Мавританская архитектура

Мавританская архитектура — это стиль в исламской архитектуре , который развивался в западном исламском мире , включая Аль-Андалус (на Пиренейском полуострове ) и то, что сейчас является Марокко , Алжиром и Тунисом (часть Магриба ). ^[1]^[2] Научные ссылки по исламской архитектуре часто ссылаются на эту архитектурную традицию в таких терминах, как архитектура исламского Запада ^[2]^[1]^[3] или архитектура западных исламских земель. ^[4]^[5]^[3] Использование термина «мавританская» происходит от исторического западноевропейского обозначения мусульманских жителей этих регионов как « мавры ». ^[6]^[7]^[a] Некоторые ссылки по исламскому искусству и архитектуре считают этот термин устаревшим или оспариваемым. ^[11]^[12]

Эта архитектурная традиция объединила влияния доисламской римской , византийской и вестготской архитектуры, ^[6]^[13]^[2] текущих художественных течений на исламском Ближнем Востоке , ^[4]^[13]^[6] и североафриканских берберских традиций. ^[1]^[14]^[6] Основные центры художественного развития включали главные столицы империй и мусульманских государств в истории региона, такие как Кордова , Кайруан , Фес , Марракеш , Севилья , Гранада и Тлемсен . В то время как Кайруан и Кордова были одними из самых важных центров в течение 8-го по 10-й века, ^[1]^[15] более широкий региональный стиль был позже синтезирован и распространен по Магрибу и Аль-Андалусу благодаря империям Альморавидов и Альмохадов , которые объединяли оба региона на протяжении большей части 11-го по 13-й века. ^[1]^[15]^[14]^[16] В пределах этого более обширного региона сохранялась определенная разница между архитектурными стилями в более восточном регионе Ифрикия (примерно современный Тунис) и более специфическим стилем в западном Магрибе (современное Марокко и западный Алжир) и Аль-Андалусе, иногда называемым испано-мавританским или испано-магрибским . ^[1]^{: viii–ix}^[4]^{: 121, 155}

Этот архитектурный стиль стал охватывать такие отличительные черты, как подковообразная арка , сады риад (дворы с симметричным четырехчастным разделением), квадратные ( кубовидные ) минареты и сложные геометрические и арабесковые мотивы из дерева, штукатурки и плитки (особенно зеллидж ). ^[1]^[6]^[17]^[4] Со временем он все больше использовал поверхностный декор, сохраняя при этом традицию сосредоточения внимания на внутренней части зданий, а не на их внешней стороне. В отличие от исламской архитектуры на востоке, западная исламская архитектура не использовала в значительной степени большие своды и купола . ^[2]^{: 11}

Даже когда мусульманское правление на Пиренейском полуострове закончилось , традиции мавританской архитектуры продолжились в Северной Африке, а также в стиле мудехар в Испании, который адаптировал мавританские методы и проекты для христианских покровителей. ^[2]^[18] В Алжире и Тунисе местные стили подверглись османскому влиянию и другим изменениям с 16-го века, в то время как в Марокко более ранний испано-магрибский стиль в значительной степени сохранился до наших дней с меньшим количеством внешних влияний. ^[2]^{: 243–245} В 19-м веке и позже мавританский стиль часто имитировался в форме неомавританской или мавританской архитектуры Возрождения в Европе и Америке, ^[19] включая неомудехар в Испании. ^[20] Некоторые научные источники связывают термин «мавританский» или «мавританский стиль» более узко с этой тенденцией 19-го века в западной архитектуре. ^[21]^[11]

История

Древнейшие исламские памятники (VIII–IX вв.)

В VII веке регион Северной Африки постепенно интегрировался в формирующийся мусульманский мир во время ранних арабо-мусульманских завоеваний . Территория Ифрикии (примерно современный Тунис ) и ее недавно основанная столица Кайруан (также транслитерируется как «Кайраван») стали ранним центром исламской культуры региона. ^[22] Согласно традиции, Великая мечеть Кайруана была основана здесь Укбой ибн Нафи в 670 году, хотя нынешняя структура датируется более поздним периодом. ^[1]^[23]^[2]^{: 28}

Аль-Андалус

В 711 году большая часть Пиренейского полуострова , входившего в то время в состав Вестготского королевства , была завоевана мусульманской (в основном берберской ) армией под предводительством Тарика ибн Зияда и стала известна как Аль-Андалус . Город Кордова стал его столицей. В 756 году Абд ар-Рахман I основал здесь независимый Кордовский эмират , а в 785 году он также основал Большую мечеть Кордовы , один из важнейших архитектурных памятников западного исламского мира. Мечеть была примечательна своим огромным гипостильным залом, состоящим из рядов колонн, соединенных двойными ярусами арок (включая подковообразные арки на нижнем ярусе), выполненных из чередующегося красного кирпича и светлого камня. Впоследствии мечеть была расширена Абд ар-Рахманом II в 836 году, который сохранил первоначальный дизайн, увеличив ее размеры. Мечеть была снова украшена новыми чертами его преемниками Мухаммедом , Аль-Мундиром и Абдаллой . Одни из западных ворот мечети, известные как Баб аль-Вузара (сегодня известные как Пуэрта де Сан-Эстебан ), датируются этим периодом и часто отмечаются как важный прототип более поздних мавританских архитектурных форм и мотивов: подковообразная арка имеет клинья , которые чередуются по цвету и декору, а арка помещена внутрь декоративной прямоугольной рамы ( альфиз ). ^[1]^[6]^[24]^[2] Влияние древней классической архитектуры сильно ощущается в исламской архитектуре в этот ранний период Эмиратов полуострова. ^[6]^{: 48} Наиболее очевидным примером этого было повторное использование колонн и капителей более ранних периодов при первоначальном строительстве Большой мечети Кордовы. Когда новые, богато вырезанные капители были изготовлены для расширения мечети в 9 веке, они подражали форме классических коринфских капителей. ^[4]^{: 88}

В Севилье мечеть Ибн Адаббаса была основана в 829 году и считалась вторым старейшим мусульманским зданием в Испании (после Большой мечети Кордовы), пока не была снесена в 1671 году. ^[b] Эта мечеть имела гипостильную форму, состоящую из одиннадцати проходов, разделенных рядами кирпичных арок, поддерживаемых мраморными колоннами. ^[26]^[25]^{: 144–145} Из краткого мусульманского присутствия на юге Франции в VIII веке было найдено всего несколько погребальных стел . ^[27] В 1952 году французский археолог Жан Лакам провел раскопки Cour de la Madeleine («Двор Мадлен») в церкви Сен-Рустик [fr] в Нарбонне , где он обнаружил останки, которые он интерпретировал как остатки мечети времен мусульманской оккупации Нарбонны в VIII веке. ^[c]^[27]^[28]

Ифрикия

В Ифрикии Рибат Сусса и Рибат Монастира — это два военных сооружения, датируемых концом VIII века, что делает их старейшими сохранившимися памятниками исламской эпохи в Тунисе, хотя и подвергшимися более поздним изменениям. ^[2]^{: 25} Рибат Сусса содержит небольшую сводчатую комнату с михрабом (нишей, символизирующей направление молитвы ), которая является старейшей сохранившейся мечетью или молитвенным залом в Северной Африке. Другая небольшая комната в крепости, расположенная над главными воротами, покрыта куполом, поддерживаемым на сквичах , что является старейшим примером этой строительной техники в исламской Северной Африке. ^[2]^{: 25} Высокая цилиндрическая башня внутри рибата, скорее всего, задуманная как маяк , имеет мраморную табличку над входом с надписью имени Зиядата Аллаха I и датой 821, которая, в свою очередь, является старейшей монументальной надписью исламской эпохи, сохранившейся в Тунисе. ^[d]^[2]^{: 25–26}

В IX веке Ифрикия находилась под контролем династии Аглабидов , которые номинально правили от имени халифов Аббасидов в Багдаде, но были фактически автономны. Аглабиды были крупными строителями и возвели многие из старейших исламских религиозных зданий Туниса и практических инфраструктурных работ, таких как водохранилища Аглабидов в Кайруане. Большая часть их архитектуры, даже их мечети, имели тяжелый и почти крепостной вид, но они, тем не менее, оставили влиятельное художественное наследие. ^[1]^{: 9–61}^[2]^{: 21–41}^[23]

Одним из важнейших памятников Аглабидов является Великая мечеть Кайруана, которая была полностью перестроена в 836 году эмиром Зиядат-Аллахом I (годы правления 817–838), хотя позже были сделаны различные дополнения и ремонты, что усложняет хронологию ее строительства. ^[2]^{: 28–32} Ее дизайн был важной точкой отсчета в архитектурной истории мечетей в Магрибе. ^[29]^{: 273} Мечеть имеет огромный прямоугольный двор, большой гипостильный молитвенный зал и толстый трехэтажный минарет (башня, с которой раздается призыв к молитве ). Планировка молитвенного зала отражает раннее использование так называемого «Т-образного плана», в котором центральный неф гипостильного зала (тот, что ведет к михрабу) и поперечный проход, идущий вдоль стены киблы , шире других проходов и пересекаются перед михрабом. ^[4] Михраб молитвенного зала является одним из старейших примеров такого рода, богато украшенный мраморными панелями, вырезанными в рельефных растительных мотивах, и керамической плиткой с надглазурной и люстровой отделкой . ^[2]^{: 30}^[30] Рядом с михрабом находится старейший сохранившийся минбар (кафедра) в мире, сделанный из богато резных панелей из тикового дерева . Как резные панели минбара, так и керамическая плитка михраба, как полагают, импортированы из Аббасидского Ирака . ^[2]^{: 30–32} Элегантный купол перед михрабом с искусно украшенным барабаном является одним из архитектурных шедевров этого периода. Его легкая конструкция контрастирует с громоздкой структурой окружающей мечети, а барабан купола искусно украшен фризом из глухих арок , вырезанными в форме ракушек и различными мотивами, вырезанными в виде барельефа. ^[2]^{: 30–32} Минарет мечети является старейшим сохранившимся в Северной Африке и западном исламском мире. ^[31]^[32] Его форма была создана по образцу более старых римских маяков в Северной Африке, в частности, вполне возможно, маяка в Салакте (Суллектуме). ^[2]^{: 32}^[33]^[34]^{: 138}

Великая мечеть аз-Зайтуна в Тунисе , которая была основана ранее около 698 года, обязана своим общим нынешним видом реконструкции во время правления эмира Аглабидов Абу Ибрагима Ахмада (годы правления 856–863). Ее планировка очень похожа на Великую мечеть Кайруана. ^[23]^[2]^{: 38–41} Две другие соборные мечети в Тунисе, Великая мечеть Сфакса (около 849 года) и Великая мечеть Сусса (851 год), также были построены Аглабидами, но имеют другую форму. ^[2]^{: 36–37} Небольшая мечеть Ибн Хайруна в Кайруане (также известная как «Мечеть трех дверей»), датируемая 866 годом и заказанная частным покровителем, обладает тем, что некоторые считают самым старым украшенным внешним фасадом в исламской архитектуре , с резными куфическими надписями и растительными мотивами . ^[23] Помимо ее известнякового фасада, большая часть мечети была перестроена в более поздний период. ^[2]^{: 33–34} Еще одна небольшая местная мечеть этого периода — мечеть Бу Фатата в Сусе, датируемая правлением Абу Икаля аль-Аглаба ибн Ибрагима (годы правления 838–841), в которой есть гипостильный молитвенный зал, перед которым находится внешний портик из трех арок. Мечети Ибн Хайрун и Бу Фатата являются ранними примерами мечети «девятипролетной», что означает, что внутренняя часть имеет квадратный план, разделенный на девять меньших квадратных пространств, обычно сводчатых, расположенных в три ряда по три. Этот тип планировки позже встречается в Аль-Андалусе и даже в Средней Азии, что позволяет предположить, что это может быть дизайн, который был широко распространен мусульманскими паломниками, возвращавшимися из Мекки. ^[2]^{: 33–34}

Западный и центральный Магриб

Дальше на западе династия Рустамидов , которые были ибади-хариджитами и не признавали аббасидских халифов, правила большей частью центрального Магриба. Их столица, Тахарт (около современного Тиарета ), была основана во второй половине VIII века Абд аль-Рахманом ибн Рустамом и была занята сезонно ее полукочевыми жителями. Она была разрушена Фатимидами в 909 году, но ее остатки были раскопаны в XX веке. ^[2]^{: 41} Город был окружен укрепленной стеной с вкраплениями квадратных башен. Он содержал гипостильную мечеть, укрепленную цитадель на возвышенности и дворцовое сооружение с большим двором, похожим на дизайн традиционных домов. ^[2]^{: 41}^[13]^{: 13–14}

Исламизация современного Марокко, самой западной территории мусульманского мира (известной как Магриб аль-Акса), стала более определенной с приходом династии Идрисидов в конце VIII века. ^[22] Идрисиды основали город Фес , который стал их столицей и главным политическим и культурным центром раннего исламского Марокко. ^[35]^[36] В этот ранний период Марокко также приняло волны иммигрантов из Туниса и аль-Андалуса, которые принесли культурное и художественное влияние из своих родных стран. ^[22]^[37] Известные мечети Каравийин и Андалусийин в Фесе, основанные в IX веке, были построены в форме гипостиля, но сами сооружения были перестроены во время более поздних расширений. ^[1]^{: 197–198, 211–212}^[38]^{: 9–11}^[39]^{: 9}^[2]^{: 42} Планировка двух других мечетей этой эпохи, мечети Агадира и мечети Агмата , известна благодаря современным археологическим исследованиям. Мечеть Агадира была основана в 790 году Идрисом I на месте бывшего римского города Померия (современный Тлемсен в Алжире), в то время как мечеть Агмата, города примерно в 30 км к юго-востоку от современного Марракеша, была основана в 859 году Ваттасом ибн Кардусом. Обе они также были гипостильными мечетями с молитвенными залами, поддерживаемыми рядами колонн. ^[2]^{: 42–43}

Соперничающие халифаты (10 век)

Кордовский халифат

В X веке Абд ар-Рахман III объявил новый халифат в Аль-Андалусе и ознаменовал пик могущества Андалусии в регионе. Он ознаменовал эту политическую эволюцию созданием огромного и роскошного города-дворца под названием Мадинат аль-Захра , расположенного недалеко от Кордовы на нижних склонах Сьерра-Морены . Его строительство началось в 936 году и продолжалось в течение десятилетий во время его правления и правления его сына. ^[6]^{: 61–68} Позднее это место было разрушено и разграблено после окончания халифата, но его останки были раскопаны с 1911 года. ^[40] Место охватывает обширную территорию, разделенную на три террасных уровня: на самом высоком уровне находились дворцы халифа, на уровне ниже находились официальные здания и жилища высокопоставленных чиновников, а на самом нижнем и самом большом уровне жили простые рабочие, ремесленники и солдаты. ^[6]^{: 63} Самое роскошное здание, обнаруженное до сих пор, известное сегодня как Salón Rico («Богатый зал» на испанском языке), — это приемный зал Абд ар-Рахмана III, который выходит на утопленные сады и отражающие бассейны на террасе с видом на ландшафт внизу. Его главный зал представляет собой прямоугольное пространство, разделенное на три нефа двумя рядами подковообразных арок, и почти каждая поверхность стены покрыта исключительным резным каменным декором с геометрическими и древовидными мотивами. ^[40]^[24]^{: 33–34} В то время как садовые поместья были построены правителями Омейядов и элитой Кордовы до этого, сады Мадинат аль-Захра являются старейшим археологически задокументированным примером геометрически разделенных садов (относящихся к типу чахар-баг ) в западном исламском мире, одним из старейших примеров в исламском мире в целом и старейшим известным примером объединения этого типа сада с системой террас. ^[41]^{: 45–47}^[13]^{: 69–70}

Андалусское украшение и мастерство этого периода стали более стандартизированными. Хотя классические мотивы все еще присутствуют, они интерпретируются более свободно и смешиваются с влияниями с Ближнего Востока, включая древние сасанидские или более поздние аббасидские мотивы . Это видно, например, по стилизованным растительным мотивам, замысловато вырезанным на известняковых панелях на стенах в Мадинат аль-Захра. ^[4]^{: 121–124}^[6]^{: 103–104} Также в Мадинат аль-Захра был формализован «халифский» стиль подковообразной арки: изгиб арки образует около трех четвертей круга, клинья выровнены с импостами, а не с центром арки, изгиб экстрадоса «ходульный» по отношению к изгибу интрадоса, и арка установлена внутри декоративного альфиза . ^[24]^{: 33}^[2]^{: 57} Вернувшись в саму Кордову, Абд ар-Рахман III также расширил двор ( сахн ) Большой мечети и построил ее первый настоящий минарет. Минарет, кубической формы высотой около 47 метров (154 фута), стал образцом для последующих минаретов в регионе. ^[2]^{: 61–63} Образованный сын и преемник Абд ар-Рахмана III, аль-Хакам II , еще больше расширил молитвенный зал мечети, начиная с 962 года. Он наделил его некоторыми из его самых значительных архитектурных расцветов и нововведений, которые включали максуру, окруженную пересекающимися многолепестковыми арками , четыре богато украшенных ребристых купола и богато украшенный михраб с золотой мозаикой в византийском стиле . ^[1]^{: 139–151}^[6]^{: 70–86}

Гораздо меньшее, но заметное произведение позднего периода халифата — мечеть Баб аль-Мардум (ныне известная как церковь Сан-Кристо-де-ла-Лус) в Толедо , имеющая девятипролетную планировку, покрытую множеством ребристых куполов и внешним фасадом с арабской надписью, вырезанной на кирпиче. Другие памятники периода халифата в Аль-Андалусе включают некоторые из старых городских ворот Толедо (например, Пуэрта-де-Бисагра ), бывшую мечеть (а позднее монастырь) Альмонастер-ла-Реал , замок Тарифа , замок Бургалимар , халифские бани Кордовы и, возможно, бани Хаэна . ^[6]^{: 88–103}

В X веке большая часть северного Марокко также попала непосредственно в сферу влияния халифата Омейядов в Кордове, с конкуренцией со стороны халифата Фатимидов на востоке. ^[22] Ранний вклад в марокканскую архитектуру этого периода включает расширение мечетей Карауин и Андалусийин в Фесе и добавление к ним минаретов с квадратными стволами, выполненное под покровительством Абд ар-Рахмана III и по примеру минарета, который он построил для Большой мечети Кордовы. ^[1]^{: 199, 212}

Фатимидский халифат

В Ифрикии Фатимиды также активно строили, особенно с созданием новой укрепленной столицы на побережье, Махдии . Строительство началось в 916 году, и новый город был официально открыт 20 февраля 921 года, хотя некоторое строительство продолжалось. ^[2]^{: 47} В дополнение к своим мощным укрепленным стенам, город включал дворцы Фатимидов, искусственную гавань и соборную мечеть (Великую мечеть Махдии ). Большая часть этого не сохранилась до наших дней. Фрагменты мозаичных полов из дворцов были обнаружены в ходе современных раскопок. ^[2]^{: 48} Мечеть является одним из наиболее хорошо сохранившихся памятников Фатимидов в Магрибе , хотя она также была сильно повреждена с течением времени и была в значительной степени реконструирована археологами в 1960-х годах. ^[2]^{: 49} Она состоит из гипостильного молитвенного зала с примерно квадратным двором. Первоначальный главный вход мечети, монументальный портал, выступающий из стены, был относительно необычным в то время и, возможно, был вдохновлен древнеримскими триумфальными арками . Другой необычной особенностью было отсутствие минарета, что, возможно, отражало раннее неприятие Фатимидами таких сооружений как ненужных новшеств. ^[2]^{: 49–51}

В 946 году Фатимиды начали строительство новой столицы, аль-Мансурийя , недалеко от Кайруана. В отличие от Махдии, которая была построена с учетом более стратегических и оборонительных соображений, эта столица была построена как демонстрация власти и богатства. Город имел круглую планировку с дворцом халифа в центре, возможно, по образцу Круглого города Багада . Хотя были обнаружены лишь редкие остатки города, похоже, что он отличался от более ранних дворцов Фатимидов обширным использованием воды. Одно из раскопанных сооружений имело обширный прямоугольный двор, в основном занятый большим бассейном. Такое использование воды напоминало более ранние дворцы Аглабидов в близлежащей Раккаде и современные дворцы в Мадинат аль-Захре, но не более старые дворцы Омейядов и Аббасидов дальше на восток, что предполагает, что демонстрации гидротехнических сооружений развивались как символы власти в Магрибе и аль-Андалусе. ^[2]^{: 58–61}

Политическая раздробленность (11 век)

TheТайфасв Аль-Андалусе

Распад Кордовского халифата в начале XI века положил начало первому периоду Таифы , в течение которого Аль-Андалус был политически раздроблен на ряд более мелких королевств. Распад центральной власти привел к разрушению и разграблению Мадинат аль-Захры. ^[42] Несмотря на этот политический упадок, культура эмиратов Таифы была яркой и продуктивной, а архитектурные формы периода Халифата продолжали развиваться. Множество важных дворцов или крепостей в разных городах были начаты или расширены местными династиями. Алькасаба в Малаге , начатая в начале XI века и впоследствии измененная, является одним из наиболее важных примеров. Самая ранняя часть дворца отличается подковообразными арками с резным растительным декором, который, по-видимому, имитирует, с меньшей изысканностью, стиль Мадинат аль-Захры. Другая часть содержит пересекающиеся многолопастные арки, которые напоминают арки максуры аль-Хакама II в мечети Кордовы, хотя здесь они выполняют чисто декоративную, а не структурную функцию. ^[13]^{: 154}^[24]^{: 53–55} Алькасар в Севилье и Алькасаба в Альгамбре также были местом расположения более ранних крепостей или дворцов Аббадидов ( в Севилье ) и Зиридов (в Гранаде) соответственно. ^[6]^{: 127} Алькасаба в Альмерии , вместе с сохранившейся частью оборонительных стен Альмерии , датируется XI веком, хотя от дворцов, построенных внутри Алькасабы, осталось немного. ^[6]^{: 124} Баньюэло в Гранаде, еще одна историческая исламская баня , также традиционно датируется XI веком, хотя недавние исследования предполагают, что она может датироваться немного более поздним периодом, XII веком. ^[43]^[44]

Дворец Альхаферия в Сарагосе , хотя и был значительно восстановлен в наше время, является одним из самых значительных и наиболее хорошо сохранившихся образцов этого периода, построенным во второй половине XI века Бану Худ . Внутри его укрепленных стен сохранился один двор того периода, занятый бассейнами и утопленными садами и широкими прямоугольными залами, выходящими на портики с обоих концов. Арки этого двора имеют сложные пересекающиеся и смешанно-линейные конструкции и искусно вырезанные лепные украшения . Резная лепнина южного портика, охватывающая простое кирпичное ядро, особенно головокружительна и сложна, опираясь на формы простых и многолистных арок, но манипулируя ими в мотивы за пределами их обычной структурной логики. Рядом с северным залом двора, который, вероятно, был аудиенц-залом аль-Муктадира , находится необычная небольшая восьмиугольная комната с михрабом, скорее всего, личная молельня правителя. Проекты и декор дворца, по-видимому, являются дальнейшей разработкой кордовской архитектуры 10-го века, в частности расширения мечети Кордовы аль-Хакамом II, и эстетики периода Таифы , которая последовала за ней. ^[2]^{: 95–98}^[24]^{: 56–59} Остатки другого дворца в Балагере , дальше на восток в Каталонии сегодня, являются современниками Альхаферии. Фрагменты лепного декора, найденные здесь, показывают, что он был построен в очень похожем стиле. Однако они также включают редкие сохранившиеся примеры фигурной скульптуры в западном исламском архитектурном декоре, такие как резное изображение дерева, занятого птицами и гарпиями . ^[2]^{: 98}

Зириды и Хаммадиды в Северной Африке

В Северной Африке новые берберские династии, такие как Зириды, правили от имени Фатимидов, которые переместили свою базу власти в Каир в конце 10-го века. Дворец Зиридов в Ашире (недалеко от нынешнего города Кеф Лахдар в Алжире) был построен в 934 году Зири ибн Манадом во время службы у халифа Фатимидов аль-Каима . Это один из старейших дворцов в Магрибе, которые были обнаружены и раскопаны. ^[13]^{: 53} Он был построен из камня и имел тщательно разработанный симметричный план, который включал большой центральный двор и два меньших двора в каждом из боковых крыльев дворца. Некоторые ученые полагают, что этот дизайн имитировал ныне утраченные дворцы Фатимидов в Махдии. ^[2]^{: 67} Однако, будучи независимыми правителями, Зириды Ифрикии построили относительно немного грандиозных сооружений. Сообщается, что они построили новый дворец в аль-Мансурийе , бывшей столице Фатимидов около Кайруана, но археологи его не нашли. ^[13]^{: 123} В самом Кайруане Великая мечеть была восстановлена аль-Муиззом ибн Бадисом . Считается, что деревянная максура внутри мечети сегодня датируется этим временем. ^[2]^{: 87} Это самая старая максура в исламском мире, сохранившаяся in situ , и была заказана аль-Муиззом ибн Бадисом в первой половине XI века (хотя позже восстановлена). Она примечательна своей деревянной отделкой, которая включает в себя искусно вырезанную куфическую надпись, посвященную аль-Муиззу. ^[45]^[46] Куббат аль-Бахв , элегантный купол у входа в молитвенный зал мечети Зайтуна в Тунисе, датируется 991 годом и может быть приписан Аль-Мансуру ибн Булуггину . ^[2]^{: 86–87}

Хаммадиды , ответвление Зиридов, правили в центральном Магрибе (современный Алжир) в 11-м и 12-м веках. Они построили совершенно новую укрепленную столицу, известную как Калат Бани Хаммад , основанную в 1007 году. Хотя город был заброшен и разрушен в 12-м веке, современные археологи раскопали его, и это место является одной из наиболее хорошо сохранившихся средневековых исламских столиц в мире. Он содержит несколько дворцов, различные удобства и большую мечеть , в расположении, которое имеет сходство с другими городами-дворцами, такими как Мадинат аль-Захра. ^[13]^{: 125–126}^[2]^{: 88–93} Самый большой дворец, Каср аль-Бахр («Дворец моря»), был построен вокруг огромного прямоугольного водного бассейна. Архитектуру этого места сравнивали с архитектурой Фатимидов, но она имеет определенные сходства с современной архитектурой в западном Магрибе, Аль-Андалусе и арабо-нормандской Сицилии. Например, в то время как Фатимиды обычно не строили минаретов, большая мечеть Калат Бани Хаммад имеет большой квадратный минарет с переплетением и многодольным арочным декором, которые являются особенностями архитектуры в Аль-Андалусе. ^[2]^{: 88–93} На месте были обнаружены различные остатки плиточного декора, включая самое раннее известное использование глазурованной плитки в западной исламской архитектуре. ^[2]^{: 91–93} Археологи также обнаружили фрагменты штукатурки, которые были идентифицированы некоторыми как самое раннее появление мукарнас («сталактитовая» или «сотовая» скульптура) в западном исламском мире, ^[47]^[13]^{: 133} но их идентификация как настоящих мукарнас была подвергнута сомнению или отвергнута некоторыми другими учеными. ^[48]^[2]^{: 93}

Берберские империи (XI–XIII вв.)

Конец XI века ознаменовался значительным продвижением христианских королевств в мусульманский Аль-Андалус, особенно с падением Толедо перед Альфонсо VI Кастилийским в 1085 году , и подъемом крупных берберских империй, возникших в северо-западной Африке. К последним относились сначала Альморавиды ( XI–XII вв.), а затем Альмохады (XII–XIII вв.), обе из которых создали империи, простиравшиеся на большие части западной и северной Африки и захватившие оставшиеся мусульманские территории Аль-Андалуса в Европе. Обе империи имели свою столицу в Марракеше , который был основан Альморавидами во второй половине XI века. ^[49] Этот период является одним из самых формирующих этапов архитектуры в Аль-Андалусе и Магрибе, установив многие формы и мотивы, которые были усовершенствованы в последующие столетия. ^[1]^[14]^[49]^[50]

Альморавиды

Альморавиды использовали андалузских мастеров во всех своих владениях, тем самым способствуя распространению богато украшенного архитектурного стиля Аль-Андалуса в Северной Африке. ^[2]^{: 115–119}^[14]^{: 26–30} Архитектура Альморавидов ассимилировала мотивы и новшества андалузской архитектуры, такие как сложные переплетающиеся арки Большой мечети в Кордове и дворца Альхаферия в Сарагосе, но она также ввела новые орнаментальные приемы с востока, такие как мукарнас , и добавила свои собственные новшества, такие как арка-ламбрекен и использование столбов вместо колонн в мечетях. ^[14]^{: 26–30}^[51] Лепной резной декор начал появляться все чаще как часть этих композиций и станет еще более сложным в последующие периоды. ^[6]^{: 155} Таким образом, покровительство Альморавидов знаменует собой переходный период для архитектуры в регионе, подготавливая почву для будущих разработок. ^[14]^{: 30}

Некоторые из старейших и наиболее значимых сохранившихся примеров религиозной архитектуры Альморавидов, хотя и с более поздними изменениями, являются Великая мечеть Алжира (1096–1097), Великая мечеть Тлемсена (1136) и Великая мечеть Недромы (1145), все они находятся в Алжире сегодня. ^[1]^[2] Богато украшенный, полупрозрачный гипсовый купол перед михрабом Великой мечети Тлемсена, датируемый периодом правления Али ибн Юсуфа (р. 1106–1143), является одним из основных моментов этого периода. Конструкция купола прослеживает свое происхождение от более ранних ребристых куполов Аль-Андалуса и, в свою очередь, вероятно, повлияла на конструкцию подобных декоративных куполов в более поздних мечетях в Фесе и Тазе . ^[52]^[2]^{: 116}

В Марокко единственными заметными остатками религиозной архитектуры Альморавидов являются Кубба Баадийин , небольшой, но очень богато украшенный павильон для омовений в Марракеше, и расширение Альморавидами мечети Карауин в Фесе. Эти два памятника также содержат самые ранние явные примеры декора мукарнас в регионе, причем первый полный свод мукарнас появляется в центральном нефе мечети Карауин. ^[2]^{: 114–120}^[53] Дворец Альморавидов Али ибн Юсуфа в Марракеше, раскопанный в 20 веке, содержит самый ранний известный пример сада риад (внутренний сад, симметрично разделенный на четыре части) в Марокко. ^[54]^{: 71}^[1]^{: 404}

В современной Испании самые старые сохранившиеся фрагменты мукарнаса были найдены во дворце, построенном Мухаммедом ибн Марданишем , независимым правителем Мурсии (1147–1172). Остатки дворца, известные как аль-Каср аль-Сегир (или Алькасар Сегир на испанском языке), являются частью современного монастыря Санта-Клара в Мурсии. Фрагменты мукарнаса расписаны изображениями музыкантов и других фигур. ^[2]^{: 98–100} Ибн Марданиш также построил то, что сейчас известно как Кастильехо-де-Монтеагудо, замок на вершине холма и укрепленный дворец за пределами города, который является одним из наиболее хорошо сохранившихся образцов архитектуры эпохи Альморавидов на Пиренейском полуострове. Он имеет прямоугольный план и содержит большой садовый двор риад с симметричными приемными залами, обращенными друг к другу по длинной оси сада. ^[2]^{: 98–100}^[16]^[55]

Альмохады

Архитектура Альмохадов показала большую сдержанность, чем архитектура Альморавидов, в использовании орнаментального богатства, уделяя больше внимания более широким формам, контурам и общим пропорциям. Более ранние мотивы были усовершенствованы и получили более грандиозный масштаб. В то время как поверхностный орнамент оставался важным, архитекторы стремились к балансу между украшенными поверхностями и пустыми пространствами, позволяя взаимодействию света и теней на резных поверхностях играть свою роль. ^[14]^{: 86–88}^[4]

Мечети Альмохадов Кутубийя и Тинмал часто считаются прототипами средневековой архитектуры мечетей в регионе. ^[14]^[1] Так называемый «Т-образный план» в сочетании с иерархическим использованием декора, который подчеркивает более широкие центральные и поперечные проходы киблы мечети, стал устоявшейся чертой этой архитектуры. ^[2]^{: 128, 147} Монументальные минареты мечети Кутубийя, Хиральда Большой мечети Севильи (ныне часть городского собора ) и башня Хасана в Рабате, а также орнаментальные ворота Баб Агнау в Марракеше и Баб Удайя и Баб эр-Руах в Рабате были моделями, которые установили общие декоративные схемы, которые стали повторяться в этих архитектурных элементах с тех пор. Минарет мечети Касба в Марракеше с его фасадами, покрытыми мотивами себка и глазурованной плиткой, был особенно влиятельным и задал стиль, который повторялся с небольшими изменениями в последующий период при Маринидах и других династиях. ^[56]^[14]^[1]^[2]^{: 147}

Халифы Альмохадов построили собственные дворцовые комплексы в нескольких городах. Они основали Касбу Марракеша в конце XII века в качестве своей главной резиденции, подражая более ранним примерам автономных городов-дворцов, таким как Мадинат аль-Захра в X веке. ^[56] Альмохады также сделали Тунис региональной столицей своих территорий в Ифрикии (современный Тунис), основав собственную касбу (цитадель) города. ^[57]^[23] Халифы также построили несколько загородных поместий и садов прямо за пределами некоторых из этих городов, продолжая традицию, существовавшую при Альморавидах. ^[13]^{: 196–212} Эти поместья, как правило, были сосредоточены вокруг большого искусственного водохранилища, в котором росли сады из фруктовых деревьев и других растений, в то время как небольшие дворцы или павильоны для отдыха строились вдоль кромки воды. В Марракеше современные сады Агдаль и Менара оба развились из таких творений Альмохадов. В Севилье остатки сада Альмохадов аль-Бухайра , основанного в 1171 году, были раскопаны в 1970-х годах. ^[13]^{: 196–212} Заглубленные сады также были частью дворцов Альмохадов. В некоторых случаях сады были разделены симметрично на четыре части, во многом как сад риад. Примеры этого были найдены в некоторых дворах Алькасара в Севилье, где когда-то стояли бывшие дворцы Альмохадов. ^[13]^{: 199–210}^[58]^{: 70–71}

Арабо-норманская архитектура на Сицилии (XI-XII вв.)

Сицилия постепенно перешла под контроль мусульман в 9-м веке, когда Аглабиды отвоевали ее у византийцев. Впоследствии остров был заселен арабами и берберами из Северной Африки. В следующем столетии остров перешел под контроль Фатимидов, которые оставили остров под губернаторством Кальбидов . К середине 11-го века остров был раздроблен на более мелкие мусульманские государства, и к концу того же столетия его завоевали норманны под руководством Роберта Гвискара и Роже де Отвиля (Роже I) . ^[59]^[60]

Практически ни один образец архитектуры периода Сицилийского эмирата не сохранился до наших дней. ^[60] Однако последующий период нормандского господства, особенно при Роджере II в XII веке, был примечателен своим уникальным смешением нормандской, византийской и арабо-исламской культур . ^[61]^[59] Множество примеров этой «арабо-нормандской» архитектуры, которая также находилась под сильным влиянием византийской архитектуры , сохранились до наших дней и даже классифицируются как объект Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО (с 2015 года). ^[62] Хотя арабо-исламские элементы этой архитектуры тесно связаны с архитектурой Фатимидов , они также происходят из мавританской архитектуры и стилистически похожи на предыдущий период Альморавидов. ^[60]

В Палаццо Норманни (Дворец норманнов) в Палермо находится Капелла Палатина , один из важнейших шедевров этого стиля, построенный при Рожере II в 1130-х и 1140-х годах. ^[63]^[64] Он гармонично сочетает в себе множество стилей: нормандскую архитектуру и декор дверей, арабские арки и надписи, украшающие крышу, византийский купол и мозаику. Центральный неф часовни покрыт большим прямоугольным сводчатым потолком из окрашенного дерева и вырезанным в мукарнасе : самый большой прямоугольный свод мукарнаса в своем роде. ^[60]

Мариниды, Насриды и Зайяниды (13–15 вв.)

The eventual collapse of the Almohad Empire in the 13th century was precipitated by its defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) in al-Andalus and by the advance of the Berber Marinid dynasty in the western Maghreb, the Zayyanids in the central Maghreb, and the Hafsids in Ifriqiya.^[22] What remained of the Muslim-controlled territories in al-Andalus was consolidated by the Nasrid dynasty into the Emirate of Granada, which lasted another 250 years until its final conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, at the end of the Reconquista. Both the Nasrids in al-Andalus to the north and the Marinids in Morocco to the south were important in further refining the artistic legacy established by their predecessors.^[1]^[2] When Granada was conquered in 1492 by Catholic Spain and the last Muslim realm of al-Andalus came to an end, many of the remaining Spanish Muslims (and Jews) fled to Morocco and other parts of North Africa, further increasing the Andalusian influence in these regions in subsequent generations.^[65]

The architectural styles of the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Nasrids were very similar to each other. Craftsmen probably travelled between royal courts and from region to region, resulting in mutual influences between the arts of the three kingdoms.^[2]^: 177 Compared with the relatively restrained decoration of Almohad architecture, the monuments of all three dynasties during this period are marked by increasingly extensive and intricate decoration on every surface, particularly in wood, stucco, and zellij (mosaic tilework in complex geometric patterns).^[2]^: 149 Some differences are still found between the styles of each dynasty, such as the wider use of marble columns in Nasrid palaces and the increasing use of wooden elements in Marinid architecture.^[4]^: 159 Nasrid architecture also exhibits details influenced by Granada's closer interactions with Christian kingdoms like Castile.^[66]^[6]^: 212

The Marinids, who chose Fes as their capital, were also the first to build madrasas in this region, a type of institution which originated in Iran and had spread west.^[1] The madrasas of Fes, such as the Bou Inania, al-Attarine, and as-Sahrij madrasas, as well as the Marinid madrasa of Salé and the other Bou Inania in Meknes, are considered among the greatest architectural works of this period.^[67]^[65]^[1] The Marinids also imitated previous dynasties by founding their own fortified palace-city to the west of Fes, known afterwards as Fes el-Jdid ("New Fez"), which remained a frequent center of power in Morocco even during later dynasties such as the 'Alawis.^[36]^[68] Unlike the Alhambra of Granada, the grand palaces of Fes el-Jdid have not survived, though they may have been comparable in splendor.^[69] The Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid, on the other hand, is one of the major Marinid mosques that is still well-preserved today, while numerous other mosques were built throughout Fes and in other cities during this period, including the Lalla az-Zhar Mosque in Fes, the Ben Salah Mosque in Marrakesh, the Zawiya an-Nussak in Salé, the Great Mosque of Oujda, and others.^[1]

The most famous architectural legacy of the Nasrids in Granada is the Alhambra, a hilltop palace district protected by heavy fortifications and containing some of the most famous and best-preserved palaces of western Islamic architecture. Initially a fortress built by the Zirids in the 11th century (corresponding to the current Alcazaba), it was expanded into a self-contained and well-fortified palace district complete with habitations for servants and workers. The oldest remaining palace there today, built under Muhammad III (ruled 1302–1309), is the Palacio del Partal which, although only partly preserved, demonstrates the typical layout which would be repeated in other palaces nearby: a courtyard centered on a large reflective pool with porticos at either end and a mirador (lookout) tower at one end which looked down on the city from the edge of the palace walls.^[70]^[24]^[6] The most famous palaces, the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions, were added afterwards. The Comares Palace, which includes a lavish hammam (bathhouse) and the Hall of the Ambasadors (a throne room), was begun under Isma'il I (ruled 1314–1325) but mostly constructed under Yusuf I (1333–1354) and Muhammad V (ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391).^[24]^[2]^: 152 The Palace of the Lions was built under Muhammad V and possibly finished around 1380.^[2]^: 152^[24]^: 142 It features a courtyard with a central marble fountain decorated with twelve lion sculptures. The galleries and chambers around the courtyard are notable for their extremely fine stucco decoration and some exceptional muqarnas vault ceilings.^[2]^{: 160–163} Four other nearby palaces in the Alhambra were demolished at various points after the end of the Reconquista (1492).^[24] The summer palace and gardens known as the Generalife were also created nearby – at the end of the 13th century^[2]^: 164 or in the early 14th century^[6]^: 204 – in a tradition reminiscent of the Almohad-era Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh and the Marinid Royal Gardens of Fes.^[68] The Nasrids also built other structures throughout the city – such as the Madrasa and the Corral del Carbón – and left their mark on other structures and fortifications throughout their territory, though not many significant structures have survived intact to the present-day.^[6]

Meanwhile, in the former territories of al-Andalus under the control of the Spanish kingdoms of Léon, Castile and Aragon, Andalusi art and architecture continued to be employed for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons, becoming what is known as Mudéjar art (named after the Mudéjars or Muslims under Christian rule). This type of architecture, created by Muslim craftsmen or by other craftsmen following the same tradition, continued many of the same forms and motifs with minor variations. Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the Church of San Román, 13th century), as well as other cities in Aragon such as Zaragoza and Teruel.^[1]^[18] Among the most famous and celebrated examples is the Alcazar of Seville, which was the former palace of the Abbadids and the Almohads in the city but was rebuilt in by Christian rulers, including Peter the Cruel who added lavish sections in Moorish style starting in 1364 with the help of craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.^[2] Other smaller but notable examples in Cordoba include the Chapel of San Bartolomé^[71] and the Royal Chapel (Capilla Real) in the Great Mosque (which was converted to a cathedral in 1236).^[72]^[1] Some surviving 13th and 14th-century Jewish synagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar Moorish style while under Christian rule, such as the Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),^[73] Synagogue of Cordoba (1315),^[74] and the Synagogue of El Tránsito (1355–1357).^[75]^[76]

Further east, in Algeria, the Berber Zayyanid or Abd al-Wadid dynasty controlled their own state and built monuments in their main capital at Tlemcen. Yaghmorasan (r. 1236–1283), the founder of the dynasty, added minarets to the earlier Mosque of Agadir and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen while his successor, Abu Sa'id 'Uthman (r. 1283–1304), founded the Mosque of Sidi Bel Hasan in 1296.^[2]^{: 179–184} The Zayyanids built other religious foundations in the area, but many have not survived to the present day or have preserved little of their original appearance.^[2]^: 187 In addition to mosques, they built the first madrasas in Tlemcen. The Madrasa Tashfiniya, founded by Abu Tashfin I (r. 1318–1337), was celebrated for its rich decoration, including zellij tile decoration with sophisticated arabesque and geometric motifs whose style was repeated in some subsequent Marinid monuments.^[2]^: 187^[77]^: 526 The Marinids also intermittently occupied Tlemcen in the 14th century and left their mark on the area. During his siege of the city at the beginning of the century, the Marinid leader Abu Ya'qub built a fortified settlement nearby named al-Mansurah, which includes the monumental Mansurah Mosque (begun in 1303, only partly preserved today).^[1]^[2]^{: 184–186} Further east, Abu al-Hasan founded the Mosque of Sidi Bu Madyan in the city in 1338–39.^[2]^: 195

The Hafsids of Tunisia (13th–16th centuries)

In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), the Hafsids, a branch of the Almohad ruling class, declared their independence from the Almohads in 1229 and developed their own state which came to control much of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders like Abu Zakariya (ruled 1229–1249) and Abu Faris (ruled 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day.^[2]^: 208 While Kairouan remained an important religious center, Tunis was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west, Hafsid architecture was built primarily in stone (rather than brick or mudbrick) and appears to have featured much less decoration.^[2]^: 208 In reviewing the history of architecture in the region, scholar Jonathan Bloom remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib [North Africa]".^[2]^: 213

The Kasbah Mosque of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at the beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance the minaret of the earlier Almohad Kasbah Mosque in Marrakesh.^[2] Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include the Haliq Mosque (13th century) and the al-Hawa Mosque (1375). The Bardo Palace (today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century,^[57] and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris.^[2]^: 208 The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis.^[2]^: 209

The Hafsids also introduced the first madrasas to the region, beginning with the Madrasa al-Shamma῾iyya built in Tunis in 1238^[23]^[2]^: 209 (or in 1249 according to some sources^[1]^: 296^[78]). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and the Madrasa al-Unqiya (1341).^[2] Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation.^[2]^[79] The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period.^[2]^: 211

The Hafsids were eventually supplanted by the Ottomans who took over most of the Maghreb in the 16th century, with the exception of Morocco, which remained an independent kingdom.^[22] This resulted in an even greater divergence between the architecture of Morocco to the west, which continued to follow essentially the same Andalusi-Maghrebi traditions of art as before, and the architecture of Algeria and Tunisia to the east, which increasingly blended influences from Ottoman architecture into local designs.^[2]

The Sharifian dynasties in Morocco: Saadians and 'Alawis (16th century and after)

In Morocco, after the Marinids came the Saadian dynasty in the 16th century, which marked a political shift from Berber-led empires to sultanates led by Arab sharifian dynasties. Artistically and architecturally, however, there was broad continuity and the Saadians are seen by modern scholars as continuing to refine the existing Moorish-Moroccan style, with some considering the Saadian Tombs in Marrakesh as one of the apogees of this style.^[80] Starting with the Saadians, and continuing with the 'Alawis (their successors and the reigning monarchy of Morocco today), Moroccan art and architecture is portrayed by modern scholars as having remained essentially "conservative"; meaning that it continued to reproduce the existing style with high fidelity but did not introduce major new innovations.^[1]^[56]^[80]^[17]

The Saadians, especially under the sultans Abdallah al-Ghalib and Ahmad al-Mansur, were extensive builders and benefitted from great economic resources at the height of their power in the late 16th century. In addition to the Saadian Tombs, they also built several major mosques in Marrakesh including the Mouassine Mosque and the Bab Doukkala Mosque, which are notable for being part of larger multi-purpose charitable complexes including several other structures like public fountains, hammams, madrasas, and libraries. This marked a shift from the previous patterns of architectural patronage and may have been influenced by the tradition of building such complexes in Mamluk architecture in Egypt and the külliyes of Ottoman architecture.^[56]^[80] The Saadians also rebuilt the royal palace complex in the Kasbah of Marrakesh for themselves, where Ahmad al-Mansur constructed the famous El Badi Palace (built between 1578 and 1593) which was known for its superlative decoration and costly building materials including Italian marble.^[56]^[80]

The 'Alawis, starting with Moulay Rashid in the mid-17th century, succeeded the Saadians as rulers of Morocco and continue to be the reigning monarchy of the country to this day. As a result, many of the mosques and palaces standing in Morocco today have been built or restored by the 'Alawis at some point or another in recent centuries.^[65]^[56]^[36] Ornate architectural elements from Saadian buildings, most infamously from the lavish El Badi Palace, were also stripped and reused in buildings elsewhere during the reign of Moulay Isma'il (1672–1727).^[80] Moulay Isma'il is also notable for having built a vast imperial capital in Meknes, where the remains of his monumental structures can still be seen today. In 1765 Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah (one of Moulay Isma'il's sons) started the construction of a new port city called Essaouira (formerly Mogador), located along the Atlantic coast as close as possible to his capital at Marrakesh, to which he tried to move and restrict European trade.^[22]^: 241^[2]^: 264 He hired European architects to design the city, resulting in a relatively unique historic city built by Moroccans but with Western European architecture, particularly in the style of its fortifications. Similar maritime fortifications or bastions, usually called a sqala, were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present-day Casablanca), Rabat, Larache, and Tangier.^[1]^: 409 Late sultans were also significant builders. Up until the late 19th century and early 20th century, both the sultans and their ministers continued to build beautiful palaces, many of which are now used as museums or tourist attractions, such as the Bahia Palace in Marrakesh, the Dar Jamaï in Meknes, and the Dar Batha in Fes.^[17]^[81]

Ottoman rule in Algeria and Tunisia (16th century and after)

Over the course of the 16th century the central and eastern Maghreb – Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya – came under Ottoman control. Major port cities such as Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli also became centers of pirate activity, which brought in wealth to local elites but also attracted intrusions by European powers, who occupied and fortified some coastal positions. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Ottoman control became largely nominal: the Regency of Algiers (Algeria) was de facto ruled by the local deys until the French conquest of 1830, Tunisia was ruled by the Muradid dynasty (after 1602) and the Husaynid dynasty (after 1705), and Libya was ruled by the Qaramanli dynasty until the return of direct Ottoman control in 1835.^[2]^{: 215–236}^[22]^{: 144–205} Whereas architecture in Morocco remained largely traditional during the same period, architecture in Algeria and Tunisia was blended with Ottoman architecture, especially in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Some European influences were also introduced, particularly through the importation of materials from Italy such as marble.^[2]^: 215

Tunisia

Exterior of the Youssef Dey Mosque complex in Tunis (c. 1614–1639), with mausoleum and minaret visible

In Tunis, the Mosque complex of Yusuf Dey, built or begun around 1614–15 by Yusuf Dey (r. 1610–1637), is one of the earliest and most important examples that imported Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its congregational mosque is accompanied by a madrasa, a primary school, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement is similar to Ottoman külliye complexes. It was also the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, as the complex includes the founder's mausoleum, dated to 1639. While the hypostyle form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the minaret's octagonal shaft reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. In this period, octagonal minarets often distinguished mosques following the Hanafi maddhab (which was associated with the Ottomans), while mosques which continued to follow the Maliki maddhab (predominant in the Maghreb) continued to employ traditional square-shaft minarets.^[2]^{: 219–221}

The Mosque of Hammuda Pasha, built by Hammuda Pasha (r. 1631–1664) between 1631 and 1654, reprises many of these same elements as the Yusuf Dey Mosque. Both mosques make use of marble columns and capitals that were imported from Italy and possibly even carved by Italian craftsmen in Tunis.^[2]^{: 221–224} Hammuda Pasha was also responsible for starting in 1629 a major restoration and expansion of the Zawiya of Abu al-Balawi or "Mosque of the Barber" in Kairouan. While the Zawiya has been further modified since, one of its characteristic 17th-century features is the decoration of underglaze-painted Qallalin tiles on many of its walls. These tiles, generally produced in the Qallalin district of Tunis, are painted with motifs of vases, plants, and arches and use predominant blue, green, and ochre-like yellow colours which distinguish them from contemporary Ottoman tiles.^[2]^{: 223–224} The artistic height of these tiles was in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[23]

It wasn't until the end of the 17th century that the first and only Ottoman-style domed mosque in Tunisia was built: the Sidi Mahrez Mosque, begun by Muhammad Bey and completed by his successor, Ramadan ibn Murad, between 1696 and 1699. The mosque's prayer hall is covered by a dome system typical of Classical Ottoman architecture and first employed by Sinan for the Şehzade Mosque (c. 1548) in Istanbul: a large central dome flanked by four semi-domes, with four smaller domes at the corners and pendentives in the transitional zones between the semi-domes. The interior is decorated with marble paneling and Ottoman Iznik tiles.^[2]^{: 226–227}

Algeria

The New Mosque (Djama' el-Djedid) in Algiers (1660): exterior view (left) and interior view of the main dome (right)

During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less architectural activity.^[2]^{: 234–236} Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects.^[2]^{: 238–240} Domes of Ottoman influence were introduced into the design of mosques, but minarets generally continued to be built with square shafts instead of round or octagonal ones, thus retaining local tradition, unlike contemporary architecture in Ottoman Tunisia and other Ottoman provinces, where the "pencil"-shaped minaret was a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty.^[2]^: 238^[82]^[83]

The oldest surviving mosque from the Ottoman period in Algeria is the Ali Bitchin (or 'Ali Bitshin) Mosque in Algiers, commissioned by an admiral of the same name, a convert of Italian origin, in 1622.^[2]^: 238 The mosque is built on top of a raised platform and was once associated with various annexes including a hospice, a hammam, and a mill. A minaret and public fountain stand on its northeast corner. The interior prayer hall is centered around a square space covered by a large octagonal dome supported on four large pillars and pendentives. This space is surrounded on all four sides with galleries or aisles covered by rows of smaller domes. On the west side of the central space this gallery is two bays deep (i.e. composed of two aisles instead of one), while on the other sides, including on the side of the mihrab, the galleries are just one bay deep.^[2]^: 238 Several other mosques in Algiers built from the 17th to early 19th centuries had a similar floor plan.^[2]^{: 237–238}^[1]^{: 426–432} This particular design was unprecedented in the Maghreb. The use of a large central dome was a clear connection with Ottoman architecture. However, the rest of the layout is quite different from the mosques of metropolitan Ottoman architecture in cities like Istanbul. Some scholars, such as Georges Marçais, suggested that the architects or patrons could have been influenced by Ottoman-era mosques built in the Levantine provinces of the empire, where many of the rulers of Algiers had originated.^[2]^: 238^[1]^: 432

The most notable monument from this period in Algiers is the New Mosque (Djamaa el Djedid) in Algiers, built in 1660–1661.^[2]^: 239^[1]^: 433 The mosque has a large central dome supported by four pillars, but instead of being surrounded by smaller domes it is flanked on four sides by wide barrel-vaulted spaces, with small domed or vaulted bays occupying the corners between these barrel vaults. The barrel-vaulted space on the north side of the dome (the entrance side) is elongated, giving the main vaulted spaces of the mosque a cross-like configuration resembling a Christian cathedral.^[2]^{: 239–241} The mosque's minaret has a traditional form with a square shaft surmounted by a small lantern structure. Its simple decoration includes tilework; the clock faces visible today were added at a later period. The mihrab has a more traditional western Islamic form, with a horseshoe-arch shape and stucco decoration, although the decoration around it is crowned with Ottoman-style half-medallion and quarter-medallion shapes.^[2]^{: 239–241}^[1]^{: 433–434} The mosque's overall design and its details thus attest to an apparent mix of Ottoman, Maghrebi, and European influences. As the architect is unknown, Jonathan Bloom suggests that it could very well have been a local architect who simply took the general idea of Ottoman mosque architecture and developed his own interpretation of it.^[2]^{: 240–241}

Beyond the Islamic world

Certain aspects and traditions of Moorish architecture were brought to the Iberian colonies in the Americas. Günter Weimer [pt] outlines the influence of Arab and Amazigh substrates in popular architecture in Brazil, noting the considerable number of architectural terms in Portuguese inherited from Arabic, including muxarabi (مشربية) and açoteia [pt] (السُطيحة lit. 'little roof').^[85]^: 91–107 Elements of Mudéjar architecture, derived from Islamic architectural traditions and assimilated into Spanish architecture, are found in the architecture of the Spanish colonies.^[86]^[87] The Islamic and Mudéjar style of decorative wooden ceilings, known in Spanish as armadura, proved particularly popular in both Spain and its colonies.^[18]^[87] Examples of Mudéjar-influenced colonial architecture are concentrated in Mexico and Central America, including some in what is now the southwestern United States.^[88]^: 300

Later, particularly in the 19th century, the Moorish Islamic style was frequently imitated by the Neo-Moorish or Moorish Revival style which emerged in the Europe and North America as part of the Romanticist interest in the "Orient".^[19] The term "Moorish" or "neo-Moorish" sometimes also covered an appropriation of motifs from a wider range of Islamic architecture.^[19]^[89] This style was a recurring choice for Jewish synagogue architecture of the era, where it was seen as an appropriate way to mark Judaism's non-European origins.^[19]^[90]^[91] Similar to Neo-Moorish, Néo-Mudéjar was a revivalist style evident in late 19th and early 20th-century Spain and in some Spanish Colonial architecture in northern Morocco.^[92]^[93]^[20] During the French occupation of Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, the French colonial administration also encouraged, in some cases, the use of indigenous North African or arabisant ("Arabizing") motifs in new buildings.^[94]

Architectural features

The architecture of the western Islamic world is exemplified by mosques, madrasas, palaces, fortifications, hammams (bathhouses), funduqs (caravanserais), and other historic building types common to Islamic architecture. Characteristic elements of the western regional style include horseshoe-shaped, intersecting, and polylobed arches, often with voussoirs of alternating colors or patterns, as well as internal courtyards, riad gardens, ribbed domes, and cuboid (square-base) minarets. Decoration typically consists of vegetal arabesques, geometric motifs, muqarnas sculpting, Arabic inscriptions, and epigraphic motifs. These motifs were translated into woodwork, carved stucco, and mosaic tilework known as zellij.^[1]^[2]^: 11^[4]^{: 121, 155} The nature of the medieval Islamic world encouraged people to travel, which made it possible for artists, craftsmen, and ideas from other parts of the Islamic world to be transmitted here. Some features, such as muqarnas and tile revetments, were transmitted from the east but were realized differently in this region.^[2]^: 11–12

As scholar Jonathan Bloom remarks in his introduction to this topic, traditional Islamic-era architecture in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus was in some respects more "conservative" than other regional styles of Islamic architecture, in the sense that these buildings were less structurally ambitious than, for example, the increasingly audacious domed or vaulted structures that developed in Ottoman architecture and Iranian architecture.^[2]^: 10 With the exception of minarets, Moorish monuments were rarely very tall and Moorish architecture persisted in using the hypostyle hall – one of the earliest types of structures in Islamic architecture^[4]^[95] – as the main type of interior space throughout its history.^[2]^[1] Moreover, Moorish architecture also continued an early Islamic tradition of avoiding ostentatious exterior decoration or exterior monumentality. With the important exception of gateways and minarets, the exteriors of buildings were often very plain, while the interiors were the focus of architectural innovation and could be lavishly decorated. By contrast, architectural styles in the eastern parts of the Islamic world developed significantly different and innovative spatial arrangements in their construction of domed halls or vaulted iwans and featured increasingly imposing and elaborate exteriors that dominated their surroundings.^[2]^: 10

Arches

Horseshoe arch

Perhaps the most characteristic arch type of western Islamic architecture generally is the so-called "Moorish" or "horseshoe" arch. This is an arch where the curves of the arch continue downward past the horizontal middle axis of the circle and begin to curve towards each other, rather than just forming a half circle.^[17]^: 15 This arch profile became nearly ubiquitous in the region from the very beginning of the Islamic period.^[1]^: 45 The origin of this arch appear to date back to the preceding Byzantine period across the Mediterranean, as versions of it appear in Byzantine-era buildings in Cappadocia, Armenia, and Syria. They also appear frequently in Visigothic churches in the Iberian peninsula (5th–7th centuries). Perhaps due to this Visigothic influence, horseshoe arches were particularly predominant afterwards in al-Andalus under the Umayyads of Cordoba, although the "Moorish" arch was of a slightly different and more sophisticated form than the Visigothic arch.^[1]^{: 163–164}^[6]^: 43 Arches were not only used for supporting the weight of the structure above them. Blind arches and arched niches were also used as decorative elements. The mihrab of a mosque was almost invariably in the shape of horseshoe arch.^[1]^: 164^[17]

Starting in the Almoravid period, the first pointed or "broken" horseshoe arches began to appear in the region and became more widespread during the Almohad period. This arch is likely of North African origin, since pointed arches were already present in earlier Fatimid architecture further east.^[1]^: 234

Polylobed arch

Polylobed (or multifoil) arches, have their earliest precedents in Fatimid architecture in Ifriqiya and Egypt and had also appeared in Andalusi Taifa architecture such as the Aljaferia palace and the Alcazaba of Malaga, which elaborated on the existing examples of al-Hakam II's extension to the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In the Almoravid and Almohad periods, this type of arch was further refined for decorative functions while horseshoe arches continued to be standard elsewhere.^[1]^{: 232–234} Some early examples appear in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (in Algeria) and the Mosque of Tinmal.^[1]^: 232

Interlacing polylobed arches at the Alcazaba of Malaga in Spain (11th century)
Polylobed arches at the Almoravid Qubba in Marrakesh, Morocco (early 12th century)
Polylobed arches in one of the interior aisles of the Great Mosque of Algiers (11th century or after)
Polylobed arches in the Mudéjar-style Patio de las Doncellas at the Alcazar of Seville in Spain (14th century)

"Lambrequin" arch

The so-called "lambrequin" arch,^[1]^[17] with a more intricate profile of lobes and points, was also introduced in the Almoravid period, with an early appearance in the funerary section of the Qarawiyyin Mosque (in Fes) dating from the early 12th century.^[1]^: 232 It then became common in subsequent Almohad, Marinid, and Nasrid architecture, in many cases used to highlight the arches near the mihrab area of a mosque.^[1] This type of arch is also sometimes referred to as a "muqarnas" arch due to its similarities with a muqarnas profile and because of its speculated derivation from the use of muqarnas itself.^[1]^: 232 Moreover, this type of arch was indeed commonly used with muqarnas sculpting along the intrados (inner surfaces) of the arch.^[1]^[96]^[17]

Lambrequin arches in the Mosque of Tinmal (mid-12th century)
A lambrequin or "muqarnas" arch with muqarnas decoration in the Madrasa al-Attarine, Fes (1323-1325)
A lambrequin/muqarnas arch (top) in the gallery of the Courtyard of the Lions in the Alhambra, Granada (14th century)
Lambrequin arches in the Bahia Palace in Marrakesh, Morocco (late 19th century)

Domes

Although domes and vaulting were not extensively used in western Islamic architecture, domes were still employed as decorative features to highlight certain areas, such as the space in front of the mihrab in a mosque. In the extension of the Great Mosque of Córdoba by al-Hakam II in the late 10th century, three domes were built over the maqsura (the privileged space in front of the mihrab) and another one in the central nave or aisle of the prayer hall at the beginning of the new extension. These domes were constructed as ribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the "ribs" intersect one another off-center, forming a square or an octagon in the centre.^[97]

The ribbed domes of the Mosque of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome, surrounded by eight other ribbed domes of varying design.^[2]^: 79 Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids founded in 1082 and redecorated in 1136, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.^[97]^[98]

In Ifriqiya, certain domes from the 9th and 10th centuries, of a quite different style, are also particularly accomplished in their design and decoration. These are the 9th-century (Aghlabid) dome in front of the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the 10th-centuy (Zirid) Qubbat al-Bahw dome in the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis. Both are elegant ribbed domes with stonework flourishes such as decorative niches, inscriptions, and shell-shaped squinches.^[2]^{: 30–32, 86–87}

The ribbed dome at the beginning of al-Hakam II's extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (circa 965)
The ribbed dome in front of the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, covered in mosaics (circa 965)
Smaller ribbed domes in the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo (c. 1000)
Detail of decoration inside the dome before the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (circa 836)
The Qubbat al-Bahw (or Qubbat al-Bahu) at the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis (991)

Decorative motifs

Floral and vegetal motifs

Arabesques, or stylized floral and vegetal motifs, derive from a long tradition of similar motifs in Syrian, Hellenistic, and Roman architectural ornamentation.^[1]^[17] Early arabesque motifs in Umayyad Cordoba, such as those seen at the Great Mosque or Madinat al-Zahra, continued to make use of acanthus leaves and grapevine motifs from this Hellenistic tradition. Almoravid and Almohad architecture made more use of a general striated leaf motif, often curling and splitting into unequal parts along an axis of symmetry.^[1]^[17] Palmettes and, to a lesser extent, seashell and pine cone images were also featured.^[1]^[17] In the late 16th century, Saadian architecture sometimes made use of a mandorla-type (or almond-shaped) motif which may have been of Ottoman influence.^[80]^: 128

Floral and vegetal motifs from the Caliphate period at Madinat al-Zahra in Spain, carved in panels of limestone (10th century)
Arabesque motifs and a palmette image carved into stone in the spandrel of the Marinid gate at Chellah, Rabat (14th century)
Arabesques carved in stucco over an archway in the al-Attarine Madrasa in Fes (14th century)
Arabesques in stucco in the Court of the Myrtles at the Alhambra (14th century)
Arabesque and pine cone motifs along with Kufic inscriptions around the Ben Youssef Madrasa's mihrab, in Marrakesh (16th century)

Sebka motif

Various types of interlacing lozenge-like motifs are heavily featured on the surface of minarets starting in the Almohad period (12th–13th centuries) and are later found in other decoration such as carved stucco along walls in Marinid and Nasrid architecture, eventually becoming a standard feature in the western Islamic ornamental repertoire in combination with arabesques.^[17]^[1] This motif, typically called sebka (meaning "net"),^[24]^: 80^[99] is believed by some scholars to have originated with the large interlacing arches in the 10th-century extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba by Caliph al-Hakam II.^[1]^{: 257–258} It was then miniaturized and widened into a repeating net-like pattern that can cover surfaces. This motif, in turn, had many detailed variations. One common version, called darj wa ktaf ("step and shoulder") by Moroccan craftsmen, makes use of alternating straight and curved lines which cross each other on their symmetrical axes, forming a motif that looks roughly like a fleur-de-lys or palmette shape.^[1]^: 232^[17]^: 32 Another version, also commonly found on minarets in alternation with the darj wa ktaf, consists of interlacing multifoil/polylobed arches which form a repeating partial trefoil shape.^[17]^: 32, 34

A sebka or darj wa ktaf motif on one of the facades of the Hassan Tower in Rabat, Morocco (late 12th century)
Variation of the sebka motif with a trefoil-like shape on the minaret of the Kasbah Mosque in Marrakesh, Morocco (late 12th century)
Sebka pattern filled with other motifs in carved stucco decoration at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century)
Darj wa ktaf motif on Bab Mansour in Meknes, Morocco (early 18th century)

Geometric patterns

Geometric patterns, most typically making use of intersecting straight lines which are rotated to form a radiating star-like pattern, were common in Islamic architecture generally and across Moorish architecture. These are found in carved stucco and wood decoration, and most notably in zellij mosaic tilework which became commonplace in Moorish architecture from the 13th century onward. Other polygon motifs are also found, often in combination with arabesques.^[1]^[17]

In addition to zellij tiles, geometric motifs were also predominant in the decoration and composition of wooden ceilings. One of the most famous examples of such ceilings, considered the masterpiece of its kind, is the ceiling of the Salón de Embajadores in the Comares Palace at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. The ceiling, composed of 8,017 individual wooden pieces joined together into a pyramid-like dome, consists of a recurring 16-pointed star motif which is believed to have symbolized the Seven Heavens of Paradise described in the Qur'an (specifically the Surat al-Mulk, which is also inscribed at the ceiling's base).^[2]^: 159 Like other stucco and wood decoration, it would have originally been painted in different colours order to enhance its motifs.^[100]^: 44

Eight-pointed and sixteen-pointed star motifs in zellij (azelujos) tilework at the Sala del Mexuar in the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century)^[101]
Geometric patterns in stucco decoration at the Hall of the Two Sisters in the Alhambra (14th century)
Geometric patterns in zellij tilework at the Al-Attarine Madrasa in Fes (14th century)
Twelve-pointed star motifs in zellij tilework at the Saadian Tombs in Marrakesh, Morocco (16th century)
Geometric motifs on the bronze plating of the doors of the Al-Attarine Madrasa (14th century)
The enormous wooden ceiling of the Salón de Embajadores (the Nasrid throne room) at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century)
Another example of geometric patterns in a (smaller and simpler) wooden ceiling in the Ben Youssef Madrasa in Marrakesh (16th century)
Painted geometric motifs on a wooden ceiling in the Bahia Palace in Marrakesh (late 19th century)

Arabic calligraphy

Many Islamic monuments feature inscriptions of one kind or another which serve to either decorate or inform, or both. Arabic calligraphy, as in other parts of the Muslim world, was also an art form. Many buildings had foundation inscriptions which record the date of their construction and the patron who sponsored it. Inscriptions could also feature Qur'anic verses, exhortations of God, and other religiously significant passages. Early inscriptions were generally written in the Kufic script, a style where letters were written with straight lines and had fewer flourishes.^[1]^[17]^: 38 At a slightly later period, mainly in the 11th century, Kufic letters were enhanced with ornamentation, particularly to fill the empty spaces that were usually present above the letters. This resulted in the addition of floral forms or arabesque backgrounds to calligraphic compositions.^[1]^: 251In the 12th century the cursive Naskh script began to appear, though it only became commonplace in monuments from the Marinid and Nasrid period (13th–15th century) onward.^[1]^{: 250, 351–352}^[17]^: 38 Kufic was still employed, especially for more formal or solemn inscriptions such as religious content.^[17]^: 38^[1]^{: 250, 351–352} However, from the 13th century onward Kufic became increasingly stylized and almost illegible.^[102] In the decoration of the Alhambra, one can find examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.^[103]^[104] This style is also found in other parts of the Islamic world and may have had its origins in Iran.^[105]^[106] The extensions of the letters could turn into strips or lines that continued to form more motifs or form the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.^[107]^: 269 As a result, Kufic script could be used in a more strictly decorative form, as the starting point for an interlacing or knotted motif that could be woven into a larger arabesque background.^[1]^{: 351–352}

Kufic inscriptions carved into the façade of the Mosque of the Three Doors in Kairouan, Tunisia, dating from 866
Kufic Arabic inscriptions in gold mosaics above the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (10th century)
Late 12th-century Kufic inscription carved into stone on the Almohad gate of Bab Agnaou in Marrakesh
Kufic script with floral and interlacing flourishes, painted on tile, in the Al-Attarine Madrasa, Fes, Morocco (early 14th century)
Cursive (Naskh) Arabic script carved into stucco in the al-Attarine Madrasa in Fes (early 14th century)
Calligraphic inscription carved into wood in the Sahrij Madrasa in Fes, surrounded by other arabesque decoration (early 14th century)
Calligraphy in the Salón de Embajadores in the Alhambra, Granada (14th century): above is the Nasrid motto ("There is no conqueror but God") in cursive script, repeated more than once, while below is a larger inscription in "Knotted" Kufic

Muqarnas

Muqarnas (also called mocárabe in Spain), sometimes referred to as "honeycomb" or "stalactite" carvings, consists of a three-dimensional geometric prismatic motif which is among the most characteristic features of Islamic architecture. This technique originated further east in Iran before spreading across the Muslim world.^[1]^: 237 It was first introduced into al-Andalus and the western Maghreb by the Almoravids, who made early use of it in early 12th century in the Qubba Ba'adiyyin in Marrakesh and in the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes.^[14]^[51]^[1]^: 237 While the earliest forms of muqarnas in Islamic architecture were used as squinches or pendentives at the corners of domes,^[1]^: 237 they were quickly adapted to other architectural uses. In the western Islamic world they were particularly dynamic and were used, among other examples, to enhance entire vaulted ceilings, fill in certain vertical transitions between different architectural elements, and even to highlight the presence of windows on otherwise flat surfaces.^[1]^[65]^[17]

Small muqarnas cupola inside the mihrab of the Mosque of Tinmal (mid-12th century)
Muqarnas above a window in the Bou Inania Madrasa of Meknes (14th century)
Elaborate muqarnas dome in the Sala de las dos Hermanas in the Alhambra of Granada, Spain (14th century)
Closer view of the details at the apex of a muqarnas dome in the Sala de los Reyes in the Alhambra
Extreme close-up of carved and painted details in constituent niches of a muqarnas dome in the Sala de los Reyes in the Alhambra
Rectangular muqarnas vault carved in cedar wood at the Bou Inania Madrasa in Fes, Morocco (mid-14th century)
Muqarnas carved in wood in the Dar al-Makhzen of Tangier (17th century or later)

Zellij (tilework)

Tilework, particularly in the form of mosaic tilework called zellij, is a standard decorative element along lower walls and for the paving of floors across the region. It consists of hand-cut pieces of faience in different colours fitted together to form elaborate geometric motifs, often based on radiating star patterns.^[65]^[1] Zellij made its appearance in the region during the 10th century and became widespread by the 14th century during the Marinid and Nasrid period.^[65] It may have been inspired or derived from Byzantine mosaics and then adapted by Muslim craftsmen for faience tiles.^[65]

In the traditional Moroccan craft of zellij-making, the tiles are first fabricated in glazed squares, typically 10 cm per side, then cut by hand into a variety of pre-established shapes (usually memorized by heart) necessary to form the overall pattern.^[17] This pre-established repertoire of shapes combined to generate a variety of complex patterns is also known as the hasba method.^[108] Although the exact patterns vary from case to case, the underlying principles have been constant for centuries and Moroccan craftsmen are still adept at making them today.^[17]^[108]

Riads and gardens

A riad (sometimes spelled riyad; Arabic: رياض) is an interior garden found in many Moorish palaces and mansions. It is typically rectangular and divided into four parts along its central axes, with a fountain at its middle.^[54] Riad gardens probably originated in Persian architecture (where it is also known as chahar bagh) and became a prominent feature in Moorish palaces in Spain (such Madinat al-Zahra, the Aljaferia, and the Alhambra).^[54] In Morocco, they became especially widespread in the palaces and mansions of Marrakesh, where the combination of available space and warm climate made them particularly appealing.^[54] The term is nowadays applied in a broader way to traditional Moroccan houses that have been converted into hotels and tourist guesthouses.^[109]^[110]

Many royal palaces were also accompanied by vast pleasure gardens, sometimes built outside the main defensive walls or within their own defensive enclosure. This tradition is evident in the gardens of the Madinat al-Zahra built by the Caliphs of Cordoba (10th century), in the Agdal Gardens south of the Kasbah of Marrakesh created by the Almohads (12th century), the Mosara Garden created by the Marinids north of their palace-city of Fes el-Jdid (13th century), and the Generalife created by the Nasrids east of the Alhambra (13th century).^[1]^[56]^[68]

Building types

Mosques

Mosques are the main place of worship in Islam. Muslims are called to prayer five times a day and participate in prayers together as a community, facing towards the qibla (direction of prayer). Every neighbourhood normally had one or many mosques to accommodate the spiritual needs of its residents. Historically, there was a distinction between regular mosques and "Friday mosques" or "great mosques", which were larger and had a more important status by virtue of being the venue where the khutba (sermon) was delivered on Fridays.^[36] Friday noon prayers were considered more important and were accompanied by preaching, and also had political and social importance as occasions where news and royal decrees were announced, as well as when the current ruler's name was mentioned. In the early Islamic era there was typically only one Friday mosque per city, but over time Friday mosques multiplied until it was common practice to have one in every neighbourhood or district of the city.^[111]^[96] Mosques could also frequently be accompanied by other facilities which served the community.^[96]^[56]

Mosque architecture in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb was heavily influenced from the beginning by major well-known mosques in early cultural centers like the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Cordoba.^[1]^[2]^[49] Accordingly, most mosques in the region have roughly rectangular floor plans and follow the hypostyle format: they consist of a large prayer hall upheld and divided by rows of horseshoe arches running either parallel or perpendicular to the qibla wall (the wall towards which prayers faced). The qibla (direction of prayer) was always symbolized by a decorative niche or alcove in the qibla wall, known as a mihrab.^[17] Next to the mihrab there was usually a symbolic pulpit known as a minbar, usually in the form of a staircase leading to a small kiosk or platform, where the imam would stand to deliver the khutba. The mosque also normally included a sahn (courtyard) which often had fountains or water basins to assist with ablutions. In early periods this courtyard was relatively minor in proportion to the rest of the mosque, but in later periods it became a progressively larger until it was equal in size to the prayer hall and sometimes larger.^[80]^[96]

Medieval hypostyle mosques also frequently followed the "T-type" model established in the Almohad period. In this model the aisle or "nave" between the arches running towards the mihrab (and perpendicular to the qibla wall) was wider than the others, as was also the aisle directly in front of and along the qibla wall (running parallel to the qibla wall); thus forming a T-shaped space in the floor plan of the mosque which was often accentuated by greater decoration (e.g. more elaborate arch shapes around it or decorative cupola ceilings at each end of the "T").^[96]^[80]^[56]

Lastly, mosque buildings were distinguished by their minarets: towers from which the muezzin issues the call to prayer to the surrounding city. (This was historically done by the muezzin climbing to the top and projecting his voice over the rooftops, but nowadays the call is issued over modern megaphones installed on the tower.) Minarets traditionally have a square shaft and are arranged in two tiers: the main shaft, which makes up most of its height, and a much smaller secondary tower above this which is in turn topped by a finial of copper or brass spheres.^[1]^[2] Some minarets in North Africa have octagonal shafts, though this is more characteristic of certain regions or periods.^[65]^[23] Inside the main shaft a staircase, and in other cases a ramp, ascends to the top of the minaret.^[1]^[2]

The whole structure of a mosque was also orientated or aligned with the direction of prayer, such that mosques were sometimes orientated in a different direction from the rest of the buildings or streets around it.^[54] This geographic alignment, however, varied greatly from period to period. Nowadays it is standard practice across the Muslim world that the direction of prayer is the direction of the shortest distance between oneself and the Kaaba in Mecca. In Morocco, this corresponds to a generally eastern orientation (varying slightly depending on your exact position).^[112] However, in early Islamic periods there were other interpretations of what the qibla should be. In the western Islamic world (the Maghreb and al-Andalus), in particular, early mosques often had a southern orientation, as can be seen in major early mosques like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes. This was based on a reported hadith of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which stated that "what is between the east and west is a qibla", as well as on a popular view that mosques should not be aligned towards the Kaaba but rather that they should follow the cardinal orientation of the Kaaba itself (which is a rectangular structure with its own geometric axes), which is in turn aligned according to certain astronomical references (e.g. its minor axis is aligned with the sunrise of the summer solstice).^[113]^[112]^[54]

Synagogues

Synagogues had a very different layout from mosques but in North Africa and Al-Andalus they often shared similar decorative trends as the traditional Islamic architecture around them, such as colourful tilework and carved stucco,^[114]^[115] though later synagogues in North Africa were built in other styles too. Notable examples of historic synagogues in Spain include the Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),^[73] the Synagogue of Cordoba (1315),^[74] and the Synagogue of El Tránsito in Toledo (1355–1357). In Morocco they include the Ibn Danan Synagogue in Fes, the Slat al-Azama Synagogue in Marrakesh, and the Beth-El Synagogue in Casablanca, though numerous other examples exist.^[116]^[117] One of the most famous historic synagogues in Tunisia is the 19th-century El Ghriba synagogue.

Madrasas

The madrasa was an institution which originated in northeastern Iran by the early 11th century and was progressively adopted further west.^[1]^[17] These establishments provided higher education and served to train Islamic scholars, particularly in Islamic law and jurisprudence (fiqh), most commonly in the Maliki branch of Sunni legal thought. The madrasa in the Sunni world was generally antithetical to more "heterodox" religious doctrines, including the doctrine espoused by the Almohad dynasty. As such, in the westernmost parts of the Islamic world it only came to flourish in the late 13th century, after the Almohads, under the Marinid, Zayyanid, and Hafsid dynasties.^[1]^[2]

Madrasas played an important role in training the scholars and professionals who operated the state bureaucracy.^[77] To dynasties like the Marinids, madrasas also played a part in bolstering the political legitimacy of their rule. They used this patronage to encourage the loyalty of the country's influential but independent religious elites and also to portray themselves to the general population as protectors and promoters of orthodox Sunni Islam.^[1]^[77] In other parts of the Muslim world, the founders of madrasas could name themselves or their family members as administrators of the foundation's waqf (a charitable and inalienable endowment), making them a convenient means of protecting family fortunes, but this was not allowed under the Maliki school of law that was dominant in the western Islamic lands. As a result, the construction of madrasas was less prolific in the Maghreb and in al-Andalus than it was further east. Madrasas in this region are also frequently named after their location or some other distinctive physical feature, rather than after their founders (as was common further east).^[2]^: 178

Madrasas also played a supporting role to major learning institutions of the region like the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes; in part because, unlike the mosque, they provided accommodations for students who came from outside the city.^[17]^: 137^[37]^: 110 Many of these students were poor, seeking sufficient education to gain a higher position in their home towns, and the madrasas provided them with basic necessities such as lodging and bread.^[36]^: 463 Nonetheless, madrasas were also teaching institutions in their own right and offered their own courses, with some Islamic scholars making their reputation by teaching at certain madrasas.^[37]^: 141

Madrasas were generally centered around a main courtyard with a central fountain, off which other rooms could be accessed. Student living quarters were typically distributed on an upper floor around the courtyard. Many madrasas also included a prayer hall with a mihrab, though only the Bou Inania Madrasa of Fes officially functioned as a full mosque and featured its own minaret.^[67]^[1]^[2]

Mausoleums and zawiyas

Most Muslim graves are traditionally simple and unadorned, but in North Africa the graves of important figures were often covered in a domed structure (or a cupola of often pyramidal shape) called a qubba (also spelled koubba). This was especially characteristic for the tombs of "saints" such as walis and marabouts: individuals who came to be venerated for their strong piety, reputed miracles, or other mystical attributes. Many of these existed within the wider category of Islamic mysticism known as Sufism. Some of these tombs became the focus of entire religious complexes built around them, known as a zawiya (also spelled zaouia; Arabic: زاوية).^[56]^[1]^[118] They typically included a mosque, school, and other charitable facilities.^[1] Such religious establishments were major centers of Sufism across the region and grew in power and influence over the centuries, often associated with specific Sufi Brotherhoods or schools of thought.^[56]^[2]^[22]

Funduqs (merchant inns)

A funduq (also spelled foundouk or fondouk; Arabic: فندق) was a caravanserai or commercial building which served as both an inn for merchants and a warehouse for their goods and merchandise.^[1]^[17]^[54] In North Africa some funduqs also housed the workshops of local artisans.^[36] As a result of this function, they also became centers for other commercial activities such as auctions and markets.^[36] They typically consisted of a large central courtyard surrounded by a gallery, around which storage rooms and sleeping quarters were arranged, frequently over multiple floors. Some were relatively simple and plain, while others, like the Funduq al-Najjarin in Fes, were quite richly decorated.^[65] While many structures of this kind can be found in historic North African cities, the only one in Al-Andalus to have been preserved is the Nasrid-era Corral del Carbón in Granada.^[119]^[2]

Hammams (bathhouses)

Hammams (Arabic: حمّام) are public bathhouses which were ubiquitous in Muslim cities. Essentially derived from the Roman bathhouse model, hammams normally consisted of four main chambers: a changing room, from which one then moved on to a cold room, a warm room, and a hot room.^[1]^{: 215–216, 315–316}^[120] Heat and steam were generated by a hypocaust system which heated the floors. The furnace re-used natural organic materials (such as wood shavings, olive pits, or other organic waste byproducts) by burning them for fuel.^[121] The smoke generated by this furnace helped with heating the floors while excess smoke was evacuated through chimneys. Of the different rooms, only the changing room was heavily decorated with zellij, stucco, or carved wood.^[1]^: 316 The cold, warm, and hot rooms were usually vaulted or domed chambers without windows, designed to keep steam from escaping, but partially lit thanks to small holes in the ceiling which could be covered by ceramic or coloured glass.^[1]^: 316 Many historic hammams have been preserved in cities like Marrakesh and Fez in Morocco, partly thanks to their continued use by locals up to the present day.^[122]^[120]^[123] In Al-Andalus, by contrast, they fell out of use after the expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula and are only preserved as archeological sites or historic monuments.^[124]

Palaces

The main palaces of rulers were usually located inside a separate fortified district or citadel of the capital city. These citadels included a complex of different structures including administrative offices, official venues for ceremonies and receptions, functional amenities (such as warehouses, kitchens, and hammams), and the private residences of the ruler and his family. Although palace architecture varied from one period and region to the next, certain traits recurred such as the predominance of courtyards and internal gardens around which elements of the palace were typically centered.^[1]^[13]

In some cases, rulers were installed in the existing fortified citadel of the city, such as the many Alcazabas and Alcázars in Spain, or the Kasbahs of North Africa. The original Alcazar of Cordoba, used by the Umayyad emirs and their predecessors, was an early example of this. When Cordoba first became the capital of Al-Andalus in the 8th century the early Muslim governors simply moved into the former Visigothic palace, which was eventually redeveloped and modified by the Umayyad rulers after them. The Alcázar of Seville was also occupied and rebuilt in different periods by different rulers. In Marrakesh, Morocco, the Almohad Caliphs in the late 12th century built a large new palace district, the Kasbah, on the south side of the city, which was subsequently occupied and rebuilt by the later Saadian and 'Alawi dynasties. In Al-Andalus many palace enclosures were highly fortified alcazabas located on hilltops overlooking the rest of the city, such as the Alcazaba of Almería and the Alcazaba of Málaga, which were occupied by the various governors and local rulers. The most famous of all these, however, is the Alhambra of Granada, which was built up by the Nasrid dynasty during the 13th to 15th centuries.^[1]^[13]^[2]

Rulers with enough resources sometimes founded entirely separate and autonomous royal cities outside their capital cities, such as Madinat al-Zahra, built by Abd ar-Rahman III outside Cordoba, or Fes el-Jdid built by the Marinids outside old Fez. Some rulers even built entirely new capital cities centered on their palaces, such as the Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007 by the Hammadids in present-day Algeria, and Mahdia, begun in 916 by the Fatimid Caliphs in present-day Tunisia.^[13] In many periods and regions rulers also built outlying private estates with gardens in the countryside. As early as the 8th century, for example, Abd ar-Rahman I possessed such estates in the countryside outside Cordoba. The later Nasrid-built Generalife, located on the mountainside a short distance outside the Alhambra, is also an example of outlying residence and garden made for the private use of the rulers. Moroccan sultans also built pleasure pavilions or residences within the vast gardens and orchards that they maintained outside their cities, notably the Menara Gardens and Agdal Gardens on the outskirts of Marrakesh.^[1]^[13]

Fortifications

In Al-Andalus

The remains of castles and fortifications from various periods of Al-Andalus have survived across Spain and Portugal, often situated on hilltops and elevated positions that command the surrounding countryside. A large number of Arabic terms were used to denote the different types and functions of these structures, many of which were borrowed into Spanish and are found in numerous toponyms. Some of the most important Spanish terms today include Alcazaba (from Arabic: القَـصَـبَـة, romanized: al-qaṣabah), meaning a fortified enclosure or citadel where the governor or ruler was typically installed, and Alcázar (from Arabic: القصر, romanized: al-qaṣr), which was typically a palace protected by fortifications.^[126]^[6] Fortifications were built either in stone or in rammed earth. Stone was used more commonly in the Umayyad period while rammed earth became more common in subsequent periods and was also more common in the south.^[6]^[126]

The gate of the ruined Castle of Gormaz, Spain (10th century)

In the Umayyad period (8th–10th centuries) an extensive network of fortifications stretched in a wide line roughly from Lisbon in the west then up through the Central System of mountains in Spain, around the region of Madrid, and finally up to the areas of Navarre and Huesca, north of Zaragoza, in the east.^[126]^: 63 In addition to these border defenses, castles and fortified garrisons existed in the interior regions of the realm as well.^[6] Such fortifications were built from the very beginning of Muslim occupation in the 8th century, but a larger number of remaining examples date from the Caliphal period of the 10th century. Some notable examples from this period include the Castle of Gormaz, the Castle of Tarifa, the Alcazaba of Trujillo, the Alcazaba of Guadix, the Burgalimar Castle at Baños de la Encina, and the Alcazaba of Mérida.^[6]^[126]^[127] The castle of El Vacar near Cordoba is an early example of a rammed-earth fortification in Al-Andalus, likely dating from the Emirate period (756–912), while the castle at Baños de la Encina, dating from later in the 10th century, is a more imposing example of rammed earth construction.^[128]^[126] Many of these early fortifications had relatively simple architecture with no barbicans and only a single line of walls. The gates were typically straight entrances with an inner and outer doorway (often in the form of horseshoe arches) on the same axis.^[6]^{: 100, 116} The castles typically had quadrangular layouts with walls reinforced by rectangular towers.^[126]^: 67 To guarantee a protected access to water even in times of siege, some castles had a tower built on a riverbank which was connected to the main castle via a wall, known in Spanish as a coracha. One of the oldest examples of this can be found at Calatrava la Vieja (9th century), while a much later example is the tower of the Puente del Cadi below the Alhambra in Granada.^[126]^: 71 The Alcazaba of Mérida also features an aljibe (cistern) inside the castle which draws water directly from the nearby river.^[129]^[130] Moats were also used as defensive measures up until the Almohad period.^[126]^: 71–72

In addition to the more sizeable castles, there was a proliferation of smaller castles and forts which held local garrisons, especially from the 10th century onward.^[126]^: 65 The authorities also built multitudes of small, usually round, watch towers which could rapidly send messages to each other via fire or smoke signals. Using this system of signals, a coded message from Soria in northern Spain, for example, could arrive in Cordoba after as little as five hours. The Watchtower of El Vellón, near Madrid, is one surviving example, along with others in the region. This system continued to be used even up until the time of Philip II in the 16th century.^[126]^: 66

Following the collapse of the Caliphate in the 11th century, the resulting political insecurity encouraged further fortification of cities. The Zirid walls of Granada along the northern edge of the Albaicin today (formerly the Old Alcazaba of the city) date from this time, as do the walls of Niebla, the walls of Jativa, and the walls of Almeria and its Alcazaba.^[6]^: 115 The Alcazaba of Málaga also dates from this period but was later redeveloped under the Nasrids. Traces of an 11th-century fortress also exist on the site of Granada's current Alcazaba in the Alhambra.^[6] Military architecture also became steadily more complex. Fortified gates began to regularly include bent entrances – meaning that their passage made one or more right-angle turns to slow down any attackers.^[6]^: 116 Precedents for this type of gate existed as far back as the mid-9th century, with a notable example from this time being the Bab al-Qantara (or Puerta del Alcántara today) in Toledo.^[88]^: 284^[126]^: 71

Later on, the Almohads (12th and early 13th centuries) were particularly active in the restoration and construction of fortresses and city walls across the regions under their control to counter the growing threat of the Christian Reconquista. The fortress of Alcalá de Guadaíra is a clear example dating from this time, as well as the Paderne Castle in present-day Portugal.^[6]^: 166^[127] The walls of Seville and Silves also date from this time, both of them either built, restored, or expanded by the Almoravids and Almohads.^[127]^[132]^[133]^[134] Military technology again became more sophisticated, with barbicans appearing in front of city walls and albarrana towers appearing as a recurring innovation.^[6]^: 166 Both Cordoba and Seville were reinforced by the Almohads with a set of double walls in rammed earth, consisting of a main wall with regular bastion towers and a smaller outer wall, both topped by a walkway (chemin de ronde) with battlements.^[1]^: 225 Fortification towers also became taller and more massive, sometimes with round or polygonal bases but more commonly still rectangular. Some of the more famous tower fortifications from this period include the Calahorra Tower in Cordoba, which guarded the outer end of the old Roman bridge, and the Torre del Oro in Seville, a dodecagonal tower which fortified a corner of the city walls and which, along with another tower across the river, protected the city's harbour.^[6]^: 166

In the 13th–15th centuries, during the final period of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus, fortresses and towns were again refortified by either the Nasrids or (in fewer cases) the Marinids. In addition to the fortifications of Granada and its Alhambra, the Nasrids built or rebuilt the Gibralfaro Castle of Málaga and the castle of Antequera, and many smaller strategic hilltop forts like that of Tabernas.^[6]^: 212 A fortified arsenal (dar as-sina'a) was also built in Malaga, which served as a Nasrid naval base.^[1]^: 323 This late period saw the construction of massive towers and keeps which likely reflected a growing influence of Christian military architecture. The Calahorra Tower (now known as the Torre de Homenaje) of the Moorish Castle in Gibraltar is one particular example of this, built by the Marinids in the 14th century.^[6]^: 212^[1]^: 322

In the Maghreb

Some of the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in the Maghreb are military structures in Ifriqiya and present-day Tunisia. The best-known examples are the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir, both dating generally from the Aghlabid period in the 9th century. A ribat was a type of residential fortress which was built to guard the early frontiers of Muslim territory in North Africa, including the coastline. They were built at intervals along the coastline so that they could signal each other from afar. Especially in later periods, ribats also served as a kind of spiritual retreat, and the examples in Sousse and Monastir both contained prayer rooms that acted as mosques. Also dating from the same period are the city walls of Sousse and Sfax, both made in stone and bearing similarities to earlier Byzantine-Roman walls in Africa.^[1]^: 29–36^[2]^: 25–27

After the Aghlabids came the Fatimids, who took over Ifriqiya in the early 10th century. Most notably, the Fatimids built a heavily-fortified new capital at Mahdia, located on a narrow peninsula extending from the coastline into the sea. The narrow land approach to the peninsula was protected by an extremely thick stone wall reinforced with square bastions and a round polygonal tower at either end where the wall met the sea. The only gate was the Skifa al-Kahla (Arabic: السقيفة الكحلة, romanized: al-saqifa al-kaḥla, lit. 'the dark vestibule'), defended by two flanking bastions and featuring a vaulted interior passage 44 meters long. (Although it's not clear today how much of the structure dates from the original Fatimid construction.) The peninsula's shoreline was also defended by a stone wall with towers at regular intervals, interrupted only by the entrance to a man-made harbor and arsenal.^[1]^: 89–91^[2]^: 47

The Hammadids, who started out as governors as governors of the Zirids (who were in turn governors for the Fatimids), also built a new fortified capital in Algeria known as Qal'a Beni Hammad in the 11th century, located on a strategic elevated site. Along with the earlier Zirid fortifications of Bougie and 'Achir, its walls were made mainly of rough stone or rubble stone, demonstrating a slow shift in construction methods away from earlier Byzantine-Roman methods and towards more characteristically North African and Berber architecture.^[1]^: 92

Starting with the Almoravid and Almohad domination of the 11th–13th centuries, most medieval fortifications in the western Maghreb shared many characteristics with those of Al-Andalus.^[54]^[1] Many Almoravid fortifications in Morocco were built in response to the threat of the Almohads. The archaeological site of Tasghimout, southeast of Marrakesh, and Amargu, northeast of Fes, provide evidence about some of these. Built out of rubble stone or rammed earth, they illustrate similarities with earlier Hammadid fortifications as well as an apparent need to build quickly during times of crisis.^[1]^{: 219–220}^[49]^{: 299–300} City walls in Morocco were in turn generally built out of rammed earth and consisted of a wall topped by a walkway for soldiers, reinforced at regular intervals by square towers. These walls were characteristically crowned by merlons shaped like square blocks topped by pyramidal caps. Major examples of such fortifications can be seen in the walls of Marrakesh, the walls of Fes, and the walls of Rabat, all of which date essentially to the Almoravids or Almohads.^[54]^[65]^[68] In western Algeria, the walls of Tlemcen (formerly Tagrart) were likewise partly built by the Almoravids with a mix of rubble stone at the base and rammed earth above.^[1]^: 220 As elsewhere, the gates were often the weakest points of a defensive wall and so were usually more heavily fortified than the surrounding wall. In Morocco, gates were typically designed with a bent entrance.^[114]^[135]^[54] They ranged from very plain in appearance to highly monumental and ornamental. Some of the most monumental gates still standing today were built in stone during the late 12th century by the Almohad Caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur, including Bab Agnaou in Marrakesh and the Bab er-Rouah and Bab Oudaïa (or Bab el-Kbir) gates in Rabat.^[49]^[14]

After the Almohads, the Marinids followed in a similar tradition, again building mostly in rammed earth. Their most significant fortification system was the 13th-century double walls of Fes el-Jdid, their capital, but they also built a part of the walls of Salé (including Bab el-Mrissa gate), the walls of Chellah (which include a particularly ornate gate), the walls of Mansoura (near Tlemcen), and a part of the walls of Tlemcen.^[1]^{: 318–321} Further east, the Hafsids carried out important works on the walls of Tunis, their capital, once again making extensive use of rammed earth. Bab Jedid, the southwestern gate of the medina, dates from this period in 1276 and generally continues the Almohad format, including a bent entrance.^[1]^: 323 In later centuries, Moroccan rulers continued to build traditional walls and fortifications while at the same time borrowing elements from European military architecture in the new gunpowder age, most likely through their encounters with the Portuguese and other European powers at this time. The Saadian bastions of Fes, such as Borj Nord, are one early example of these architectural innovations.^[1]^[80] As the defensive function of city walls and gates became less relevant in the modern era, city gates eventually became more ornamental and symbolic structures. A prominent example of this is the iconic Bab Bou Jeloud gate built by the French colonial administration in Fes in 1913.^[114]

In Morocco, the term "Kasbah" (Arabic: القَـصَـبَـة; equivalent of Spanish Alcazaba) generally refers to a fortified enclosure, ranging from small garrison forts to vast walled districts that functioned as the citadel and center of government in a city (such as the Kasbah of Marrakesh or the Kasbah of Tangier).^[65]^[1]^[49] Sultan Moulay Isma'il (ruled 1672–1727), for example, built numerous kasbahs across the country which acted as garrison forts to maintain order and control, while also building a vast fortified kasbah in Meknes which acted as his imperial citadel containing his palaces.^[1]^[136] "Kasbah", or tighremt in Amazigh, can also refer to various fortresses or fortified mansions in the Atlas Mountains and the desert oases regions of Morocco, such as the Kasbah Telouet, Kasbah Amridil, Kasbah Tamnougalt, or the Kasbah Taourirt in Ouarzazate.^[137] In these regions, often traditionally Amazigh (Berber) areas, Kasbahs are again typically made of rammed earth and mud-brick (or sometimes stone) and are often marked by square corner towers, often decorated with geometric motifs along their upper walls and topped with sawtooth-shaped merlons.^[137]^[138]

Preservation

Many important examples of Moorish architecture are located in Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula (in the former territories of Al-Andalus), with an especially strong concentration in southern Spain (modern-day Andalusia). There is also a high concentration of historic Islamic architecture in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The types of monuments that have been preserved vary greatly between regions and between periods. For example, the historic palaces of North Africa have rarely been preserved, whereas Spain retains multiple major examples of Islamic palace architecture that are among the best-studied in the world. By contrast, few major mosques from later periods have been preserved in Spain, whereas many historic mosques are still standing and still being used in North Africa.^[2]^: 12–13^[13]^{: xvii–xviii}

References

Notes

^ The word comes from Latin "Mauri", originally a designation of the inhabitants of the Berber kingdom of Mauretania (present-day Algeria and Morocco),^[8] but the term was later also applied to Arabs and Arabized Iberians.^[9] The word later acquired more racial connotations and has fallen out of use since the mid-20th century. Its usage today is generally limited to adjectival uses in terms like "Moorish architecture" or "Moorish art".^[10]
^ It was replaced by the present-day Church of San Salvador. Today, only the lower part of the mosque's minaret survives, as part of the church's bell tower. The minaret is likely of a later date than the mosque's foundation, but it existed before 1079, as records show it was repaired by al-Mu'tamid (ruler of Seville) after the earthquake of that year.^[25]^: 145
^ His claims were controversial and some French archeologists rejected his findings. In 1956 the excavations were ended and the remains re-buried under the courtyard.^[27]
^ This date has been interpreted by some as the foundation date of the whole ribat rather than the construction date of its tower.^[2]^: 25–26

Citations

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident (in French). Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300218701.
^ a b Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru, eds. (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9781119068662.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–212. ISBN 9780195309911.
^ Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300088670.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). Moorish architecture in Andalusia. Taschen. ISBN 3822876348.
^ Lévi-Provençal, E.; Donzel, E. van (1993). "Moors". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 7. Brill. pp. 235–236.
^ Gabriel Camps (2007). Les Berbères, Mémoire et Identité. pp. 116–118.
^ Menocal (2002). Ornament of the World Archived 8 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, p. 16; Richard A Fletcher, Moorish Spain Archived 8 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine (University of California Press, 2006), pp.1,19.
^ Assouline, David (2009). "Moors". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135.
^ a b Mudejarismo and Moorish Revival in Europe: Cultural Negotiations and Artistic Translations in the Middle Ages and 19th-century Historicism. Brill. 2021. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-44858-2. The authors of this volume are conscious of the contested terminology of Mudéjar and the negative connotations of the term Moorish. They are used here as denominators of two phenomena that have been essentially shaped in the 19th century. When speaking of the Islamic architecture of al- Andalus, the term Moorish is rejected. In these cases, the terms Ibero-Islamic or andalusí are used.
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