторонам было ясно — последовала гражданская война — но это должно было стать фактической независимостью. [102]

Таким образом, юнионисты Северной Ирландии оказались в непредвиденном положении, когда им пришлось работать над конституционным соглашением, которое стало побочным продуктом попытки британских государственных деятелей примирить решимость протестантского населения Севера остаться без каких-либо ограничений в составе Соединенного Королевства со стремлениями националистического большинства в Ирландии к ирландскому единству и независимости. [103] : 17–18 

В письме премьер-министру Дэвиду Ллойду Джорджу Крейг настаивал на том, что Север принял самоуправление, о котором его представители не просили, только в качестве жертвы в интересах мира. [104] Однако, когда он обращался к рабочим верфи Белфаста, не было заметно никакого сожаления. Как только у юнионистов появится собственный парламент, Крейг заверил рабочих, «никакая сила на земле никогда не сможет их тронуть». [105]

В ходе обсуждения законопроекта о правительстве Ирландии Крейг признал, что, хотя юнионисты не хотят отдельного парламента, наличие в шести графствах «всех атрибутов правительства» может затруднить для будущего либерального и/или лейбористского правительства подталкивать Северную Ирландию против воли ее большинства к общеирландским соглашениям [106]. Это стало преобладающим отношением, обобщенным в отчете Совета юнионистов Ольстера 1936 года: «Северная Ирландия без собственного парламента будет постоянным искушением для некоторых британских политиков сделать еще одну попытку окончательного урегулирования с Ирландской Республикой». [107]

Став ольстерскими юнионистами, а затем юнионистами шести графств, «ирландские юнионисты превратились в североирландских гомрулеров». [108]

Правление юнионистского большинства: Северная Ирландия 1921–1972 гг.

Исключение из Вестминстерской политики

Герб правительства Северной Ирландии (1924–1974). Герб с шотландским львом и ирландским лосем по бокам.

Юнионисты подчеркивали, что их победа в борьбе за самоуправление была частичной. Дело не только в том, что двадцать шесть из тридцати двух ирландских графств были потеряны для Союза, но и в том, что в шести оставшихся юнионисты «не смогли заставить британское правительство в Лондоне полностью признать их полное и недвусмысленное членство в Соединенном Королевстве». [109] : 9  [103] : 15 

Хотя технически правительство Северной Ирландии было создано решением парламента из шести графств, избранного в 1920 году, чтобы отказаться от Ирландского свободного государства , оно имело некоторые формальные черты статуса доминиона в стиле Канады, предоставленного новому государству на Юге. Как и Оттава , Белфаст имел двухпалатный парламент , кабинет и премьер-министра ( сэр Джеймс Крейг ), а также корону , представленную губернатором и консультируемую Тайным советом . Все это наводило на мысль не о децентрализованной администрации в Соединенном Королевстве, а о государстве, созданном под властью короны за пределами прямой юрисдикции парламента Вестминстера. [110]

The impression that Ireland as a whole was being removed from Westminster politics was reinforced by refusal of the parties of Government and Opposition to organise, or canvass for votes, in the six counties.[111] The Conservatives were content that Ulster Unionist Party MPs took their party whip in the House of Commons where, by general agreement, matters within the competence of the Belfast Parliament could not be raised. The Labour Party formed its first (minority) government in 1924 led by a man who in 1905 had been the election agent in North Belfast for the trade-unionist William Walker, Ramsay MacDonald.[112] In 1907 MacDonald's party had held their first party conference in Belfast. Yet, at the height of the Home Rule Crisis in 1913, the British Labour Party had decided not stand against Irish Labour, and the policy of deferring to Irish parties was maintained after 1921.[113]

There was little incentive for unionists in Northern Ireland to assume the risks of splitting ranks in order to reproduce the dynamic of Westminster politics. Despite its broad legislative powers, the Belfast Parliament did not, in any case, have the kinds of tax and spending powers that might have engendered that kind of party competition. The principal sources of government revenue, income and corporation taxes, customs and excise, were entirely beyond Belfast's control.[114]

Stormont government

The statue of Lord Edward Carson in front of Parliament Buildings, Stormont

Until the crisis of the late 1960s, unionism in Northern Ireland was effectively single-party politics. In his 28 years in Stormont (1925–1953) Tommy Henderson, a North Belfast independent, was a one-man unionist opposition. In the 1938 the Ulster Progressive Unionist Party of William John Stewart attempted to join him, averaging 30% of the vote in ten otherwise safe Government seats.[115] After positively endorsing the Union, in 1953 the Northern Ireland Labour Party won three seats. But for the most part Government candidates were returned by unionist voters without contest. The Nationalist Party did not take their seats during the first Stormont parliament (1921–25), and did not accept the role of official Opposition for a further forty years.[116]

Proclaimed by Craig a "Protestant parliament",[92]: 118  and with a "substantial and assured" Unionist Party majority[117] the Stormont legislature could not, in any case, play a significant role. Real power "lay with the regional government itself and its administration": a structure "run by a very small number of individuals". Between 1921 and 1939 only twelve people served in cabinet, some continuously.[118]: 116–119  It was in protest that the Progressive Unionists had proposed limited office in government to 8 years or two parliaments.[115]

Although they had no positive political programme for a devolved parliament, the Unionist regime did attempt an early reform. Consistent with the obligation under the Government of Ireland Act to neither establish nor endow a religion, a 1923 Education Act provided that in schools religious instruction would only be permitted after school hours and with parental consent. Lord Londonderry, Minister of Education, acknowledged that his ambition was mixed Protestant-Catholic education. A coalition of Protestant clerics, school principals and Orangemen insisted on the imperative of bible teaching. Craig relented, amending the act in 1925. Meanwhile, the Catholic hierarchy refused to transfer any schools, and would not allow male Catholic student teachers to enrol in a common training college with Protestants or women.[119] The school-age segregation of Protestants and Catholics was sustained.

At the end of World War II, the Unionist Government under Basil Brooke (Lord Brookeborough) did make two reform commitments. First, it promised a programme of "slum clearance" and public housing construction (in the wake of the Belfast Blitz the authorities acknowledged that much of the housing stock had been "uninhabitable" before the war). Second, the Government accepted an offer from London—understood as a reward for the province's wartime service—to match the parity in taxation between Northern Ireland and Great Britain with parity in the services delivered. What Northern Ireland might loose in autonomy, it was going to gain in a closer, more equal, Union.[120]

By the 1960s Unionism was administering something at odds with the general conservatism of those to whom leadership had been conceded in the resistance to Irish Home Rule. Under the impetus of the post-War Labour government in Britain, and thanks to the generosity of British exchequer, Northern Ireland had emerged with an advanced welfare state. The Education Act (NI), 1947, "revolutionised access" to secondary and further education. Health-care provision was expanded and re-organised on the model of the National Health Service in Great Britain to ensure universal access. The Victorian-era Poor Law, sustained after 1921, was replaced with a comprehensive system of social-security. Under the Housing Act (NI) 1945 the public subvention for new home construction was even greater, proportionately, than in England and Wales.[118]: 43–49 

1960s: reform and protest

In the 1960s, under premiership of Terence O'Neill, the Stormont administration intensified its efforts to attract outside capital. Investment in new infrastructure, training schemes coordinated with trade unions, and direct grants succeeded in attracting American, British and continental firms. In its own terms, the strategy was a success. While the great Victorian industries continued to decline, the level of manufacturing employment marginally increased. Yet Protestant workers and local Unionist leadership were unsettled. Unlike the established family firms and skilled-trades apprenticeships that had been "a backbone of unionism and protestant privilege", the new companies readily employed Catholics and women.[118]: 87–89  But among Catholics too there was concern over the regional distribution of the new investment.

When Derry lost out to Coleraine for siting of the New University of Ulster, and to Lurgan and Portadown for a new urban-industrial development, some sensed a wider conspiracy. Speaking to Labour MPs in London, John Hume suggested that "the plan" was "to develop the strongly Unionist-Belfast-Coleraine-Portadown triangle and to cause a migration from West to East Ulster, redistributing and scattering the minority to that the Unionist Party will not only maintain but strengthen its position".[121]

Hume, a teacher from Derry, presented himself as a spokesman for an emerging "third force": a "generation of younger Catholics in the North" who were frustrated with the nationalist policy of non-recognition and abstention. (O'Neill wrote of "a new Catholic intelligentsia", the product, he imagined, of the 1947 Education Act, "unwilling to put up with the deprived status their fathers and grandfathers had taken for granted").[122]: 137 [123] Determined to engage the great social problems of housing, unemployment and emigration, they were willing to accept "the Protestant tradition in the North as legitimate" and that Irish unity should be achieved only "by the will of the Northern majority".[124] Although they appeared to meet unionists half way, Hume and those who joined him in what he proposed would be "the emergence of normal politics" presented the Unionism with a new challenge.[125] Drawing on the civil rights movements in the United States, they spoke a language of universal rights which had a broad appeal for British and international opinion.

Since 1964, the Campaign for Social Justice had been collating and publicising evidence of discrimination in employment and housing. From April 1967 the cause was taken up by the Belfast-based Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, a broad labour and republican grouping with Communist Party veteran Betty Sinclair as chair. Seeking to "challenge . . . by more vigorous action than Parliamentary questions and newspaper controversy", NICRA decided to carry out a programme of marches.[126]: 34 

In October 1968 Derry Housing Action Committee proposed a march in Derry. When a sectarian confrontation threatened—the Apprentice Boys of Derry announced their intention to march the same route—the NICRA executive was in favour of calling it off. But DHAC pressed ahead with activist Eamon McCann conceding that the "conscious, if unspoken strategy, was to provoke the police into overreaction and thus spark off mass reaction against the authorities".[127]: 91  A later official inquiry suggests that all that had been required for police to begin "using their batons indiscriminately" was defiance of the initial order to disperse.[128] The day ended with street battles in Derry's Catholic Bogside area. With this, onset of what is referred to as "The Troubles", Northern Ireland, for the first time in decades, was making British and international headlines, and television news.

Opposition to O'Neill

1971 newsreel on the background to the Northern Ireland Troubles

In January 1965, at O'Neill personal invitation, Taoiseach Seán Lemass (whose government was pursuing a similar modernising agenda in the South) made an unheralded visit to Stormont. After O'Neill reciprocated with a visit to Dublin, the Nationalists were persuaded, for the first time, to assume the role at Stormont of Her Majesty's Opposition. With this and other conciliatory gestures (unprecedented visits to a Catholic hospitals and schools, flying the Union flag at half mast for the death of Pope John XXIII) O'Neill incurred the wrath of those he understood as "self-styled 'loyalists' who see moderation as treason, and decency as weakness",[122]: 123 among these the Reverend Ian Paisley.

As Moderator of his own Free Presbyterian Church, and at a time when he believed mainline presbyteries were being led down a "Roman road" by the Irish Council of Churches, Paisley saw himself treading in the path of the "greatest son" of Irish Presbyterianism, Dr. Henry Cooke.[129] Like Cooke, Paisley was alert to ecumenicism "both political and ecclesiastical". After the Lemass meeting, Paisley announced that "the Ecumenists . . . are selling us out", and called on Ulster Protestants to resist a "policy of treachery".[130][131]

Many within his own party were alarmed when in December 1968 O'Neill sacked his hard-line Minister of Home Affairs, William Craig[132] and proceeded with a reform package that addressed many of NICRA's demands. There was to be a needs-based points system for public housing; an ombudsman to investigate citizen grievances; the abolition of the rates-based franchise in council elections (One man, one vote); and The Londonderry Corporation (through which unionists had administered a predominately nationalist city) was replaced by an independent development commission. The broad security provisions of the Special Powers Act were to be reviewed.[133]

At a Downing Street summit on 4 November, Prime Minister Harold Wilson warned O'Neill that if Stormont backtracked on reform, the British government would reconsider its financial support for Northern Ireland.[126]: 99  In a television address, O'Neill cautioned Unionists that they could not choose to be part of the United Kingdom merely when it "suits" them, and that "defiance" of the British government would be reckless. Jobs in the shipyards and other major industries, subsidies for farmers, people's pensions: "all these aspects of our life, and many others depend on support from Britain. Is a freedom to pursue the un-Christian path of communal strife and sectarian bitterness really more important to you than all the benefits of the British Welfare state?"[134]

With members of his cabinet urging him to call Wilson's "bluff", and facing a Backbencher motion of no-confidence, in January 1969 O'Neill called a general election. The Ulster Unionist Party split. Pro-O'Neill candidates picked up Liberal and Labour votes but won only a plurality of seats. In his own constituency of Bannside, from which he had previously been returned unopposed, the Prime Minister was humiliated by achieving only a narrow victory over Paisley standing as a Protestant Unionist. On 28 April 1969, O'Neill resigned.

O'Neill's position had been weakened when, focused on demands not conceded (redrawing of electoral boundaries, immediate repeal of the Special Power Act and disbandment of the Special Constabulary), republicans and left-wing students disregarded appeals from within NICRA and Hume's Derry Citizens Action Committee to suspend protest.[126]: 102–107  On 4 January 1969 People's Democracy marchers en route from Belfast to Derry were ambushed and beaten by loyalists, including off-duty Specials, at Burntollet Bridge[135] That night, there was renewed street fighting in the Bogside. From behind barricades, residents declared "Free Derry", briefly Northern Ireland's first security-force "no-go area".[136]

Tensions had been further heightened in the days before O'Neill's resignation when a number of explosions at electricity and water installations were attributed to the IRA. The later Scarman Tribunal established that the "outrages" were "the work of Protestant extremists . . . anxious to undermine confidence" in O'Neill's leadership.[137] (The bombers, styling themselves "the Ulster Volunteer Force", had announced their presence in 1966 with a series of sectarian killings).[138][139] The IRA did go into action on the night of 20/21 April, bombing ten post offices in Belfast in an attempt to draw the RUC away from Derry where there was again serious violence.[126]: 120 

Imposition of direct rule

To the extent they acknowledge inequities in Unionist rule from Stormont—Paisley was later to allow "it wasn't . . a fair government. It wasn't justice for all"[140]—unionists argue these were a result of insecurity which successive British governments had themselves created by their own divided view on Northern Ireland's place in the United Kingdom.[109]: 8–9  When the tensions to which it had contributed to in Northern Ireland finally exploded, unionists believe British equivocation proved disastrous. Had they regarded Northern Ireland is an integral part of the United Kingdom, the Government's response in 1969–69 would have been "fundamentally different". If they had thought there were social and political grievances which were remediable by law, it would have been the business of Westminster to legislate. But acts of rebellion would have been suppressed and punished as such with the full authority and force of the state. At no point, according to this unionist analysis, would the policy have been one of containment and negotiation.[103]: 15–16 

The example of Free Derry was replicated in other nationalist neighbourhoods both in Derry and in Belfast. Sealed off with barricades, the areas were openly policed by the IRA.[141][142] In what was reported as the biggest British military operation since the Suez Crisis,[143] Operation Motorman, on 31 July 1972, the British Army did eventually act to re-establish control.[144][145] But this had been preceded in the weeks before by a ceasefire in the course of which Provisional IRA leaders, including Chief of Staff Seán Mac Stíofáin and his lieutenants Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams, were flown to London for what proved to be unsuccessful negotiations with Northern Ireland Secretary William Whitelaw, acting on behalf of the UK Prime Minister, Edward Heath.[146]  

The common unionist charge was that Westminster and Whitehall continued to classify Northern Ireland, as it had Ireland before partition, as "something more akin to a colonial than a domestic problem".[103]: 17  From the first street deployment of troops in 1969 the impression given was of "a peace-keeping operation in which Her Majesty's Forces are not defending their homeland, but holding at bay two sects and factions as in Imperial India, Mandated Palestine or in Cyprus". This played into the republican narrative that "the insurgence in the housing estates and borderland of Ulster" was something akin to the Third World wars of liberation, and that in Britain's first and last colony "decolonisation will be forced upon her as it was in Aden and elsewhere".[92]: 144–145  Unionism as an expression of settler colonialism, indeed, was an analysis promoted in Britain by left-wing commentators and scholars.[147][148][149]

With London, unionist credibility on security did not survive internment, introduced at the insistence of Stormont government under Brian Faulkner. In the early hours of 10 August 1971 342 persons suspected of IRA involvement were arrested without charge or warrant.[150] Many appeared to have no connection with the IRA, and for those that did the link typically was to the left-leaning Officials. Beyond immediate defence of Catholics areas, the Officials had already committed to unarmed political strategy—and on that basis were to declare a ceasefire in May 1972.[151] Leading Provisionals, some of whom were new to the IRA, entirely escaped the net. Unionists blamed the poor intelligence on London's decision to tolerate no-go areas.[152]

For the British Government internment proved a public relations disaster, both domestic and international. It was compounded by the interrogation of internees by methods (the so-called the five techniques) that were eventually deemed illegal by the UK Government's own commission of inquiry[153] (and subsequently, in a case brought by the Irish government, ruled "inhuman and degrading" by the European Court of Human Rights).[154] Further national and international outrage followed the Army's lethal use of live fire against unarmed anti-internment protesters, Bloody Sunday in Derry (20 January 1972) being the most notorious incident.[155][156]

In March, Heath demanded that Faulkner surrender control of internal security. When, as might have been anticipated, Faulkner resigned rather than comply, Heath in an instant shattered, for unionists, "the theory that the Army was simply in Northern Ireland for the purpose of offering aid to the civil power, of defending legally established institutions against terrorist attack". In what unionists viewed as a victory for violence, the Conservative government prorogued Stormont and imposed direct rule "not merely to restore order but to reshape the Province's system of government".[103]: 63 

Negotiating the Irish Dimension: 1973–2006

Sunningdale Agreement and the Ulster Workers strike

Anti-Faulkner Unionist election poster

In October 1972 the British government brought out a Green Paper, The Future of Northern Ireland. It articulated what were to be the enduring principles of the British approach to a settlement.

It is a fact that an element of the minority in Northern Ireland has hitherto seen itself as simply part of the wider Irish community. The problem of accommodating that minority within the political of Northern Ireland has to some extent been an aspect of a wider problem within Ireland as a whole.

It is therefore clearly desirable that any new arrangements for Northern Ireland should, whilst meeting the wishes of Northern Ireland and Great Britain, be so far as possible acceptable to the Republic of Ireland.

Northern Ireland must and will remain part of the United Kingdom for as long as that is the wish of a majority of the people, but that status does not preclude the necessary taking into account of what has been described in this paper as the 'Irish Dimension.'

A Northern Ireland assembly or authority must be capable of involving all its members constructively in way which satisfy them and those they represent that the whole community has a part to pay in the government of the Province. ... [T]here are strong arguments that the objective of real participation should be achieved by giving minority interests a share in the exercise of executive power. Faulkner's later successor as party leader, James Molyneaux, argued that the difficulty for most unionists was not an arrangement in which Protestants and Catholics must consent. It was that, despite a promise not to share power with parties whose primary aim is a united Ireland,[157] Faulkner had committed them to agreement with "Republican Catholics".[158]

Having drawn on both the Republican and Northern Ireland, Labour parties, the SDLP had sought to accommodate "progressive Protestants".[159]: 191  But with PIRA continuing to draw on public outrage over internment and Bloody Sunday, the SDLP was under pressure to present Sunningdale as a means to achieving the goal of Irish unity.[127]: 141  The new Health and Social Service Minister, Paddy Devlin, conceded that "all other issues were governed" by a drive to "get all-Ireland institutions established" that would "produce the dynamic that would lead ultimately to an agreed united Ireland".[159]: 205 

The Sunningdale Agreement envisaged a Council of Ireland comprising, with equal delegations from Dublin and Belfast, a Council of Ministers with "executive and harmonising functions" and a Consultative Assembly with advisory and review functions. Unionists feared these created the possibility of their being manoeuvred into a minority position. In retrospect, Devlin regretted the SDLP had not "adopted a two stage approach, by allowing power sharing at Stormont to establish itself", but by the time he and his colleagues recognised the damage they had caused to Faulkner's position by prioritising the Irish Dimension it was too late.[159]: 252 

Within a week of taking office as First Minister, Faulkner was forced to resign as UUP leader. A surprise Westminster election at the end of February was a triumph for the United Ulster Unionist Coalition, in which the bulk of his old party stood as Official Unionists with William Craig's Ulster Vanguard and Paisley's new Democratic Unionists. Faulkner's pro-Assembly grouping was left with just 13% of the unionist vote. Arguing that they had deprived Faulkner of any semblance of a mandate, the victors called for new Assembly elections.

When in May the Assembly affirmed the Sunningdale Agreement, a loyalist coalition, the Ulster Workers' Council (UWC), called a general strike. Within two weeks the UWC, supported by the Ulster Defence Association and UVF paramilitaries, had an effective stranglehold on energy supplies.[160] Concessions sought by Faulkner were blocked by the SDLP. John Hume, then Minister of Commerce, pressed for a British Army enforced fuel-oil plan and for resistance to "a fascist takeover".[161][162] After Mervyn Rees, the Northern Ireland Secretary refused his final plea for negotiation, Faulkner resigned. Conceding that there was no longer any constitutional basis for the Executive, Rees dissolved the Assembly.[159]: 242–247 

Unionism and loyalist para-militarism

Mural for the Red Hand Commando (UVF) which, uniquely, had an Irish-language motto, Lamh Dearg Abu (Victory to the Red Hand)

In inaugurating a prolonged period of Direct Rule, the UWC strike weakened the representative role of the unionist parties. There were to be a number of consultative assemblies and forums in the years that followed, but the only elective offices with administrative responsibilities were in downsized district councils. At Westminster unionist MPs contended with governments that remained committed to the principles of the 1972 Green Paper. The initiative in protesting what unionists often perceived as inadequate political and security responses to republican violence passed to loyalists.

The loyalists principal mode of operation was not to be the work stoppage. With Paisley's blessing, in 1977 the UDA and a number of other loyalists groups sought to replicate the UWC success. Stoppages in support of a "unionist wish-list"—essentially a return to Stormont-era majority rule[163]—failed to secure the support of critical workers and broke up in face UUP condemnation and firm police action.[164] Nor was it to be the ballot, although both the UVF and the UDA did establish party-political wings. It was assassination: in the course of the Troubles loyalists are credited with the murder of 1027 individuals (about half the number attributed to republican paramilitaries and 30% of the total killed).[165]

Loyalism, of which the once largely rural Orange Order had been the archetypal expression, is generally understood as a strand of unionism. It has been characterised as partisan but not necessarily party-political, and in outlook as more ethnic than consciously British—the perspective of those who are Ulster Protestants first and British second.[166] Loyalism can embrace evangelicals, but the term is consistently associated with the paramilitaries and, on that basis, frequently used as if it were synonymous with working-class unionism. The paramilitaries are "thoroughly working class".[167] Their hold, typically, has been upon working-class Protestant neighbourhoods and housing estates where they have compensated for the loss of the confidence they enjoyed as district defenders in early years of the Troubles with racketeering and intimidation.[168]

Paisley combined his radically anti-Catholic evangelism early in his career with a foray into physical force loyalism: his formation in 1956 of Ulster Protestant Action (UPA).[130][131] Ulster Protestant Volunteers implicated Paisley, albeit via supposed intermediaries, in the bombings intended to "blow O'Neill out of office" early in 1969. Leaders of the UVF, however, are adamant that Paisley had nothing to do with them. His rhetoric may have been inspirational, but theirs was a tightly guarded conspiracy.[169]: 29–33  The motivation to kill came largely from secular forces within the Loyalist community.[170] Through the DUP, Paisley ultimately was to lead the bulk of his following into party politics, emerging in the new century as unionism's undisputed leader.

The relationship of other, at the time, more mainstream, unionist political figures to loyalist paramilitaries is also a subject of debate. Paramilitaries deny and resent any implication of political string pulling, They suggest, nonetheless, that they could rely on the politicians to deliver their message. The party leaders might condemn loyalist outrages, but inasmuch as they tried to account for them as reactive, as a response to the injury and frustration of the unionist people, they were effectively employing sectarian, frequently random, killings for a common purpose, to extract concessions from the Government: "You know, 'if you don't talk to us, you will have to talk to these armed men".[169]: 18–20  The relationship of unionists to loyalist violence, in this sense, remained "ambiguous".[171]

Opposition to the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement

Campaign against the Anglo-Irish Agreement
Campaign against the Anglo-Irish Agreement

In 1985 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher signed an agreement at Hillsborough with the Irish Taoiseach, Garret FitzGerald. For the first time this appeared to give the Republic a direct role in the government of Northern Ireland. An Anglo-Irish Intergovernmental Conference, with a locally based secretariat, would invite the Irish government to "put forward views on proposals" for major legislation concerning Northern Ireland. Proposals, however, would only be on matters that are "not the responsibility of a devolved administration in Northern Ireland". The implication for unionists was that if they wished to limit Dublin's influence, they would have to climb down from insistence on majority rule and think again as to how nationalists might be accommodated at Stormont.[172]

The unionist reaction, Thatcher recalled in her memoirs, was "worse than anyone had predicted to me".[173] The Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) led an "Ulster says No" campaign against the Anglo-Irish or Hillsborough Agreement, that included strikes, civil disobedience and a mass resignation of unionist MPs from Westminster and suspensions of district council meetings.[174] In the largest unionist protest since Ulster Day 1912, on 23 November 1985 upwards of a hundred thousand rallied outside Belfast City Hall. "Where do the terrorists return to for sanctuary?" Paisley asked the crowd: "To the Irish Republic and yet Mrs. Thatcher tells us the Republic may have some say in our province. We say, Never! Never! Never! Never!".[175][52]: 758 

Unionists, however, found themselves isolated, opposing a Conservative government and with a Westminster Opposition, Labour, that was sympathetic to Irish unity. With no obvious political leverage, and possibly to prevent initiative passing to the loyalist paramilitaries, in November 1986 Paisley announced his own "third force":[176] The Ulster Resistance Movement (URM) would "take direct action as and when required". Recruitment rallies were held in towns across Northern Ireland and thousands were said to have joined. Despite importing arms, some of which were passed on to the UVF and UDA, for the URM the call for action never came.[177][178] By the fourth anniversary of the accord, unionist protests against the Anglo-Irish Agreement were drawing only token support.[174]

In March 1991, the two unionist parties agreed with the SDLP and Alliance arrangements for political talks on the future of Northern Ireland.[174] In their submission to the inter-party talks in 1992, the Ulster Unionists said they could envisage a range of cross-border bodies so long as these were under the control of the Northern Assembly, did not involve an overarching all-Ireland Council, and were not designed to be developed in the direction of joint authority. While prepared to accommodate an Irish Dimension unionists, at a minimum, were looking for a settlement not an "unsettlement".[179]

UK-party unionism

As an alternative to devolution with an Irish Dimension, some unionists proposed that Northern Ireland reject special status within the United Kingdom, and return to what they conceived as the original unionist programme of complete legislative and political union. This had been the position of the British and Irish Communist Organisation (B&ICO), a small contrarian left-wing grouping that had come to the attention of unionists through their Two-nations Theory of partition and their critical support for the UWC Strike.[180]

The British Labour Party, they argued, had been persuaded that Irish unity was the only left option in Northern Ireland less on its merits than on the superficial appearance of unionism as the six-county Tory Party.[181] Had Labour tested the coalition that was unionism as it began fracture in the late 1960s by itself canvassing for voters in Northern Ireland, the party might have proved the "bridge between Catholics and the state".[182] Disappointed in Labour's response and contending with a unionist split (Democracy Now) led by the only Northern Irish Labour MP (sitting for a London constituency) Kate Hoey, the B&ICO dissolved its Campaign for Labour Representation in 1993. A broader Campaign for Equal Citizenship, in which for a period the B&ICO also participated, to draw all three Westminster parties to Northern Ireland similarly failed to convince.[180]: 496–502  Its president, Robert McCartney did briefly hold together five anti-devolution UK Unionist Party MLAs in the 1998 Assembly.

The 2003 Labour Party Conference accepted legal advice that the party could not continue to exclude Northern Ireland residents from party membership.[183] The National Executive Committee, however, maintains a ban on the Labour Party in Northern Ireland contesting elections. Support for the SDLP continues to be party policy.[184]

In July 2008, under Reg Empey, Ulster Unionists sought to restore the historic link to the Conservative Party, broken in the wake of Sunningdale. With the new Conservative leader David Cameron declaring that "the semi-detached status of Northern Ireland politics needs to end",[185] Empey announced that his party would be running candidates in upcoming Westminster elections as Ulster Conservatives and Unionists – New Force. The move triggered defections, and in 2010 election the party lost their only remaining MP, Sylvia Hermon[186] who campaigned successfully as an independent. The episode confirmed the UUP's eclipse by the Democratic Unionists, a party that mixed social and economic populism with their uncompromising unionism.[187]

Northern Ireland Conservatives have since contested elections on their own. Their 4 candidates in the 2019 Westminster election polled a total 5,433 votes.

1998 Good Friday Agreement

SDLP leader Seamus Mallon quipped that the 1998 Belfast, or Good Friday, Agreement (GFA) was "Sunningdale for slow learners".[188][189][190] This was not the view of David Trimble, with whom Mallon, as joint head of the new power-sharing Executive, shared the Office of First Minister and Deputy First Minister (OFMDFM). Trimble believed that unionism had secured much that had been denied to Faulkner 25 years before.

The Council of Ireland, that Mallon's party colleague, Hugh Logue, had referred to as "the vehicle that would trundle Unionists into a united Ireland"[191] was replaced by a North-South Ministerial Council. "Not a supra-national body", and with no "pre-cooked" agenda, the Council was accountable to the Assembly where procedural rules (the Petition of Concern)[192] allowed for cross-community consent, and hence a "unionist veto".[193]: 1155–1157 

For the first time, Dublin formally recognised the border as the limit of its jurisdiction. The Republic agreed to do what the SDLP had refused to consider in 1974,[194] to amend its Constitution to omit the territorial claim to the whole island of Ireland and concede that Irish unity could be achieved only by majority consent "democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island". The firm nationalist principle that unionists are a minority within the territory of the state was set aside.[193]: 1152 [195]

In return, however, unionists had to accept that within new framework for power-sharing there could be no escaping the need to secure republican consent. The new Executive would be formed not, as in 1974, by voluntary coalition but by the allocation ministerial posts to the Assembly parties on a proportional basis. This d'Hondt method ensured that unionists would find themselves sitting at the Executive table with those they had persistently labelled IRA-Sinn Féin. In 1998 Sinn Féin, who had been gaining on the SDLP since the eighties, had 18 Assembly seats (to 26 for the SDLP) securing them two of the ten Executive departments.

Unionists were concerned that this sharing of office was based on a principle that "rendered dangerously incoherent" the UK government's position in relation to the Union.[196] The Agreement insists on a symmetry between unionism and nationalism, the two "designations" it privileges over "others" through the procedural rules of the new Assembly. Either can insist (through a Petition of Concern) on decision by parallel consent, and they nominate the First and Deputy First Ministers which, despite the distinction in title, are a joint office. "Parity of esteem" is accorded to two diametrically opposed aspirations: one to support and uphold the state, the other to renounce and subvert the state in favour of another. The UK government may have deflected the republican demand that it be a persuader for Irish unity, but at the cost, in the unionist view, of maintaining neutrality with regard to future of Northern Ireland.[197]

In the UK's acceptance of Irish unity by consent was not new. It had been there in 1973 at Sunningdale, in the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 and again in the 1993 Downing Street Declaration in which London had disclaimed any "selfish strategic or economic interest" in the matter.[198] Unionists were nonetheless discomforted by the republican claim that the 1998 Agreement had, in the words of Gerry Adams, "dealt the union a severe blow": "there was now no absolute commitment, no raft of parliamentary acts to back up an absolute claim, only an agreement to stay until the majority decided otherwise".[199]

In the May 1998 referendum on the Good Friday Agreement, on a turnout of 81%, 71.1% voted in favour. (A simultaneous referendum held in the Republic of Ireland on a 56% turnout produced a majority in favour of 94.4%). The best estimates indicated that all but 3 or 4% of Catholics/Nationalists voted Yes, but that almost half of Protestants/Unionists (between 47 and 49%) stood with the DUP and voted No.[200]

Chief among the DUP's objections was neither the North-South Ministerial Council, although that remained under suspicion, nor the principle of power-sharing as such. When the new Executive was formed, the DUP matched Sinn Féin in taking two ministerial seats. The issue was the continuation of the IRA as an armed and active organisation: the republicans were at the table while retaining, at readiness, the capacity for terrorist action further bolstered by the release of republican prisoners.[201] In an agreement that called parties to use their influence with paramilitaries to achieve disarmament, there was no effective sanction. Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams were free to insist that the IRA took their own counsel.[202]

In October 2002, at a time the IRA had finally agreed but not yet complied with a process for decommissioning their arms, a police raid on Sinn Féin's offices at Stormont suggested that the organisation was still active and collecting intelligence. Trimble led the UUP out of the Executive and the Assembly was suspended. (No charges were brought as a result of the raid at the centre of which was a Sinn Féin staffer, Denis Donaldson, later exposed as a government informer, and a public inquiry was ruled not in the public interest).[203]

Democratic Unionists enter government with Sinn Féin

In October 2006 the DUP and Sinn Féin found an accommodation in the St Andrews Agreement, paving the way for Ian Paisley and Martin McGuinness to be nominated as First, and Deputy First, Ministers by a restored Assembly. For the UUP's new leader Reg Empey the breakthrough was merely the GFA "for slow learners". But while he acknowledged compromises, Paisley argued that Northern Ireland was "turning a corner". The IRA had disarmed, and from Sinn Féin support had been won "for all the institutions of policing". Northern Ireland had "come to a time of peace".[204]

After thirteen months in office Paisley was replaced as First Minister of Northern Ireland by his long-time DUP deputy Peter Robinson[205][206] Robinson, and Arlene Foster who followed him in office from January 2016, had colder relationships than had Paisley with McGuinness and with his party colleagues and these eventually broke down. Citing "DUP's arrogance" in relation to a range of issues, including management of a financial scandal, in January 2017 McGuinness resigned. Sinn Féin refused to nominate a successor, without whom the devolved institutions were unworkable. Assembly elections followed on 2 March 2017. For the first time in the history of Northern Ireland as a political entity, with 45 of 90 seats unionists failed to secure an overall majority in a parliament of the region.

It was not until January 2020 that a deal was brokered (New Decade, New Approach) to restore Assembly, and to persuade Sinn Féin to nominate their new leader in the North Michelle O'Neill as McGuinness's successor.[207]

The withdrawal of support within the DUP for Paisley's newly conciliatory leadership was not marked by a lasting split over the DUP decision to go into an Executive with Sinn Féin. In the Assembly, Paisley's former lieutenant, Jim Allister has remained a lone Traditional Unionist Voice protesting an "enforced coalition" that "holds at the heart of government" those determined to subvert the state.[208]

Unionism as a minority bloc

Unionist demographics

Detail from 2015 Sinn Féin election flyer, North Belfast

Asked to account for the 2019 loss to Sinn Féin's John Finucane of North Belfast, a seat her deputy Nigel Dodds had held for nineteen years and which never previously returned a nationalist MP, Arlene Foster replied "The demography just wasn't there. We worked very hard to get the vote out... but the demography was against us".[209] A Sinn Féin election flyer used in the previous 2015 run against Dodds advertised the changed ratio of Catholics to Protestants in the constituency (46.94 per cent to 45.67 per cent). It had a simple message for Catholic voters, "Make the change".[210]

Demography, in this sense, has been a long term concern for unionists. The proportion of people across Northern Ireland identifying as Protestant, or raised Protestant, has fallen from 60% in the 1960s to 48%, while those raised Catholic has increased from 35 to 45%. Only two of the six counties, Antrim and Down, now have "significant Protestant majorities", and only one – Lisburn – of its five official cities. A majority Protestant Northern Ireland "is now restricted to the suburban area surrounding Belfast".[211][212] Unionist representation has declined. The combined unionist vote, trailing below 50% in elections since 2014, fell to a new low of just over 43% in the 2019 and 2024 Westminster polls.[213]

Unionism losing, however, has not necessarily meant nationalism winning: overall there has been "no comparable increase in the nationalist vote mirroring the decline in the unionist bloc".[214] Despite symbolic triumphs over unionism—returning the larger number of Westminster MPs in 2019, and Sinn Féin as the largest party to Stormont in 2022—at 40% the combined nationalist vote remained below the 42% secured in 2005.[213]

Surveys suggest that more people than ever in Northern Ireland, 50%, say they are neither unionist nor nationalist. The electoral impact of eschewing "tribal labels" (upwards of 17% also refuse a religious designation) is limited since those who do so are younger and less likely to turnout in Northern Ireland's still largely polarised elections.[215] It is still the case that few Protestants vote for nationalists, and few Catholics for unionists.[216] But they will vote for others, for parties that decline to make an issue of Northern Ireland's constitutional status.

The principal other party has been the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland. In 2019, Alliance more than doubled its vote from 7.1% to 18.5% in the Northern-Ireland wide May European elections and from 7.9% to 16.8% in the December Westminster election. Competing in the 2022 Assembly election with the full range of local parties, Alliance secured 13.5% of first-preference votes and, with vote transfers, close to a fifth of Assembly seats.

According to exit polling in the 2019 Westminster election, the Alliance surge drew both on past unionist and on past nationalist voters. In the Westminster election, 18% of Alliance's new backers said they voted DUP at the previous contest and 3% for the UUP. 12% had voted for Sinn Féin, and 5% for the-SDLP. The party meanwhile gained a quarter of all non-voters from two years earlier.[217] Alliance is neutral on the constitutional issue, but a January 2020 survey indicates that in a border poll, post-Brexit, twice as many of its voters (47%) would opt for Irish unity as for remaining in the United Kingdom (22%).[218]

Since O'Neill, who in the last Stormont parliamentary election personally canvassed Catholic households,[219] there have been calls within unionism for it to break out of its Protestant base. When he was DUP leader, Peter Robinson spoke of not being "prepared to write off over 40 per cent of our population as being out of reach".[220] Surveys had been suggesting that in a border poll between a quarter and a third of Catholics might vote for the Northern Ireland to remain in the UK.[221] While anti-partition sentiment has strengthened post-Brexit,[222] there may be a significant number of Catholics who meet the standard of "functional unionists": voters whose "rejection of the unionist label is more to do with the brand image of unionism than with their constitutional preferences".[223] It remains the case that only one half of one percent of DUP and UUP members identify as Catholics: a handful of individuals.[224][225]

Defence of unionist culture

The cross of St. Patrick superimposed on the Scottish Saltire with a six-county star, Red Hand of Ulster and no crown: the "Ulster national flag" variously employed by Loyalist groups to represent an independent, or distinctly Ulster-Scot, Northern-Ireland identity.[226]

In disclaiming any "selfish or strategic" British interest, the 1994 Downing Street Declaration, had effectively ruled that "there could no such thing as disloyalty within Northern Ireland". The conflicting ambitions of nationalism and unionism were of "equal validity".[227]

Unionists accused nationalists taking this new "parity of esteem" as a license for a policy of "unrelenting harassment".[8]: 63  Trimble spoke of having to reverse an "insidious erosion of the culture and ethnic national identity of the British people of Ulster" systematically pursued by "the Provisional IRA and its fellow travellers";[228] and Robinson of a "fightback" against the "unrelenting Sinn Féin campaign to promote Irish culture and target British structures and symbols".[229]

Unionists alleged a "pan-nationalist [SDLP-Sinn Féin] front" was manipulating public order powers to ban, re-route or otherwise regulate time-hallowed Orange marches. For Trimble the flashpoint was the conflict at Drumcree (1995–2001),[230] for Robinson and Arlene Foster it was the similarly drawn-out Ardoyne shopfronts standoff (2013-2016) in north Belfast. A decision of the once firmly unionist Belfast City Council in 2012 to reduce the number of days the Union Flag was flown from City Hall,[231] was also interpreted as a step in a wider "cultural war" against "Britishness", triggering protest.[232]

The greater issue in inter-party talks proved to be language rights. On Good Friday, 10 April 1998, Prime Minister Tony Blair was surprised by a last minute demand for recognition of a "Scottish dialect spoken in some parts of Northern Ireland" that Unionists regarded their "equivalent to the Irish language".[233] In insisting on parity for Ulster Scots or Ullans, Trimble believed he was taking this "cultural war" onto the nationalists' own ground. Unionists argued that nationalists had "weaponised" the Irish language issue as "a tool" with which to "batter the Protestant people".[234]

The DUP's first Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure, Nelson McCausland, argued that privileging Irish through a language act would be an exercise in "ethnic territorial marking".[235] His decision, and that of his party colleagues, to resist Sinn Féin's demand for a stand-alone Irish Language Act, in part by insisting on compensating provisions for Ulster Scots, became one of the principal, publicly acknowledged, sticking points in the three years of on and off again negotiations required to restore the power-sharing executive in 2020.[236] Other unionists object. The "positive ethnic, religious or national special pleading" implicit in the parading, flags and language counteroffensive,[172]: 14  they argue, risks defining unionist culture as "subaltern and therefore ripe for absorption into Irish culture as a 'cherished' minor tradition".[8]: 60 

The 2020 New Decade New Approach agreement promised both the Irish language and Ulster-Scots new Commissioners to "support" and "enhance" their development[237] but did not accord them equal legal status.[238] While the UK government recognised Scots and Ulster Scots as a regional or minority language for the "encouragement" and "facilitation" purposes of Part II of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages,[239] for Irish it assumed the more stringent Part III obligations in respect of education, media and administration. Yet New Decade, New Approach did take a step with Ulster Scots that it does not take with Irish speakers: the UK government pledged to "recognise Ulster Scots as a national minority under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities".[237]: 49  This is a second Council of Europe treaty whose provisions were previously applied in Northern Ireland to non-white groups, to Irish Travellers and to the Roma.

Insofar as unionists are persuaded to identity with Ulster Scots and employ it as a marker (as the reference to "the Ulster Scots / Ulster British tradition in Northern Ireland" in New Decade, New Approach might imply)[237]: 34  they define themselves, "in effect", as a scheduled ethnicity.[240]

In 2022, over the objections of unionists who in protest against the Northern Ireland Protocol continued to veto a return to devolved power-sharing, the legislation foreseen in New Decade New Approach was enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act[241] received royal assent on December 6.[242][243]

Brexit and the Northern Ireland Protocol

Unionist protest against the Northern Ireland Protocol, Sady Row, Belfast, 2021.
Protesting the Northern Ireland Protocol, Sandy Row, Belfast, 2021.

While the UUP decided that "on balance Northern Ireland is better remaining in the European Union",[244] in the run-up to the UK's June 2016 referendum on the future of UK membership in the European Union, the larger DUP, with an equal claim to be a pro-business party with a strong farming support base, campaigned actively for Leave.[245] At a time when Sinn Féin was citing the cross-border, all-island, economic activity facilitated and supported by the EU as a further argument for Irish unity,[246][247] there was a sense that, among other benefits, Brexit would restore a measure of "distance" from Dublin.[248][249]

When, by a margin of 12% Northern Ireland voted Remain (with Scotland, the only UK region to do so outside London),[250] the DUP was left to argue that Leave had been the UK-wide decision,[250] and could be honoured only by the UK "leaving the European Union as a whole", its "territorial and economic integrity" intact.[251]

The party's ten MPs enabled Theresa May's Conservative Government to remain in power; following the hung parliament that resulted from the snap general election in June 2017.[252] But, to their dismay, at year's end May returned from Brussels with a proposal that Northern Ireland, alone, continue with the Republic of Ireland under a common EU's trade regime.[253]

Coalescing behind the Dublin government, the EU 27 had ruled that the interests of the Northern Ireland peace process are "paramount". To avoid the "step backwards" that would be represented, "symbolically and psychologically", by a "hardening" of the Irish border, Northern Ireland should remain in regulatory alignment with the European Single Market and behind the Customs Union frontier. That would allow necessary physical checks on goods to be removed to air and sea points of entry.[254]

Arlene Foster protested that the hazards of a no-deal Brexit would be better than this "annexation of Northern Ireland away from the rest of the United Kingdom".[255] She was supported by prominent Brexiteers. Boris Johnson told the 2018 DUP conference that the EU had made Northern Ireland "their indispensable bargaining chip": "if we wanted to do free trade deals, if we wanted to cut tariffs or vary our regulation the we would have to leave Northern Ireland behind as a semi-colony of the EU . . . damaging the fabric of the Union with regulatory checks . . . down the Irish Sea". It would be an "historic mistake".[256] Privately, Johnson complained that the attention to Northern Ireland sensitivities was a case of "the tail wagging the dog"[257] Within three months of replacing May in July 2019, he had amended her withdrawal agreement, stripping the Irish Backstop not of its essential provisions—Northern Ireland would remain a customs point of entry for the EU—but rather dropping the suggestion that, to avoid treating Northern Ireland differently, the UK as a whole might accept an interim regulatory and customs partnership.[258]

Unionists acknowledged the sense of "betrayal".[259][260] Johnson's Northern Ireland Protocol was "the worst of all worlds".[261] Citing free-trade provisions of the Act of Union, past and present unionist leaders pressed for a judicial review. When eventually rendered in June 2021, the ruling of the Belfast High Court was that while there indeed was a conflict with the Act, in approving the implicitly amending Protocol Parliament was sovereign.[262]

With the Prime Minister secure in his "Get-Brexit-Done" mandate from the 2019 UK general election, the DUP's last line of defence was themselves to appeal to the international and constitutional status of the Good Friday Agreement. Johnson had made one apparent concession: every four years the Northern Ireland Assembly would be called upon to renew the region's new double-border trade arrangements. However, this was to be by simple majority vote. The decision could not be subject to a Petition of Concern, and thus to the prospect of a unionist veto.[263] For the DUP this was a violation of the Good Friday Agreement under which, they argued, any proposal to "diminish the powers of the NI assembly" or to "treat NI differently to the rest of UK" had to be on the basis of parallel unionist-nationalist majorities.[264] Citing " the total disregard of this principle", in February 2022 the new DUP leader, Jeffrey Donaldson, withdrew Paul Givan as First Minister, collapsing the Assembly and executive.[265]

Two years later, on the strength of the government's assurances that the Protocol (and the ancillary 2022 Windsor Framework) would be implemented without routine checks on "internal" trade with Great Britain and would be accompanied by measures to promote East-West (i.e. British) as opposed to North-South (EU/Irish) movements of goods and services, the DUP agreed to a restoration of the Assembly.[266] On 3 February, Michelle O'Neill (Sinn Féin) and Emma Little-Pengelly (DUP) were sworn in as First, and Deputy First, Ministers of a Northern Ireland executive in which, with 3 of 8 ministerial departments, unionists are for the first time a minority.[267]

Unionist political parties

A flowchart illustrating all the political parties that have existed throughout the history of Northern Ireland and leading up to its formation (1889 onwards). Unionist parties are in orange.

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