Хотя некоторые ученые приравнивают термин «люди» ко всем членам рода Homo , в общем употреблении он обычно относится к Homo sapiens , единственному существующему члену. Все остальные члены рода Homo , которые в настоящее время вымерли, известны как архаичные люди , а термин «современный человек» используется для того, чтобы отличить Homo sapiens от архаичных людей. Анатомически современные люди появились около 300 000 лет назад в Африке, эволюционировав от Homo heidelbergensis или похожего вида. Мигрируя из Африки , они постепенно заменяли и скрещивались с местными популяциями архаичных людей. Несколько гипотез вымирания архаичных видов людей, таких как неандертальцы, включают конкуренцию, насилие , скрещивание с Homo sapiens или неспособность адаптироваться к изменению климата. Люди начали демонстрировать поведенческую современность около 160 000–60 000 лет назад. На протяжении большей части своей истории люди были кочевыми охотниками-собирателями. Неолитическая революция , которая началась в Юго-Западной Азии около 13 000 лет назад (и отдельно в нескольких других местах), ознаменовалась появлением сельского хозяйства и постоянных поселений людей ; в свою очередь, это привело к развитию цивилизации и дало старт периоду непрерывного (и продолжающегося) роста населения и быстрых технологических изменений . С тех пор ряд цивилизаций возник и пришел в упадок, в то время как ряд социокультурных и технологических достижений привели к значительным изменениям в образе жизни человека.
Гены и окружающая среда влияют на биологическую изменчивость человека в видимых характеристиках, физиологии , восприимчивости к болезням, умственных способностях, размере тела и продолжительности жизни. Хотя люди различаются по многим признакам, люди относятся к наименее генетически разнообразным видам. Любые два человека генетически схожи по крайней мере на 99,5%. Люди половой диморфизм : как правило, у мужчин большая сила тела, а у женщин более высокий процент жира в организме . В период полового созревания у людей развиваются вторичные половые признаки . Женщины способны к беременности , как правило, между половым созреванием, около 12 лет, и менопаузой , около 50 лет. Будучи всеядными существами, они способны потреблять широкий спектр растительного и животного материала и использовали огонь и другие формы тепла для приготовления и приготовления пищи со времен Homo erectus . Люди могут выживать до восьми недель без пищи и несколько дней без воды . Люди, как правило, ведут дневной образ жизни , спят в среднем от семи до девяти часов в день. Роды опасны, с высоким риском осложнений и смерти . Часто и мать, и отец заботятся о своих детях, которые беспомощны при рождении .
Все современные люди классифицируются как вид Homo sapiens , введенный Карлом Линнеем в его работе 1735 года Systema Naturae . [9] Родовое название « Homo » является образованным в XVIII веке производным от латинского homō , которое относится к людям любого пола. [10] [11] Слово « human » может относиться ко всем членам рода Homo . [12] Название « Homo sapiens » означает «мудрый человек» или «знающий человек». [13] Существуют разногласия относительно того, следует ли включать некоторых вымерших членов рода, а именно неандертальцев , в качестве отдельного вида людей или в качестве подвида H. sapiens . [ 12]
Human — заимствованное слово из среднеанглийского языка из старофранцузского humain , в конечном итоге от латинского hūmānus , прилагательной формы от homō («человек» — в смысле «человечество»). [14] Исконно английский термин man может относиться к виду в целом (синоним слова « человечество» ), а также к человеческим мужчинам. Он также может относиться к особям любого пола. [15]
Несмотря на то, что слово «животное» в разговорной речи используется как антоним к слову «человек» , [16] и вопреки распространенному биологическому заблуждению , люди являются животными. [17] Слово «личность» часто используется взаимозаменяемо с «человек» , но ведутся философские дебаты о том, относится ли понятие «личность» ко всем людям или всем разумным существам , и, кроме того, может ли человек потерять свою индивидуальность (например, впадая в устойчивое вегетативное состояние ). [18]
Эволюция
Люди — обезьяны ( надсемейство Hominoidea ). [19] Линия обезьян , которая в конечном итоге дала начало людям, сначала отделилась от гиббонов (семейство Hylobatidae) и орангутанов (род Pongo ), затем от горилл (род Gorilla ) и, наконец, от шимпанзе и бонобо (род Pan ). Последнее разделение, между линиями человека и шимпанзе-бонобо, произошло около 8–4 миллионов лет назад, в эпоху позднего миоцена . [20] [21] Во время этого разделения хромосома 2 образовалась в результате объединения двух других хромосом, в результате чего у людей осталось всего 23 пары хромосом по сравнению с 24 у других обезьян. [22] После разделения с шимпанзе и бонобо гоминины разделились на множество видов и по крайней мере на два отдельных рода. Все эти линии, за исключением одной, представляющей род Homo и его единственный существующий вид Homo sapiens , в настоящее время вымерли. [23]
Род Homo произошел от Australopithecus . [24] [25] Хотя окаменелости переходного периода немногочисленны, самые ранние представители Homo разделяют несколько ключевых черт с Australopithecus . [26] [27] Самая ранняя запись о Homo — это образец LD 350-1 возрастом 2,8 миллиона лет из Эфиопии , а самые ранние названные виды — Homo habilis и Homo rudolfensis , которые появились 2,3 миллиона лет назад. [27] H. erectus (африканский вариант иногда называют H. ergaster ) появился 2 миллиона лет назад и был первым архаичным видом человека, покинувшим Африку и расселившимся по Евразии. [28] H. erectus также был первым, у кого развился характерный человеческий план тела . Homo sapiens появился в Африке около 300 000 лет назад из вида, обычно обозначаемого как H. heidelbergensis или H. rhodesiensis , потомков H. erectus , которые остались в Африке. [29] H. sapiens мигрировал с континента, постепенно заменяя или скрещивая местные популяции архаичных людей. [30] [31] [32] Люди начали демонстрировать поведенческую современность около 160 000–70 000 лет назад, [33] а возможно и раньше. [34] Это развитие, вероятно, было выбрано на фоне естественного изменения климата в Африке от среднего до позднего плейстоцена . [35]
Миграция «из Африки» происходила по крайней мере двумя волнами: первая около 130 000–100 000 лет назад, вторая ( Южное расселение ) около 70 000–50 000 лет назад. [36] [37] H. sapiens продолжил колонизацию всех континентов и крупных островов, прибыв в Евразию 125 000 лет назад, [38] [39] Австралию около 65 000 лет назад, [40] Америку около 15 000 лет назад и отдаленные острова, такие как Гавайи , остров Пасхи , Мадагаскар и Новая Зеландия в период с 300 по 1280 год н. э. [41] [42]
Эволюция человека не была простым линейным или разветвленным процессом, а включала скрещивание между родственными видами . [43] [44] [45] Геномные исследования показали, что гибридизация между существенно разошедшимися линиями была обычным явлением в эволюции человека. [46] Данные ДНК свидетельствуют о том, что несколько генов неандертальского происхождения присутствуют среди всех популяций Африки, не относящихся к югу от Сахары, а неандертальцы и другие гоминиды, такие как денисовцы , могли внести до 6% своего генома в геном современных людей, не относящихся к югу от Сахары и Африки. [43] [47] [48]
Городская революция произошла в 4-м тысячелетии до н. э. с развитием городов-государств , в частности шумерских городов, расположенных в Месопотамии . [64] Именно в этих городах самая ранняя известная форма письма, клинопись , появилась около 3000 г. до н. э. [65] Другими крупными цивилизациями, которые развивались примерно в это же время, были Древний Египет и цивилизация долины Инда . [66] В конечном итоге они торговали друг с другом и изобрели такие технологии, как колеса, плуги и паруса. [67] [68] [69] [70] Возникшая к 3000 г. до н. э. цивилизация Караль-Супе является старейшей сложной цивилизацией в Америке. [71] Также были развиты астрономия и математика, и была построена Великая пирамида в Гизе . [72] [73] [74] Существуют свидетельства сильной засухи, длившейся около ста лет, которая могла вызвать упадок этих цивилизаций, [75] а затем появились новые. Вавилоняне стали доминировать в Месопотамии, в то время как другие, [76] такие как культура Поверти-Пойнт , минойцы и династия Шан , стали известными в новых областях. [77] [78] [79] Крах позднего бронзового века около 1200 г. до н. э. привел к исчезновению ряда цивилизаций и началу греческих Темных веков . [80] [81] В этот период железо начало заменять бронзу, что привело к железному веку . [82]
В V веке до нашей эры история начала записываться как дисциплина , что давало гораздо более ясную картину жизни того времени. [83] Между VIII и VI веками до нашей эры Европа вступила в эпоху классической античности , период, когда процветали Древняя Греция и Древний Рим . [84] [85] Примерно в это же время другие цивилизации также стали заметны. Цивилизация майя начала строить города и создавать сложные календари . [86] [87] В Африке королевство Аксум обогнало приходящее в упадок королевство Куш и способствовало торговле между Индией и Средиземноморьем. [88] В Западной Азии система централизованного управления империи Ахеменидов стала предшественником многих более поздних империй, [89] в то время как империя Гупта в Индии и династия Хань в Китае были описаны как золотые века в своих регионах. [90] [91]
В Америке между 200 и 900 годами н. э. Мезоамерика находилась в своем классическом периоде , [97] в то время как дальше на север, сложные миссисипские общества возникли, начиная примерно с 800 года н. э. [98] Монгольская империя завоевала большую часть Евразии в 13 и 14 веках. [99] За этот же период времени империя Мали в Африке выросла до крупнейшей империи на континенте, простираясь от Сенегамбии до Кот-д'Ивуара . [100] Океания увидела подъем империи Туи Тонга , которая расширилась на многие острова в южной части Тихого океана. [101] К концу 15 века ацтеки и инки стали доминирующей силой в Мезоамерике и Андах соответственно. [102]
Ноутбук подключается к Интернету для отображения информации из Википедии ; связь на большом расстоянии между компьютерными системами является отличительной чертой информационного века.
Ранние человеческие поселения зависели от близости к воде и — в зависимости от образа жизни — другим природным ресурсам, используемым для пропитания , таким как популяции животных, на которых можно охотиться , и пахотные земли для выращивания сельскохозяйственных культур и выпаса скота. [130] Однако современные люди обладают большой способностью изменять свою среду обитания с помощью технологий, орошения , городского планирования , строительства, вырубки лесов и опустынивания . [131] Человеческие поселения продолжают оставаться уязвимыми для стихийных бедствий , особенно те, которые расположены в опасных местах и имеют низкое качество строительства. [132] Группировка и преднамеренное изменение среды обитания часто осуществляются с целью обеспечения защиты, накопления комфорта или материального богатства, расширения доступной пищи, улучшения эстетики , увеличения знаний или улучшения обмена ресурсами. [133]
Люди являются одним из наиболее адаптируемых видов, несмотря на низкую или узкую толерантность ко многим экстремальным условиям на Земле. [134] В настоящее время этот вид присутствует во всех восьми биогеографических областях , хотя их присутствие в Антарктической области очень ограничено исследовательскими станциями , и ежегодно в зимние месяцы в этой области наблюдается сокращение численности населения. Люди основали национальные государства в других семи областях, таких как Южная Африка , Индия , Россия , Австралия , Фиджи , США и Бразилия (каждая из которых расположена в своей биогеографической области).
Используя передовые инструменты и одежду , люди смогли расширить свою толерантность к широкому диапазону температур, влажности и высот. [134] [135] В результате люди являются космополитическим видом, встречающимся почти во всех регионах мира, включая тропические леса , засушливые пустыни , чрезвычайно холодные арктические регионы и сильно загрязненные города; для сравнения, большинство других видов ограничены несколькими географическими районами из-за своей ограниченной приспособляемости. [136] Однако человеческая популяция неравномерно распределена по поверхности Земли , поскольку плотность населения варьируется от одного региона к другому, а большие участки поверхности почти полностью необитаемы, как Антарктида и обширные полосы океана. [134] [137] Большинство людей (61%) живут в Азии; остальные живут в Америке (14%), Африке (14%), Европе (11%) и Океании (0,5%). [138]
Люди и их домашние животные составляют 96% всей биомассы млекопитающих на Земле, тогда как все дикие млекопитающие составляют всего 4%. [139]
Оценки численности населения во время возникновения сельского хозяйства около 10 000 г. до н. э. варьируются от 1 до 15 миллионов человек. [140] [141] Около 50–60 миллионов человек жили на востоке и западе Римской империи в IV веке н. э. [142] Бубонные эпидемии , впервые зарегистрированные в VI веке н. э., сократили население на 50%, а Черная смерть убила 75–200 миллионов человек только в Евразии и Северной Африке . [ 143] Считается, что численность населения Земли достигла одного миллиарда в 1800 году. С тех пор она росла экспоненциально, достигнув двух миллиардов в 1930 году, трех миллиардов в 1960 году, четырех в 1975 году, пяти в 1987 году и шести миллиардов в 1999 году. [144] Она превысила семь миллиардов в 2011 году [145] и превысила восемь миллиардов в ноябре 2022 года. [146] Потребовалось более двух миллионов лет предыстории и истории человечества , чтобы численность населения достигла одного миллиарда , и всего 207 лет, чтобы вырасти до 7 миллиардов. [147] Общая биомасса углерода всех людей на Земле в 2018 году оценивалась в 60 миллионов тонн, что примерно в 10 раз больше, чем у всех неодомашненных млекопитающих. [139]
В 2018 году в городских районах проживало 4,2 миллиарда человек (55%), что больше, чем 751 миллион в 1950 году. [148] Наиболее урбанизированными регионами являются Северная Америка (82%), Латинская Америка (81%), Европа (74%) и Океания (68%), при этом в Африке и Азии проживает почти 90% от 3,4 миллиарда сельского населения мира. [148] Проблемы для людей, живущих в городах, включают различные формы загрязнения и преступности , [149] особенно во внутренних городских и пригородных трущобах .
Биология
Анатомия и физиология
Основные анатомические особенности женщин и мужчин. У этих моделей удалены волосы на теле и лице , а также подстрижены волосы на голове.
Большинство аспектов человеческой физиологии тесно гомологичны соответствующим аспектам физиологии животных. Зубная формула человека:2.1.2.32.1.2.3. У людей пропорционально более короткое небо и гораздо меньшие зубы , чем у других приматов. Они единственные приматы, у которых короткие, относительно ровные клыки . У людей характерно скученные зубы, а промежутки от потерянных зубов обычно быстро закрываются у молодых особей. Люди постепенно теряют свои третьи моляры , а у некоторых особей они отсутствуют с рождения. [150]
Люди разделяют с шимпанзе рудиментарный хвост, [151] аппендикс , гибкие плечевые суставы, хватательные пальцы и противопоставленные большие пальцы . [152] У людей также более бочкообразная грудь в отличие от воронкообразной формы других обезьян, что является адаптацией к двуногому дыханию. [153] Помимо двуногости и размера мозга, люди отличаются от шимпанзе в основном обонянием , слухом и перевариванием белков . [154] Хотя у людей плотность волосяных фолликулов сопоставима с другими обезьянами, это преимущественно пушковые волосы , большинство из которых настолько короткие и тонкие, что их практически не видно. [155] [156] У людей около 2 миллионов потовых желез, разбросанных по всему телу, что намного больше, чем у шимпанзе, у которых потовые железы редки и в основном расположены на ладонях рук и на подошвах ног. [157]
Подсчитано, что средний рост взрослого мужчины в мире составляет около 171 см (5 футов 7 дюймов), в то время как средний рост женщины в мире составляет около 159 см (5 футов 3 дюйма). [158] Уменьшение роста может начаться в среднем возрасте у некоторых людей, но, как правило, типично для очень старых людей . [159] На протяжении всей истории человеческие популяции повсеместно становились выше, вероятно, вследствие лучшего питания, здравоохранения и условий жизни. [160] Средняя масса взрослого человека составляет 59 кг (130 фунтов) для женщин и 77 кг (170 фунтов) для мужчин. [161] [162] Как и многие другие состояния, масса тела и тип телосложения зависят как от генетической восприимчивости, так и от окружающей среды и сильно различаются у разных людей. [163] [164]
Люди обладают гораздо более быстрым и точным броском , чем другие животные. [165] Люди также являются одними из лучших бегунов на длинные дистанции в животном мире, но медленнее на коротких дистанциях. [166] [154] Более тонкие волосы на теле человека и более продуктивные потовые железы помогают избежать теплового истощения во время бега на длинные дистанции. [167] По сравнению с другими обезьянами, человеческое сердце производит больший ударный объем и сердечный выброс , а аорта пропорционально больше. [168] [169]
Генетика
Графическое изображение стандартного кариотипа человека , включающее как женские (XX), так и мужские (XY) половые хромосомы.
Как и большинство животных, люди являются диплоидным и эукариотическим видом. Каждая соматическая клетка имеет два набора из 23 хромосом , каждый набор получен от одного родителя; гаметы имеют только один набор хромосом, который является смесью двух родительских наборов. Среди 23 пар хромосом есть 22 пары аутосом и одна пара половых хромосом . Как и другие млекопитающие, люди имеют систему определения пола XY , так что у женщин есть половые хромосомы XX, а у мужчин — XY. [170] Гены и окружающая среда влияют на биологическую изменчивость человека в видимых характеристиках, физиологии, восприимчивости к болезням и умственных способностях. Точное влияние генов и окружающей среды на определенные черты не совсем понятно. [171] [172]
Хотя ни один человек – даже монозиготные близнецы – не является генетически идентичным, [173] два человека в среднем будут иметь генетическое сходство 99,5% -99,9%. [174] [175] Это делает их более однородными , чем другие высшие обезьяны, включая шимпанзе. [176] [177] Эта небольшая вариация в ДНК человека по сравнению со многими другими видами предполагает наличие бутылочного горлышка популяции в позднем плейстоцене (около 100 000 лет назад), когда человеческая популяция сократилась до небольшого числа размножающихся пар. [178] [179] Силы естественного отбора продолжали действовать на человеческие популяции, и есть доказательства того, что определенные области генома демонстрируют направленный отбор в течение последних 15 000 лет. [180]
Геном человека был впервые секвенирован в 2001 году [181] , а к 2020 году были секвенированы сотни тысяч геномов. [182] В 2012 году Международный проект HapMap сравнил геномы 1184 человек из 11 популяций и выявил 1,6 миллиона однонуклеотидных полиморфизмов . [183] Африканские популяции имеют наибольшее количество частных генетических вариантов. Хотя многие из распространенных вариантов, обнаруженных в популяциях за пределами Африки, также встречаются на африканском континенте, все еще есть большое количество, которые являются частными для этих регионов, особенно Океании и Америки . [184] По оценкам 2010 года у людей было приблизительно 22 000 генов. [185] Сравнивая митохондриальную ДНК , которая наследуется только от матери, генетики пришли к выводу, что последний общий предок женского пола, генетический маркер которого обнаружен у всех современных людей, так называемая митохондриальная Ева , должна была жить примерно от 90 000 до 200 000 лет назад. [186] [187] [188] [189]
Большая часть человеческого воспроизводства происходит путем внутреннего оплодотворения посредством полового акта , но также может происходить с помощью процедур вспомогательных репродуктивных технологий . [190] Средний срок беременности составляет 38 недель, но нормальная беременность может варьироваться до 37 дней. [191] Эмбриональное развитие у человека охватывает первые восемь недель развития; в начале девятой недели эмбрион называется плодом . [ 192] Люди могут вызывать ранние роды или выполнять кесарево сечение , если ребенку необходимо родиться раньше по медицинским показаниям. [193] В развитых странах младенцы обычно весят 3–4 кг (7–9 фунтов) и имеют рост 47–53 см (19–21 дюйм) при рождении. [194] [195] Однако низкий вес при рождении распространен в развивающихся странах и способствует высокому уровню детской смертности в этих регионах. [196]
По сравнению с другими видами, роды у человека опасны, с гораздо более высоким риском осложнений и смерти. [197] Размер головы плода более точно соответствует тазу , чем у других приматов. [198] Причина этого не полностью понятна, [n 3] но это способствует болезненным родам, которые могут длиться 24 часа или более. [200] Шансы на успешные роды значительно возросли в 20 веке в более богатых странах с появлением новых медицинских технологий. Напротив, беременность и естественные роды остаются опасными испытаниями в развивающихся регионах мира, где уровень материнской смертности примерно в 100 раз выше, чем в развитых странах. [201]
И мать, и отец заботятся о человеческом потомстве, в отличие от других приматов, у которых родительская забота в основном осуществляется матерью. [202] Беспомощные при рождении , люди продолжают расти в течение нескольких лет, обычно достигая половой зрелости в возрасте от 15 до 17 лет. [203] [204] [205] Продолжительность жизни человека делится на различные этапы, варьирующиеся от трех до двенадцати. Общие этапы включают младенчество , детство , юность , зрелость и старость . [206] Продолжительность этих этапов различается в разных культурах и периодах времени, но типичным является необычно быстрый скачок роста в подростковом возрасте. [207] Женщины вступают в менопаузу и становятся бесплодными примерно в возрасте 50 лет. [208] Было высказано предположение, что менопауза повышает общий репродуктивный успех женщины, позволяя ей вкладывать больше времени и ресурсов в свое существующее потомство, а в свою очередь и в их детей ( гипотеза бабушки ), а не продолжать рожать детей до старости. [209] [210]
Продолжительность жизни человека зависит от двух основных факторов: генетики и образа жизни. [211] По разным причинам, включая биологические/генетические причины, женщины в среднем живут примерно на четыре года дольше мужчин. [212] По состоянию на 2018 год [update]средняя продолжительность жизни при рождении девочки в мире оценивается в 74,9 года по сравнению с 70,4 годами для мальчика. [213] [214] Существуют значительные географические различия в продолжительности жизни человека, в основном коррелирующие с экономическим развитием — например, ожидаемая продолжительность жизни при рождении в Гонконге составляет 87,6 года для девочек и 81,8 года для мальчиков, в то время как в Центральноафриканской Республике она составляет 55,0 лет для девочек и 50,6 лет для мальчиков. [215] [216] Развитый мир в целом стареет, медианный возраст составляет около 40 лет. В развивающемся мире медианный возраст составляет от 15 до 20 лет. В то время как каждый пятый европеец находится в возрасте 60 лет или старше, только один из двадцати африканцев находится в возрасте 60 лет или старше. [217] В 2012 году Организация Объединенных Наций подсчитала, что в мире насчитывалось 316 600 живущих долгожителей (людей в возрасте 100 лет и старше). [218]
Diet
Humans living in Bali, Indonesia, preparing a meal
Humans are omnivorous,[219] capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.[220][221] Human groups have adopted a range of diets from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.[222] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture and has led to the development of food science.[223]
Until the development of agriculture, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection.[223] This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and captured in order to be consumed.[224] It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus.[225] Human domestication of wild plants began about 11,700 years ago, leading to the development of agriculture,[226] a gradual process called the Neolithic Revolution.[227] These dietary changes may also have altered human biology; the spread of dairy farming provided a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults.[228][229] The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.[230][231]
In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat.[232] Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days, with a maximum of one week.[233] In 2020 it is estimated 9 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation.[234][235] Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease.[236] However, global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed and a few developing countries. Worldwide, over one billion people are obese,[237] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic."[238] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.[237]
There is biological variation in the human species – with traits such as blood type, genetic diseases, cranial features, facial features, organ systems, eye color, hair color and texture, height and build, and skin color varying across the globe. The typical height of an adult human is between 1.4 and 1.9 m (4 ft 7 in and 6 ft 3 in), although this varies significantly depending on sex, ethnic origin, and family bloodlines.[239][240] Body size is partly determined by genes and is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet, exercise, and sleep patterns.[241]
A variety of human hair colors; from top left, clockwise: black, brown, blonde, white, red.
There is evidence that populations have adapted genetically to various external factors. The genes that allow adult humans to digest lactose are present in high frequencies in populations that have long histories of cattle domestication and are more dependent on cow milk.[242]Sickle cell anemia, which may provide increased resistance to malaria, is frequent in populations where malaria is endemic.[243][244] Populations that have for a very long time inhabited specific climates tend to have developed specific phenotypes that are beneficial for those environments – short stature and stocky build in cold regions, tall and lanky in hot regions, and with high lung capacities or other adaptations at high altitudes.[245] Some populations have evolved highly unique adaptations to very specific environmental conditions, such as those advantageous to ocean-dwelling lifestyles and freediving in the Bajau.[246]
Human hair ranges in color from red to blond to brown to black, which is the most frequent.[247] Hair color depends on the amount of melanin, with concentrations fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism.[248] It tends to vary clinally and generally correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area, with darker skin mostly around the equator.[249] Skin darkening may have evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation.[250] Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make.[251] Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.[252][253]
There is relatively little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that occurs is at the individual level.[248][254][255] Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation.[256][257][258][259] Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.[260][261][262] Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.[263][264]
Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the African continent are the most genetically diverse[265] and genetic diversity decreases with migratory distance from Africa, possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration.[266][267] These non-African populations acquired new genetic inputs from local admixture with archaic populations and have much greater variation from Neanderthals and Denisovans than is found in Africa,[184] though Neanderthal admixture into African populations may be underestimated.[268] Furthermore, recent studies have found that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly West Africa, have ancestral genetic variation which predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations. Some of this ancestry is thought to originate from admixture with an unknown archaic hominin that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans.[269][270]
Humans are a gonochoric species, meaning they are divided into male and female sexes.[271][272][273] The greatest degree of genetic variation exists between males and females. While the nucleotide genetic variation of individuals of the same sex across global populations is no greater than 0.1%–0.5%, the genetic difference between males and females is between 1% and 2%. Males on average are 15% heavier and 15 cm (6 in) taller than females.[274][275] On average, men have about 40–50% more upper-body strength and 20–30% more lower-body strength than women at the same weight, due to higher amounts of muscle and larger muscle fibers.[276] Women generally have a higher body fat percentage than men.[277] Women have lighter skin than men of the same population; this has been explained by a higher need for vitamin D in females during pregnancy and lactation.[278] As there are chromosomal differences between females and males, some X and Y chromosome-related conditions and disorders only affect either men or women.[279] After allowing for body weight and volume, the male voice is usually an octave deeper than the female voice.[280] Women have a longer life span in almost every population around the world.[281] There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare.[282][283]
Psychology
Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures
Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition.[285][286] This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species.[287] Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to.[288]
There are some traits that, although not strictly unique, do set humans apart from other animals.[289] Humans may be the only animals who have episodic memory and who can engage in "mental time travel".[290] Even compared with other social animals, humans have an unusually high degree of flexibility in their facial expressions.[291] Humans are the only animals known to cry emotional tears.[292] Humans are one of the few animals able to self-recognize in mirror tests[293] and there is also debate over to what extent humans are the only animals with a theory of mind.[294][295]
Sleep and dreaming
Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including reduced memory, fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.[296]
During sleep humans dream, where they experience sensory images and sounds. Dreaming is stimulated by the pons and mostly occurs during the REM phase of sleep.[297] The length of a dream can vary, from a few seconds up to 30 minutes.[298] Humans have three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven.[299] Dreamers are more likely to remember the dream if awakened during the REM phase. The events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware.[300] Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur or give a sense of inspiration.[301]
Consciousness and thought
Human consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal or external existence.[302] Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial,[303] being "at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives".[304] The only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists.[305] Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as consciousness. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is sensory experience itself, and access consciousness, which can be used for reasoning or directly controlling actions.[306] It is sometimes synonymous with 'the mind', and at other times, an aspect of it. Historically it is associated with introspection, private thought, imagination and volition.[307] It now often includes some kind of experience, cognition, feeling or perception. It may be 'awareness', or 'awareness of awareness', or self-awareness.[308] There might be different levels or orders of consciousness,[309] or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features.[310]
The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses is known as cognition.[311] The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time.[312] The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior.[313] Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age.[314][315] This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Psychologists have developed intelligence tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population.[316]
Human motivation is not yet wholly understood. From a psychological perspective, Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a well-established theory that can be defined as the process of satisfying certain needs in ascending order of complexity.[317] From a more general, philosophical perspective, human motivation can be defined as a commitment to, or withdrawal from, various goals requiring the application of human ability. Furthermore, incentive and preference are both factors, as are any perceived links between incentives and preferences. Volition may also be involved, in which case willpower is also a factor. Ideally, both motivation and volition ensure the selection, striving for, and realization of goals in an optimal manner, a function beginning in childhood and continuing throughout a lifetime in a process known as socialization.[318]
Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system[319][320] brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.[321][322] They are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity,[323] and motivation. Emotion has a significant influence on human behavior and their ability to learn.[324] Acting on extreme or uncontrolled emotions can lead to social disorder and crime,[325] with studies showing criminals may have a lower emotional intelligence than normal.[326]
Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as joy, interest or contentment, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair.[327]Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some define it as experiencing the feeling of positive emotional affects, while avoiding the negative ones.[328][329] Others see it as an appraisal of life satisfaction or quality of life.[330] Recent research suggests that being happy might involve experiencing some negative emotions when humans feel they are warranted.[331]
Sexuality and love
Human parents often display familial love for their children.
For humans, sexuality involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors.[332][333] Because it is a broad term, which has varied with historical contexts over time, it lacks a precise definition.[333] The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle.[332][333] Sexuality also affects and is affected by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.[332][333] Sexual desire, or libido, is a basic mental state present at the beginning of sexual behavior. Studies show that men desire sex more than women and masturbate more often.[334]
Humans can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation,[335] although most humans are heterosexual.[336][337] While homosexual behavior occurs in some other animals, only humans and domestic sheep have so far been found to exhibit exclusive preference for same-sex relationships.[336] Most evidence supports nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation,[336] as cultures that are very tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it.[337][338] Research in neuroscience and genetics suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well.[339]
Love most commonly refers to a feeling of strong attraction or emotional attachment. It can be impersonal (the love of an object, ideal, or strong political or spiritual connection) or interpersonal (love between humans).[340] When in love dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin and other chemicals stimulate the brain's pleasure center, leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement.[341]
Culture
Humanity's unprecedented set of intellectual skills were a key factor in the species' eventual technological advancement and concomitant domination of the biosphere.[345] Disregarding extinct hominids, humans are the only animals known to teach generalizable information,[346] innately deploy recursive embedding to generate and communicate complex concepts,[347] engage in the "folk physics" required for competent tool design,[348][349] or cook food in the wild.[350] Teaching and learning preserves the cultural and ethnographic identity of human societies.[351] Other traits and behaviors that are mostly unique to humans include starting fires,[352]phoneme structuring[353] and vocal learning.[354]
While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal.[355] Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open – an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols.[356][357] Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors.[150]
Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, audibly in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and through tactile media such as braille.[358] Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups.[359] There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct.[360]
The arts
Human arts can take many forms including visual, literary, and performing. Visual art can range from paintings and sculptures to film, fashion design, and architecture.[361] Literary arts can include prose, poetry, and dramas. The performing arts generally involve theatre, music, and dance.[362][363] Humans often combine the different forms (for example, music videos).[364] Other entities that have been described as having artistic qualities include food preparation, video games, and medicine.[365][366][367] As well as providing entertainment and transferring knowledge, the arts are also used for political purposes.[368]
Art is a defining characteristic of humans and there is evidence for a relationship between creativity and language.[369] The earliest evidence of art was shell engravings made by Homo erectus 300,000 years before modern humans evolved.[370] Art attributed to H. sapiens existed at least 75,000 years ago, with jewellery and drawings found in caves in South Africa.[371][372] There are various hypotheses as to why humans have adapted to the arts. These include allowing them to better problem solve issues, providing a means to control or influence other humans, encouraging cooperation and contribution within a society or increasing the chance of attracting a potential mate.[373] The use of imagination developed through art, combined with logic may have given early humans an evolutionary advantage.[369]
Evidence of humans engaging in musical activities predates cave art and so far music has been practiced by virtually all known human cultures.[374] There exists a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics; with humans' musical abilities being related to other abilities, including complex social human behaviours.[374] It has been shown that human brains respond to music by becoming synchronized with the rhythm and beat, a process called entrainment.[375] Dance is also a form of human expression found in all cultures[376] and may have evolved as a way to help early humans communicate.[377] Listening to music and observing dance stimulates the orbitofrontal cortex and other pleasure sensing areas of the brain.[378]
Unlike speaking, reading and writing does not come naturally to humans and must be taught.[379] Still, literature has been present before the invention of words and language, with 30,000-year-old paintings on walls inside some caves portraying a series of dramatic scenes.[380] One of the oldest surviving works of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh, first engraved on ancient Babylonian tablets about 4,000 years ago.[381] Beyond simply passing down knowledge, the use and sharing of imaginative fiction through stories might have helped develop humans' capabilities for communication and increased the likelihood of securing a mate.[382] Storytelling may also be used as a way to provide the audience with moral lessons and encourage cooperation.[380]
Tools and technologies
The SCMaglev, the fastest train in the world clocking in at 603 km/h (375 mph) as of 2015[383]
Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.[384] The use and manufacture of tools has been put forward as the ability that defines humans more than anything else[385] and has historically been seen as an important evolutionary step.[386] The technology became much more sophisticated about 1.8 million years ago,[385] with the controlled use of fire beginning around 1 million years ago.[387][388] The wheel and wheeled vehicles appeared simultaneously in several regions some time in the fourth millennium BC.[68] The development of more complex tools and technologies allowed land to be cultivated and animals to be domesticated, thus proving essential in the development of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution.[389]
Definitions of religion vary;[395] according to one definition, a religion is a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have become areas of active scientific investigation.[396][397][398] Credible evidence of religious behaviour dates to the Middle Paleolithic era (45–200 thousand years ago).[399] It may have evolved to play a role in helping enforce and encourage cooperation between humans.[400]
Although measuring religiosity is difficult,[404] a majority of humans profess some variety of religious or spiritual belief.[405] In 2015 the plurality were Christian followed by Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists.[406] As of 2015, about 16%, or slightly under 1.2 billion humans, were irreligious, including those with no religious beliefs or no identity with any religion.[407]
An aspect unique to humans is their ability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and to continually build on this information to develop tools, scientific laws and other advances to pass on further.[408] This accumulated knowledge can be tested to answer questions or make predictions about how the universe functions and has been very successful in advancing human ascendancy.[409]
Philosophy is a field of study where humans seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves and the world in which they live.[417] Philosophical inquiry has been a major feature in the development of humans' intellectual history.[418] It has been described as the "no man's land" between definitive scientific knowledge and dogmatic religious teachings.[419] Major fields of philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics).[420]
Society
Humans often live in family-based social structures
Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies.[421] Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gathererband societies.[422]
Human societies typically exhibit gender identities and gender roles that distinguish between masculine and feminine characteristics and prescribe the range of acceptable behaviours and attitudes for their members based on their sex.[423][424] The most common categorisation is a gender binary of men and women.[425] Some societies recognize a third gender,[426] or less commonly a fourth or fifth.[427][428] In some other societies, non-binary is used as an umbrella term for a range of gender identities that are not solely male or female.[429]
Gender roles are often associated with a division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power, with men enjoying more rights and privileges than women in most societies, both today and in the past.[430] As a social construct,[431] gender roles are not fixed and vary historically within a society. Challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.[432][433] Little is known about gender roles in the earliest human societies. Early modern humans probably had a range of gender roles similar to that of modern cultures from at least the Upper Paleolithic, while the Neanderthals were less sexually dimorphic and there is evidence that the behavioural difference between males and females was minimal.[434]
Kinship
All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance.[435] All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations is prohibited, and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations.[436]
Pair bonding is a ubiquitous feature of human sexual relationships, whether it is manifested as serial monogamy, polygyny, or polyandry.[437] Genetic evidence indicates that humans were predominantly polygynous for most of their existence as a species, but that this began to shift during the Neolithic, when monogamy started becoming widespread concomitantly with the transition from nomadic to sedentary societies.[438] Anatomical evidence in the form of second-to-fourth digit ratios, a biomarker for prenatal androgen effects, likewise indicates modern humans were polygynous during the Pleistocene.[439]
Ethnicity
Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.[440][441] Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed.[442] Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level.[176] Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group.[443] Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.[444][445][446]
Government and politics
The United Nations headquarters (left) in New York City, which houses one of the world's largest political organizations
As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities.[447] Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages.[448] This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances.[449]
Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids.[453] Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals.[454][455] Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian.[456] The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.[457]
Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system.[458] Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells.[459] Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money.[459] Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people.[460] There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.[461]
Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but have an increased preference for killing adults, infanticide being more common among other primates.[462] Phylogenetic analysis predicts that 2% of early H. sapiens would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times.[463] There is great variation in violence between human populations, with rates of homicide about 0.01% in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence.[464]
The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought holds that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and has appeared due to changing social conditions.[465] While not settled, current evidence indicates warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that.[465] War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war.[466] War casualty data is less reliable for pre-medieval times, especially global figures. But compared with any period over the past 600 years, the last ~80 years (post 1946), has seen a very significant drop in global military and civilian death rates due to armed conflict.[467]
^The world population and population density statistics are updated automatically from a template that uses the CIA World Factbook and United Nations World Population Prospects.[127][128]
^Cities with over 10 million inhabitants as of 2018.[129]
^Traditionally this has been explained by conflicting evolutionary pressures involved in bipedalism and encephalization (called the obstetrical dilemma), but recent research suggest it might be more complicated than that.[198][199]
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