Каталония ( / ˌ k æ t ə ˈ l oʊ n i ə / ; каталанский : Catalunya [kətəˈluɲə] ;Окситанский:Каталонский [каталуɲа];[9] Испанский:Cataluña [kataluɲa] ) являетсяавтономным сообществом Испании, обозначенным какнациональностьв егоСтатуте об автономии.[d][11]Большая часть его территории (кромеВаль д'Аран) расположена на северо-востоке Пиренейскогополуострова, к югу отПиренеи. Каталония административно разделена на четырепровинцииили восемьвегерий(регионов), которые в свою очередь делятся на 42комарки. Столица и крупнейший городБарселонаявляется вторым по численности населениямуниципалитетомв Испании и пятым по численности населения городским районом вЕвропейском Союзе.[12]
Современная Каталония включает в себя большую часть средневекового и раннего современного княжества Каталония (остальная северная часть теперь является частью французских Пиренеев-Ориенталес ). Она граничит с Францией ( Окситания ) и Андоррой на севере, Средиземным морем на востоке и испанскими автономными сообществами Арагон на западе и Валенсией на юге. В дополнение к примерно 580 км береговой линии, Каталония также имеет крупные высокие рельефы, такие как Пиренеи и Пре -Пиренеи , Поперечный хребет (Трансверсальный хребет Серралада) или Центральная депрессия. [13] Официальными языками являются каталонский , испанский и аранский диалект окситанского языка . [ 5]
В конце VIII века различные графства по всем восточным Пиренеям были созданы Франкским королевством в качестве защитного барьера от мусульманских вторжений. В X веке графство Барселона стало постепенно независимым. [14] В 1137 году Барселона и Королевство Арагон были объединены браком, в результате чего образовалась составная монархия, известная как Арагонская корона . Внутри Короны каталонские графства объединились в политическое образование, Княжество Каталония , разработав свою собственную институциональную систему, такую как каталонские суды , Женералитат и конституции , став основой для средиземноморской торговли и экспансионизма Короны. В позднее Средневековье каталонская литература процветала. В 1469 году монархи корон Арагона и Кастилии поженились и правили своими королевствами вместе, сохраняя все свои различные институты и законодательство.
Во время Франко-испанской войны (1635–1659) Княжество Каталония восстало (1640–1652) против обременительного присутствия королевской армии, и на короткое время стало республикой под французским протекторатом. По Пиренейскому договору (1659) северные части Каталонии , в основном Руссильон , были переданы Франции. Во время войны за испанское наследство (1701–1714) Арагонская корона выступила против Филиппа V Бурбона Испанского , но после Утрехтского мира (1713) каталонцы потерпели поражение с падением Барселоны 11 сентября 1714 года . Филипп V впоследствии ввел унифицированное управление по всей Испании, приняв указы Нуэва-Планта , которые, как и в других королевствах Арагонской короны, подавляли каталонские институты и законодательство. В результате каталонский язык как язык правительства и литературы был вытеснен испанским.
В 19 веке Каталония сильно пострадала от Наполеоновских и Карлистских войн . Во второй трети века она пережила индустриализацию. По мере того, как богатство от промышленной экспансии росло, она увидела культурное возрождение в сочетании с зарождающимся национализмом, в то время как появилось несколько рабочих движений . Создание Второй Испанской Республики (1931–1939) предоставило Каталонии самоуправление , восстановив Женералитат в качестве автономного правительства. После гражданской войны в Испании диктатура франкистов приняла репрессивные меры, отменив каталонское самоуправление и запретив официальное использование каталонского языка. После периода автаркии , с конца 1950-х по 1970-е годы, Каталония пережила быстрый экономический рост , привлекая множество рабочих со всей Испании, сделав Барселону одним из крупнейших промышленных мегаполисов Европы и превратив Каталонию в крупное туристическое направление. В период перехода Испании к демократии (1975–1982 гг.) был восстановлен Женералитат, и Каталония вновь обрела самоуправление , оставаясь одним из самых экономически динамичных сообществ в Испании.
В 2010-х годах росла поддержка независимости Каталонии . 27 октября 2017 года парламент Каталонии в одностороннем порядке провозгласил независимость после референдума , который испанское государство сочло неконституционным. Сенат Испании проголосовал за введение прямого правления путем смещения правительства Каталонии и назначения внеочередных региональных выборов . Верховный суд Испании заключил в тюрьму семерых бывших министров правительства Каталонии по обвинению в мятеже и нецелевом использовании государственных средств, в то время как несколько других, включая тогдашнего президента Карлеса Пучдемона, бежали в другие европейские страны. Находившиеся в тюрьме [e] были помилованы правительством Испании в 2021 году.
В начале-середине 2020-х годов поддержка независимости в Каталонии снова снизилась.
Название «Каталония» ( средневековая латынь : Cathalaunia ), пишется как Cathalonia , стало использоваться для обозначения родины каталонцев ( Cathalanenses ) в конце XI века и, вероятно, ранее использовалось в качестве территориального обозначения группы графств, входивших в состав Готской и Испанской марок под контролем графа Барселоны и его родственников. [16] Происхождение названия Каталония может толковаться по-разному из-за отсутствия доказательств.
Одна из теорий предполагает, что Каталония происходит от названия Gothia (или Gauthia ) Launia («Земля готов » ) , поскольку происхождение каталонских графов, лордов и людей было обнаружено в Марше Готии, известной как Gothia , откуда теоретически произошло Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Cathalaunia > Catalonia . [17] [18] В Средние века византийские летописцы утверждали, что Каталония происходит от местной смеси готов с аланами , изначально составлявшими Goth-Alania . [19]
Другие теории предполагают:
На английском языке Catalonia произносится как / k æ t ə ˈ l oʊ n i ə / . Родное название Catalunya произносится как [kətəˈluɲə] в центральном каталонском , наиболее распространённом варианте, и [kataˈluɲa] в северо-западном каталонском . Испанское название — Cataluña ( [kataˈluɲa] ), а аранское название — Catalonha ( [kataˈluɲa] ).
Первые известные человеческие поселения на территории современной Каталонии появились в начале среднего палеолита . Самым древним известным следом человеческого обитания является нижняя челюсть , найденная в Баньолесе , которую некоторые источники [ какие? ] описывают как донеандертальскую , то есть возрастом около 200 000 лет; другие источники предполагают, что она была всего на треть моложе. [26] От следующей доисторической эпохи, эпипалеолита или мезолита , сохранились важные останки, большая часть которых датируется периодом между 8000 и 5000 годами до нашей эры, например, Сан-Грегори ( Фальсет ) и Эль-Филадор ( Маргалеф- де-Монсан). Наиболее важными памятниками этих эпох, все раскопанными в районе Мойанес , являются Бальма-дель-Гаи (эпипалеолит) и Бальма-де-л'Эсплуга (поздний эпипалеолит и ранний неолит). [27]
Эпоха неолита началась в Каталонии около 5000 г. до н. э., хотя население медленнее создавало постоянные поселения, чем в других местах, благодаря обилию лесов, что позволяло продолжать в основном культуру охотников и собирателей . Примером таких поселений может служить Ла Драга в Баньолесе, «ранняя неолитическая деревня, которая датируется концом 6-го тысячелетия до н. э.» [28]
Период халколита развивался в Каталонии между 2500 и 1800 годами до нашей эры, с началом строительства медных предметов. Бронзовый век наступил между 1800 и 700 годами до нашей эры. Остаток этой эпохи немного, но были известны некоторые поселения в нижней зоне Сегре . Бронзовый век совпал с прибытием индоевропейцев через культуру полей погребальных урн , чьи последовательные волны миграции начались около 1200 года до нашей эры, и они были ответственны за создание первых протогородских поселений. [29] Примерно в середине 7 века до нашей эры в Каталонию пришел железный век .
В доримские времена область, которая сейчас называется Каталонией на северо-востоке Пиренейского полуострова , как и остальная часть средиземноморской стороны полуострова, была заселена иберами . Иберы этой области — илергеты , индигеты и лакетаны (серретаны) — также поддерживали отношения с народами Средиземноморья. Некоторые городские агломерации стали значимыми, включая Илерду ( Лерида ) внутри страны, Хиберу (возможно, Ампосту или Тортосу ) или Индику ( Ульястрет ). Прибрежные торговые колонии были основаны древними греками , которые поселились вокруг залива Росес , в Эмпорионе ( Эмпуриес ) и Росесе в 8 веке до нашей эры . Карфагеняне недолго правили территорией в ходе Второй Пунической войны и торговали с окружающим иберийским населением .
После поражения Карфагена от Римской республики северо-восток Иберии первым попал под римское правление и стал частью Испании , самой западной части Римской империи . Таррако (современная Таррагона ) был одним из важнейших римских городов в Испании и столицей провинции Тарраконенсис . Другими важными городами римского периода являются Илерда (Лерида), Дертоса (Тортоса), Герунда (Жирона), а также порты Эмпурии (бывший Эмпорион) и Барсино ( Барселона ). Что касается остальной части Испании, латинское право было предоставлено всем городам во время правления Веспасиана (69–79 гг. н. э.), в то время как римское гражданство было предоставлено всем свободным людям империи Эдиктом Каракаллы в 212 г. н. э. (Таррако, столица, уже была колонией римского права с 45 г. до н. э.). Это была богатая сельскохозяйственная провинция (оливковое масло, вино, пшеница ), и в первые века существования Империи строились дороги (самой важной из которых была Виа Августа , проложенная параллельно побережью Средиземного моря) и инфраструктура, такая как акведуки .
Обращение в христианство , засвидетельствованное в 3 веке, было завершено в городских районах в 4 веке. Хотя Испания оставалась под римским владычеством и не попала под власть вандалов , свевов и аланов в 5 веке, основные города подвергались частым разграблениям и некоторой деурбанизации .
После падения Западной Римской империи эта территория была завоевана вестготами и правила как часть Вестготского королевства в течение почти двух с половиной столетий. В 718 году она перешла под контроль мусульман и стала частью Аль-Андалуса , провинции Омейядского халифата . С завоевания Руссильона в 760 году до завоевания Барселоны в 801 году Франкская империя отвоевала у мусульман территорию между Септиманией и рекой Льобрегат и создала сильно военизированные, самоуправляемые графства . Эти графства входили в историографически известную как Готская и Испанская Марки, буферную зону на юге Франкской империи в бывшей провинции Септимания и на северо-востоке Пиренейского полуострова, чтобы выступать в качестве оборонительного барьера для Франкской империи против дальнейших мусульманских вторжений из Аль-Андалуса. [30]
Эти графства попали под власть графов Барселоны , которые были вассалами франков, назначенными императором франков, феодалом которых они были (801–988). Самое раннее известное использование названия « Каталония » для этих графств датируется 1117 годом. В конце IX века граф Барселоны Вильфред Волосатый (878–897) сделал свои титулы наследственными и таким образом основал династию Дома Барселоны , которая правила в Каталонии до 1410 года.
В 988 году Боррель II , граф Барселоны, не признал нового французского короля Гуго Капета своим королем, что свидетельствует об утрате зависимости от франкского правления и подтверждает независимость его преемников (начиная с Рамона Борреля I ) от короны Капетингов, которых они считали узурпаторами франкского королевства Каролингов. [31] В начале одиннадцатого века каталонские графства пережили важный процесс феодализации, однако усилия спонсируемых церковью Мирных и Перемирных ассамблей и вмешательство Рамона Беренгера I , графа Барселоны (1035–1076) в переговоры с мятежной знатью привели к частичному восстановлению власти графства в рамках нового феодального порядка. Чтобы достичь этой цели, Рамон Беренгер начал вносить изменения в законодательство в письменных обычаях Барселоны , которые были одним из первых европейских сборников феодального права.
В 1137 году Рамон Беренгер IV, граф Барселоны, решил принять предложение короля Рамиро II Арагонского о получении королевства Арагон и женитьбе на его дочери Петрониле , установив династический союз графства Барселона с Арагоном, создав составную монархию, позже известную как Арагонская корона , и превратив каталонские графства, которые были вассализованы или объединены с графством Барселона, в княжество Арагонской короны. Во время правления его сына Альфонса , в 1173 году, Каталония впервые стала считаться юридическим лицом, в то время как Обычаи Барселоны были составлены в процессе, чтобы превратить их в закон и обычай Каталонии ( Consuetudinem Cathalonie ), считающиеся одним из «вех каталонской политической идентичности». [32]
В 1258 году, посредством Корбейского договора , Хайме I Арагонский , король Арагона и граф Барселоны , король Мальорки и Валенсии, отказался от своих семейных прав и владений в Окситании , в то время как король Франции Людовик IX формально отказался от любых исторических претензий на феодальное господство, которые он мог иметь над каталонскими графствами, за исключением графства Фуа , несмотря на противодействие короля Хайме. [33] Этот договор подтвердил, с французской точки зрения, независимость каталонских графств, созданную и осуществлявшуюся в течение предыдущих трех столетий, но также означал необратимое разделение между географическими областями Каталонии и Лангедока .
Как прибрежная территория, Каталония стала базой морских сил Арагонской короны, которые распространили власть короны на Средиземноморье, превратив Барселону в могущественный и богатый город. В период 1164–1410 годов новые территории, Королевство Валенсия , Королевство Майорка , Королевство Сардиния , Королевство Сицилия и, на короткое время, Герцогства Афины и Неопатры , были включены в династические владения Дома Арагона . Расширение сопровождалось большим развитием каталонской торговли, создав обширную торговую сеть по всему Средиземноморью, которая конкурировала с торговыми сетями морских республик Генуи и Венеции .
В то же время Княжество Каталония разработало сложную институциональную и политическую систему, основанную на концепции пакта между сословиями королевства и королем. Законодательство Каталонии должно было быть принято каталонскими судами ( Corts Catalanes ), одним из первых парламентских органов Европы, который с 1283 года получил право принимать законы совместно с монархом. [34] Суды состояли из трех сословий, организованных в «гербы» ( braços ), возглавлялись монархом и утверждали каталонские конституции , которые устанавливали свод прав для жителей княжества. Для сбора общих налогов каталонские суды 1359 года учредили постоянный представительный орган, известный как «Депутация генерала» или Женералитат , который приобрел значительную политическую власть в течение следующих столетий. [35]
Владения Арагонской короны сильно пострадали от пандемии Черной смерти и последующих вспышек чумы . Между 1347 и 1497 годами Каталония потеряла 37 процентов своего населения. [36] В 1410 году последний правящий монарх из Дома Барселоны, король Мартин I, умер, не оставив потомков. Согласно Компромиссу Каспе (1412), представители королевств Арагон, Валенсия и Княжества Каталония назначили Фердинанда из кастильского Дома Трастамара королем Арагонской короны. [37] Во время правления его сына, Жуана II , постоянный экономический кризис и социальная и политическая напряженность в Княжестве привели к Каталонской гражданской войне (1462–1472) и Войне ременций (1462–1486), которые истощили Каталонию. Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe (1486 г.) освободила крестьян ременсы от злых феодальных обычаев .
В позднее Средневековье каталонская литература процветала в самой Каталонии, а также в королевствах Майорка и Валенсия; ею занимались такие выдающиеся авторы, как философ Рамон Луллий , валенсийский поэт Аусиас Марк и Жуанот Марторель , автор романа «Тирант Белый» , опубликованного в 1490 году.
Фердинанд II Арагонский , внук Фердинанда I, и королева Изабелла I Кастильская поженились в 1469 году, позже приняв титул Католических монархов ; впоследствии это событие рассматривалось историографами как рассвет объединенной Испании. В это время, хотя и объединенные браком, короны Кастилии и Арагона сохраняли отдельные территории, каждая сохраняя свои собственные традиционные институты, парламенты, законы и валюту. [38] Кастилия заказывала экспедиции в Америку и извлекала выгоду из богатств, приобретенных в ходе испанской колонизации Америки , но со временем также понесла основное бремя военных расходов объединенных испанских королевств. После смерти Изабеллы Фердинанд II лично правил обеими коронами.
В силу происхождения от своих бабушек и дедушек по материнской линии, Фердинанда II Арагонского и Изабеллы I Кастильской, в 1516 году Карл I Испанский стал первым королем, который правил коронами Кастилии и Арагона одновременно по собственному праву. После смерти своего деда по отцовской линии ( Дом Габсбургов ), Максимилиана I, императора Священной Римской империи , он был также избран Карлом V, императором Священной Римской империи , в 1519 году . [39]
В течение следующих нескольких столетий Княжество Каталония в целом находилось на проигравшей стороне в серии войн, которые неуклонно приводили к усилению централизации власти в Испании. Несмотря на это, между XVI и XVIII веками участие политического сообщества в местном и общем каталонском правительстве росло (тем самым укрепляя его конституционную систему), в то время как короли отсутствовали, представляемые вице-королем . Напряженность между каталонскими институтами и монархией начала возникать. Большое и обременительное присутствие испанской королевской армии в княжестве из-за франко-испанской войны привело к восстанию крестьян, спровоцировавшем Войну Жнецов (1640–1652), в результате которой Каталония восстала (недолгое время как республика во главе с президентом Женералитата Пау Кларисом ) с французской помощью против испанской короны за нарушение прав Каталонии во время Тридцатилетней войны . [40] В течение короткого периода Франция полностью взяла под свой контроль Каталонию. Большая часть Каталонии была отвоевана испанской монархией, но права каталонцев были в основном признаны. Руссильон и половина Серданьи были потеряны Францией по Пиренейскому договору (1659). [41]
Самым значительным конфликтом, касающимся правящей монархии, была Война за испанское наследство (1701–1715), которая началась, когда бездетный Карл II Испанский , последний испанский Габсбург, умер без наследника в 1700 году. Карл II выбрал Филиппа V Испанского из французского дома Бурбонов . Каталония, как и другие территории, которые формировали Арагонскую корону, восстала в поддержку австрийского претендента Габсбурга Карла VI, императора Священной Римской империи , в его притязаниях на испанский престол как Карла III Испанского. Борьба между домами Бурбонов и Габсбургов за испанскую корону расколола Испанию и Европу.
Падение Барселоны 11 сентября 1714 года королем Бурбонов Филиппом V военным путем положило конец притязаниям Габсбургов на испанскую корону, что стало юридическим фактом в Утрехтском договоре . Филипп чувствовал, что каталонский двор предал его, поскольку изначально поклялся ему в верности, когда он председательствовал в нем в 1701 году. В отместку за предательство и вдохновленный французской моделью, первый король Бурбонов принял указы Нуэва-Планта 1707, 1715 и 1716 годов, включив королевства Арагонской короны, включая Княжество Каталония в 1716 году, в качестве провинций Короны Кастилии, положив конец их статусу отдельных государств вместе с их парламентами, институтами и государственными и административными законами , а также их пактистской политикой в рамках централизованного и абсолютистского королевства Испании во французском стиле. [42] Во второй половине XVII века и в XVIII веке (исключая войну за престолонаследие и послевоенную нестабильность) Каталония успешно осуществляла процесс экономического роста и протоиндустриализации , укрепившийся в последней четверти века, когда закончилась монополия Кастилии на торговлю с американскими колониями.
После войны за испанское наследство ассимиляция Арагонской короны кастильской короной посредством декретов Нуэва-Планта стала первым шагом в создании испанского национального государства . [43] Эта националистическая политика, иногда весьма агрессивная, [44] [45] [46] [47] и все еще остающаяся в силе, [48] [49] [50] была и остается источником повторяющихся территориальных конфликтов внутри государства.
В начале девятнадцатого века Каталония сильно пострадала от Наполеоновских войн . В 1808 году она была оккупирована французскими войсками под командованием генерала Гийома Филибера Дюэма после того, как он завоевал Барселону; сопротивление оккупации в конечном итоге переросло в Пиренейскую войну . Отказ от французского владычества был институционализирован с созданием «хунт» (советов), которые, оставаясь верными Бурбонам, осуществляли суверенитет и представительство территории из-за исчезновения старых институтов. Наполеон взял под прямой контроль Каталонию, чтобы восстановить порядок, создав правительство Каталонии под властью маршала Ожеро и снова на короткое время сделав каталонский официальным языком. Между 1812 и 1814 годами Каталония была присоединена к Франции и организована в виде четырех департаментов . [51] Французские войска эвакуировали каталонскую территорию в конце 1814 года. После реставрации Бурбонов в Испании и смерти абсолютистского короля Фердинанда VII (1833) начались Карлистские войны против недавно созданного либерального государства Изабеллы II . Каталония была разделена, прибрежные и наиболее индустриальные районы поддерживали либерализм, в то время как большая часть сельской местности находилась в руках фракции Карлистов ; последняя предложила восстановить институциональные системы, подавленные декретами Нуэва-Планта в древних королевствах Арагонской короны. Консолидация либерального государства привела к новому провинциальному разделению Испании, включая Каталонию, которая была разделена на четыре провинции (Барселона, Жирона, Лерида и Таррагона).
Во второй трети XIX века Каталония стала важным промышленным центром, особенно сосредоточенным на текстиле . Этот процесс был следствием условий протоиндустриализации текстильного производства в предыдущие два столетия, роста капитала за счет экспорта вина и бренди, [52] : 27 и позднее был усилен государственной поддержкой внутреннего производства. В 1832 году фабрика Бонаплата в Барселоне стала первой фабрикой в стране, которая использовала паровой двигатель . [53] : 308 Первая железная дорога на Пиренейском полуострове была построена между Барселоной и Матаро в 1848 году. [ необходима цитата ] Политика поощрения городов-компаний также привела к расцвету текстильной промышленности в сельской местности в 1860-х и 1870-х годах. Хотя политика испанского правительства колебалась между свободной торговлей и протекционизмом, протекционистские законы [es] стали более распространенными. По сей день Каталония остается одним из самых индустриализированных регионов Испании.
В тот же период Барселона была центром промышленного конфликта и революционных восстаний, известных как «bullangues». В Каталонии среди прогрессистов начало развиваться республиканское течение, привлекавшее многих каталонцев, выступавших за федерализацию Испании. Между тем, каталонский язык пережил романтическое культурное возрождение со второй трети века, Renaixença , как среди рабочего класса, так и среди буржуазии. Сразу после падения Первой Испанской республики (1873–1874) и последующей реставрации династии Бурбонов (1874) каталонский национализм начал организовываться политически под руководством республиканца-федералиста Валенти Альмиралла .
Анархистское движение было активным на протяжении последней четверти XIX века и начала XX века, основав профсоюз CNT в 1910 году и добившись одного из первых восьмичасовых рабочих дней в Европе в 1919 году. [54] Растущее недовольство воинской повинностью и армией достигло кульминации в Трагическую неделю (каталонский: Setmana Tràgica ) в Барселоне в 1909 году. Под гегемонией Регионалистской лиги Каталония впервые в эпоху модерна обрела определенную степень административного единства. В 1914 году четыре каталонские провинции получили разрешение создать содружество ( каталонский: Mancomunitat de Catalunya ), не имевшее какой-либо законодательной власти или особой политической автономии, которое осуществило амбициозную программу модернизации, но было распущено в 1925 году диктатурой Примо де Риверы (1923–1930). На последнем этапе диктатуры, когда Испания начала переживать экономический кризис, в Барселоне прошла Международная выставка 1929 года . [55]
После падения диктатуры и кратковременного провозглашения Каталонской республики , во время событий провозглашения Второй Испанской республики (14–17 апреля 1931 г.), [56] Каталония получила в 1932 г. свой первый Статут автономии от Парламента Испанской республики, предоставивший ей значительную степень самоуправления, создав автономный орган, Женералитат Каталонии, который включал парламент , исполнительную власть и кассационный суд . Лидер левых сторонников независимости Франсеск Масия был назначен его первым президентом. Согласно Статуту, каталонский язык стал официальным языком. Правительства Республиканского Женералитата во главе с лидерами Республиканской левой Каталонии (ERC) Франсеском Масией (1931–1933) и Луисом Компанисом (1933–1940) стремились реализовать модернизационную и прогрессивную социальную повестку дня, несмотря на внутренние трудности. Этот период был отмечен политическими беспорядками, последствиями экономического кризиса и их социальными последствиями. Статут автономии был приостановлен в 1934 году из-за событий 6 октября в Барселоне в ответ на [ необходимо разъяснение ] вступление в правительство Республики правой испанской националистической партии CEDA , считавшейся близкой к фашизму . [57] После победы на выборах левого крыла Народного фронта в феврале 1936 года правительство Каталонии было помиловано, и самоуправление было восстановлено.
Поражение военного мятежа против республиканского правительства в Барселоне прочно поставило Каталонию на республиканскую сторону гражданской войны в Испании . Во время войны в Каталонии было две соперничающие власти: юридическая власть Женералитата и фактическая власть вооруженных народных ополчений. [58] Ожесточенные столкновения между рабочими партиями ( CNT-FAI и POUM против PSUC ) достигли кульминации в поражении первых в 1937 году. Ситуация постепенно разрешилась в пользу Женералитата, но в то же время Женералитат потерял большую часть своих автономных полномочий в республиканской Испании. В 1938 году войска Франко разделили республиканскую территорию на две части, изолировав Каталонию от остальной республиканской территории. Поражение республиканской армии в битве на Эбро привело в 1938 и 1939 годах к оккупации Каталонии войсками Франко.
Поражение Испанской республики в гражданской войне в Испании привело к власти диктатуры Франсиско Франко , чье первое десятилетнее правление было особенно жестоким, автократичным и репрессивным как в политическом, так и в культурном, социальном и экономическом смысле. [59] В Каталонии любые виды общественной деятельности, связанные с каталонским национализмом , республиканизмом , анархизмом , социализмом , либерализмом , демократией или коммунизмом , включая публикацию книг на эти темы или просто их обсуждение на открытых собраниях, были запрещены.
Режим Франко запретил использование каталонского языка в государственных учреждениях и во время публичных мероприятий, а каталонские институты самоуправления были упразднены. Прореспубликанский президент Каталонии Луис Компанис был доставлен в Испанию из своего изгнания в оккупированной немцами Франции, где его пытали и казнили в замке Монжуик в Барселоне за преступление «военного мятежа». [60]
На более поздних этапах франкистской Испании некоторые фольклорные и религиозные празднования на каталонском языке возобновились и были терпимы. Использование каталонского языка в средствах массовой информации было запрещено, но было разрешено с начала 1950-х годов [61] в театре. Несмотря на запрет в первые годы и трудности следующего периода, публикация на каталонском языке продолжалась на протяжении всего его правления. [62]
Годы после войны были чрезвычайно тяжелыми. Каталония, как и многие другие части Испании, была опустошена войной. Восстановление после военных разрушений было медленным и осложнялось международным торговым эмбарго и автаркической политикой режима Франко. К концу 1950-х годов регион восстановил свой довоенный экономический уровень и в 1960-х годах стал второй по темпам роста экономикой в мире, что стало известно как испанское чудо . В этот период в Каталонии наблюдался впечатляющий [63] рост промышленности и туризма, что привлекло в регион большое количество рабочих со всей Испании и сделало район вокруг Барселоны одним из крупнейших промышленных мегаполисов Европы. [ необходима цитата ]
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После смерти Франко в 1975 году Каталония проголосовала за принятие демократической Конституции Испании в 1978 году, в которой Каталония восстановила политическую и культурную автономию, восстановила Женералитат (изгнанный после окончания Гражданской войны в 1939 году) в 1977 году и приняла новый Статут автономии в 1979 году, который определил Каталонию как «национальность». Первые выборы в парламент Каталонии в соответствии с этим Статутом дали президентство Каталонии Хорди Пухолю , лидеру Convergència i Unió (CiU), правоцентристской каталонской националистической избирательной коалиции, причем Пухоль переизбирался до 2003 года. На протяжении 1980-х и 1990-х годов были развернуты институты каталонской автономии, среди которых были автономная полиция Mossos d'Esquadra в 1983 году [64] и вещательная сеть Televisió de Catalunya и ее первый канал TV3 , созданные в 1983 году [65]. Была проведена обширная программа нормализации каталонского языка. Сегодня Каталония остается одним из самых экономически динамичных сообществ Испании. Столица и крупнейший город Каталонии Барселона является крупным международным культурным центром и крупным туристическим направлением. В 1992 году Барселона принимала летние Олимпийские игры . [66]
In November 2003, elections to the Parliament of Catalonia gave the government to a left-wing Catalanist coalition formed by the Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE), Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Initiative for Catalonia Greens (ICV), and the socialist Pasqual Maragall was appointed president. The new government redacted a new version of the Statute of Autonomy, with the aim of consolidate and expand certain aspects of self-government.
The new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, approved after a referendum in 2006, was contested by important sectors of the Spanish society, especially by the conservative People's Party, which sent the law to the Constitutional Court of Spain. In 2010, the Court declared non-valid some of the articles that established an autonomous Catalan system of Justice, improved aspects of the financing, a new territorial division, the status of Catalan language or the symbolical declaration of Catalonia as a nation.[67] This decision was severely contested by large sectors of Catalan society, which increased the demands of independence.[68]
A controversial independence referendum was held in Catalonia on 1 October 2017, using a disputed voting process.[69][70] It was declared illegal and suspended by the Constitutional Court of Spain, because it breached the 1978 Constitution.[71][72] Subsequent developments saw, on 27 October 2017, a symbolic declaration of independence by the Parliament of Catalonia, the enforcement of direct rule by the Spanish government through the use of Article 155 of the Constitution,[73][74][75][76][77] the dismissal of the Executive Council and the dissolution of the Parliament, with a snap regional election called for 21 December 2017, which ended with a victory of pro-independence parties.[78] Former President Carles Puigdemont and five former cabinet ministers fled Spain and took refuge in other European countries (such as Belgium, in Puigdemont's case), whereas nine other cabinet members, including vice-president Oriol Junqueras, were sentenced to prison under various charges of rebellion, sedition, and misuse of public funds.[79][80] Quim Torra became the 131st President of the Government of Catalonia on 17 May 2018,[81] after the Spanish courts blocked three other candidates.[82]
In 2018, the Assemblea Nacional Catalana joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) on behalf of Catalonia.[83]
On 14 October 2019, the Spanish Supreme court sentenced several Catalan political leaders, involved in organizing a referendum on Catalonia's independence from Spain, and convicted them on charges ranging from sedition to misuse of public funds, with sentences ranging from 9 to 13 years in prison. This decision sparked demonstrations around Catalonia.[84] They were later pardoned by the Spanish government and left prison in June 2021.[85][86]
In the early-to-mid 2020s support for independence declined.[87][88][89][90]
The climate of Catalonia is diverse. The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona provinces feature a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona province) show a mostly Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The Pyrenean peaks have a continental (Köppen D) or even Alpine climate (Köppen ET) at the highest summits, while the valleys have a maritime or oceanic climate sub-type (Köppen Cfb).
In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry and hot with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around 26–31 °C (79–88 °F). Winter is cool or slightly cold depending on the location. It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline. Spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons, except for the Pyrenean valleys, where summer is typically stormy.
The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer. Temperature may reach 35 °C (95 °F), some days even 40 °C (104 °F). Nights are cooler there than at the coast, with the temperature of around 14–17 °C (57–63 °F). Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains; it can be especially persistent, with freezing drizzle episodes and subzero temperatures during winter, mainly along the Ebro and Segre valleys and in Plain of Vic.
Catalonia has a marked geographical diversity, considering the relatively small size of its territory. The geography is conditioned by the Mediterranean coast, with 580 kilometres (360 miles) of coastline, and the towering Pyrenees along the long northern border. Catalonia is divided into three main geomorphological units:[91]
The Catalan Pyrenees represent almost half in length of the Pyrenees, as it extends more than 200 kilometres (120 miles). Traditionally differentiated the Axial Pyrenees (the main part) and the Pre-Pyrenees (southern from the Axial) which are mountainous formations parallel to the main mountain ranges but with lower altitudes, less steep and a different geological formation. The highest mountain of Catalonia, located north of the comarca of Pallars Sobirà is the Pica d'Estats (3,143 m), followed by the Puigpedrós (2,914 m). The Serra del Cadí comprises the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees and forms the southern boundary of the Cerdanya valley.
The Central Catalan Depression is a plain located between the Pyrenees and Pre-Coastal Mountains. Elevation ranges from 200 to 600 metres (660 to 1,970 feet). The plains and the water that descend from the Pyrenees have made it fertile territory for agriculture and numerous irrigation canals have been built. Another major plain is the Empordà, located in the northeast.
The Catalan Mediterranean system is based on two ranges running roughly parallel to the coast (southwest–northeast), called the Coastal and the Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Range is both the shorter and the lower of the two, while the Pre-Coastal is greater in both length and elevation. Areas within the Pre-Coastal Range include Montserrat, Montseny and the Ports de Tortosa-Beseit. Lowlands alternate with the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Lowland is located to the East of the Coastal Range between it and the coast, while the Pre-Coastal Lowlands are located inland, between the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges, and includes the Vallès and Penedès plains.
Catalonia is a showcase of European landscapes on a small scale. Just over 30,000 square kilometres (12,000 square miles) hosting a variety of substrates, soils, climates, directions, altitudes and distances to the sea. The area is of great ecological diversity and a remarkable wealth of landscapes, habitats and species.
The fauna of Catalonia comprises a minority of animals endemic to the region and a majority of non-endemic animals. Much of Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate (except mountain areas), which makes many of the animals that live there adapted to Mediterranean ecosystems. Of mammals, there are plentiful wild boar, red foxes, as well as roe deer and in the Pyrenees, the Pyrenean chamois. Other large species such as the bear have been recently reintroduced.
The waters of the Balearic Sea are rich in biodiversity, and even the megafaunas of the oceans; various types of whales (such as fin, sperm, and pilot) and dolphins can be found in the area.[92][93]
Most of Catalonia belongs to the Mediterranean Basin. The Catalan hydrographic network consists of two important basins, the one of the Ebro and the one that comprises the internal basins of Catalonia (respectively covering 46.84% and 51.43% of the territory), all of them flow to the Mediterranean. Furthermore, there is the Garona river basin that flows to the Atlantic Ocean, but it only covers 1.73% of the Catalan territory.
The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors, an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast. The first slope provides an average of 18,700 cubic hectometres (4.5 cubic miles) per year, while the second only provides an average of 2,020 hm3 (0.48 cu mi)/year. The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river, from which the Segre is an important tributary. Moreover, in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters, although there is inequality between comarques, given the complex geological structure of the territory.[94] In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes, remnants of the ice age. The biggest are the lake of Banyoles and the recently recovered lake of Ivars.
The Catalan coast is almost rectilinear, with a length of 580 kilometres (360 mi) and few landforms—the most relevant are the Cap de Creus and the Gulf of Roses to the north and the Ebro Delta to the south. The Catalan Coastal Range hugs the coastline, and it is split into two segments, one between L'Estartit and the town of Blanes (the Costa Brava), and the other at the south, at the Costes del Garraf.
The principal rivers in Catalonia are the Ter, Llobregat, and the Ebro (Catalan: Ebre), all of which run into the Mediterranean.
The majority of Catalan population is concentrated in 30% of the territory, mainly in the coastal plains. Intensive agriculture, livestock farming and industrial activities have been accompanied by a massive tourist influx (more than 20 million annual visitors), a rate of urbanization and even of major metropolisation which has led to a strong urban sprawl: two thirds of Catalans live in the urban area of Barcelona, while the proportion of urban land increased from 4.2% in 1993 to 6.2% in 2009, a growth of 48.6% in sixteen years, complemented with a dense network of transport infrastructure. This is accompanied by a certain agricultural abandonment (decrease of 15% of all areas cultivated in Catalonia between 1993 and 2009) and a global threat to natural environment. Human activities have also put some animal species at risk, or even led to their disappearance from the territory, like the gray wolf and probably the brown bear of the Pyrenees. The pressure created by this model of life means that the country's ecological footprint exceeds its administrative area.[95]
Faced with these problems, Catalan authorities initiated several measures whose purpose is to protect natural ecosystems. Thus, in 1990, the Catalan government created the Nature Conservation Council (Catalan: Consell de Protecció de la Natura), an advisory body with the aim to study, protect and manage the natural environments and landscapes of Catalonia. In addition, the Generalitat has carried out the Plan of Spaces of Natural Interest (Pla d'Espais d'Interès Natural or PEIN) in 1992 while eighteen Natural Spaces of Special Protection (Espais Naturals de Protecció Especial or ENPE) have been instituted.
There's a National Park, Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici; fourteen Natural Parks, Alt Pirineu, Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, Cadí-Moixeró, Cap de Creus, Sources of Ter and Freser, Collserola, Ebro Delta, Ports, Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter, Montseny, Montserrat, Sant Llorenç del Munt and l'Obac, Serra de Montsant, and the Garrotxa Volcanic Zone; as well as three Natural Places of National Interest (Paratge Natural d'Interes Nacional or PNIN), the Pedraforca, the Poblet Forest and the Albères.
After Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered and extended the powers that it had gained in the Statute of Autonomy of 1932[96] but lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic[97] at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939.
This autonomous community has gradually achieved more autonomy since the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in education, health, culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local government, and only shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in justice.[98] In all, some analysts argue that formally the current system grants Catalonia with "more self-government than almost any other corner in Europe".[99]
The support for Catalan nationalism ranges from a demand for further autonomy and the federalisation of Spain to the desire for independence from the rest of Spain, expressed by Catalan independentists.[100] The first survey following the Constitutional Court ruling that cut back elements of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy, published by La Vanguardia on 18 July 2010, found that 46% of the voters would support independence in a referendum.[101] In February of the same year, a poll by the Open University of Catalonia gave more or less the same results.[102] Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.[103][104][105] Although it is established in the whole of the territory, support for independence is significantly higher in the hinterland and the northeast, away from the more populous coastal areas such as Barcelona.[106]
Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies (CEO), support for Catalan independence has been on the rise.[107] According to the CEO opinion poll from July 2016, 47.7% of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4% against it while, about the question of preferences, according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016, a 57.2 claim to be "absolutely" or "fairly" in favour of independence.[108][109] Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.[103][104][105] Other polls show more variable results, according with the Spanish CIS, as of December 2016, 47% of Catalans rejected independence and 45% supported it.[110]
In hundreds of non-binding local referendums on independence, organised across Catalonia from 13 September 2009, a large majority voted for independence, although critics argued that the polls were mostly held in pro-independence areas. In December 2009, 94% of those voting backed independence from Spain, on a turn-out of 25%.[111] The final local referendum was held in Barcelona, in April 2011. On 11 September 2012, a pro-independence march pulled in a crowd of between 600,000 (according to the Spanish Government), 1.5 million (according to the Guàrdia Urbana de Barcelona), and 2 million (according to its promoters);[112][113] whereas poll results revealed that half the population of Catalonia supported secession from Spain.
Two major factors were Spain's Constitutional Court's 2010 decision to declare part of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia unconstitutional, as well as the fact that Catalonia contributes 19.49% of the central government's tax revenue, but only receives 14.03% of central government's spending.[114]
Parties that consider themselves either Catalan nationalist or independentist have been present in all Catalan governments since 1980. The largest Catalan nationalist party, Convergence and Union, ruled Catalonia from 1980 to 2003, and returned to power in the 2010 election. Between 2003 and 2010, a leftist coalition, composed by the Catalan Socialists' Party, the pro-independence Republican Left of Catalonia and the leftist-environmentalist Initiative for Catalonia-Greens, implemented policies that widened Catalan autonomy.[citation needed]
In the 25 November 2012 Catalan parliamentary election, sovereigntist parties supporting a secession referendum gathered 59.01% of the votes and held 87 of the 135 seats in the Catalan Parliament. Parties supporting independence from the rest of Spain obtained 49.12% of the votes and a majority of 74 seats.
Artur Mas, then the president of Catalonia, organised early elections that took place on 27 September 2015. In these elections, Convergència and Esquerra Republicana decided to join, and they presented themselves under the coalition named Junts pel Sí (in Catalan, Together for Yes). Junts pel Sí won 62 seats and was the most voted party, and CUP (Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a far-left and independentist party) won another 10, so the sum of all the independentist forces/parties was 72 seats, reaching an absolute majority, but not in number of individual votes, comprising 47,74% of the total.[115]
The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia is the fundamental organic law, second only to the Spanish Constitution from which the Statute originates.
In the Spanish Constitution of 1978 Catalonia, along with the Basque Country and Galicia, was defined as a "nationality".[dubious – discuss] The same constitution gave Catalonia the automatic right to autonomy, which resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979.[further explanation needed]
Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an Autonomous Community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law, always under the law in Spain".[116]
The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states that the Parliament of Catalonia has defined Catalonia as a nation, but that "the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality".[117] While the Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been subject to a legal challenge by the surrounding autonomous communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and Valencia,[118] as well as by the conservative People's Party. The objections are based on various issues such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of "solidarity between regions" in fiscal and educational matters enshrined by the Constitution.[119]
Spain's Constitutional Court assessed the disputed articles and on 28 June 2010, issued its judgment on the principal allegation of unconstitutionality presented by the People's Party in 2006. The judgment granted clear passage to 182 articles of the 223 that make up the fundamental text. The court approved 73 of the 114 articles that the People's Party had contested, while declaring 14 articles unconstitutional in whole or in part and imposing a restrictive interpretation on 27 others.[120] The court accepted the specific provision that described Catalonia as a "nation", however ruled that it was a historical and cultural term with no legal weight, and that Spain remained the only nation recognised by the constitution.[121][122][123][124]
The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia, as an autonomous community, is organised politically through the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: Generalitat de Catalunya), confirmed by the Parliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, the Government or Executive Council and the other institutions established by the Parliament, among them the Ombudsman (Síndic de Greuges), the Office of Auditors (Sindicatura de Comptes) the Council for Statutory Guarantees (Consell de Garanties Estatutàries) or the Audiovisual Council of Catalonia (Consell de l'Audiovisual de Catalunya).
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The Parliament of Catalonia (Catalan: Parlament de Catalunya) is the unicameral legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the people of Catalonia. Its 135 members (diputats) are elected by universal suffrage to serve for a four-year period. According to the Statute of Autonomy, it has powers to legislate over devolved matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, nomination of the President of the Generalitat and control the Government, budget and other affairs. The last Catalan election was held on 14 February 2021, and its current speaker (president) is Laura Borràs, incumbent since 12 March 2018.
The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: president de la Generalitat de Catalunya) is the highest representative of Catalonia, and is also responsible of leading the government's action, presiding the Executive Council. Since the restoration of the Generalitat on the return of democracy in Spain, the Presidents of Catalonia have been Josep Tarradellas (1977–1980, president in exile since 1954), Jordi Pujol (1980–2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003–2006), José Montilla (2006–2010), Artur Mas (2010–2016), Carles Puigdemont (2016–2017) and, after the imposition of direct rule from Madrid, Quim Torra (2018–2020) and Pere Aragonès (2021–).
The Executive Council (Catalan: Consell Executiu) or Government (Govern), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power, being accountable to the Catalan Parliament. It comprises the President of the Generalitat, the First Minister (conseller primer) or the Vice President, and the ministers (consellers) appointed by the president. Its seat is the Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona. In 2021 the government was a coalition of two parties, the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Together for Catalonia (Junts) and is made up of 14 ministers, including the vice President, alongside to the president and a secretary of government, but in October 2022 Together for Catalonia (Junts) left the coalition and the government.[125]
Catalonia has its own police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra (officially called Mossos d'Esquadra-Policia de la Generalitat de Catalunya), whose origins date back to the 18th century. Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the national Civil Guard and National Police Corps, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain. The national bodies retain personnel within Catalonia to exercise functions of national scope such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control, immigration control, terrorism prevention, arms trafficking prevention, amongst others.
Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions, the highest body and last judicial instance in the Catalan jurisdiction, integrating the Spanish judiciary, is the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. The criminal justice system is uniform throughout Spain, while civil law is administered separately within Catalonia. The civil laws that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in the Civil Code of Catalonia (Codi civil de Catalunya) since 2002.[126]
Catalonia, together with Navarre and the Basque Country, are the Spanish communities with the highest degree of autonomy in terms of law enforcement.
Catalonia is organised territorially into provinces or regions, further subdivided into comarques and municipalities. The 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia establishes the administrative organisation of the later three.
Much like the rest of Spain, Catalonia is divided administratively into four provinces, the governing body of which is the Provincial Deputation (Catalan: Diputació Provincial, Occitan: Deputacion Provinciau, Spanish: Diputación Provincial). As of 2010, the four provinces and their populations were:[127]
Unlike vegueries, provinces do not follow the limitations of the subdivisional counties, notably Baixa Cerdanya, which is split in half between the demarcations of Lleida and Girona. This situation has led some isolated municipalities to request province changes from the Spanish government.[128]
Besides provinces, Catalonia is internally divided into eight regions or vegueries, based on the feudal administrative territorial jurisdiction of the Principality of Catalonia.[129] Established in 2006, vegueries are used by the Generalitat de Catalunya with the aim to more effectively divide Catalonia administratively. In addition, vegueries are intended to become Catalonia's first-level administrative division and a full replacement for the four deputations of the Catalan provinces, creating a council for each vegueria,[130][131][132] but this has not been realised as changes to the statewide provinces system are unconstitutional.[133]
The territorial plan of Catalonia (Pla territorial general de Catalunya) provided six general functional areas,[134] but was amended by Law 24/2001, of 31 December, recognizing Alt Pirineu and Aran as a new functional area differentiated of Ponent.[135] After some opposition from some territories, it was made possible for the Aran Valley to retain its government (the vegueria is renamed to Alt Pirineu, although the name Alt Pirineu and Aran is still used by the regional plan)[136] and in 2016, the Catalan Parliament approved the eighth vegueria, Penedès, split from the Barcelona region.[137][129]
As of 2022, the eight regions and their populations were:
Comarques (often known as counties in English, but different from the historical Catalan counties[138][139][140]) are entities composed of municipalities to internally manage their responsibilities and services. The current regional division has its roots in a decree of the Generalitat de Catalunya of 1936, in effect until 1939, when it was suppressed by Franco. In 1987 the Catalan Government reestablished the comarcal division and in 1988 three new comarques were added (Alta Ribagorça, Pla d'Urgell and Pla de l'Estany). Some further revisions have been realised since then, such as the additions of Moianès and Lluçanès counties, in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Except for Barcelonès, every comarca is administered by a comarcal council (consell comarcal).
As of 2024, Catalonia is divided in 42 counties plus the Aran Valley. The latter, although previously (and still informally) considered a comarca, obtained in 1990 a particular status within Catalonia due to its differences in culture and language, being administered by a body known as the Conselh Generau d'Aran (General Council of Aran), and in 2015 it was defined as a "unique territorial entity" instead of a county.[141]
There are at present 947 municipalities (municipis) in Catalonia. Each municipality is run by a council (ajuntament) elected every four years by the residents in local elections. The council consists of a number of members (regidors) depending on population, who elect the mayor (alcalde or batlle). Its seat is the town hall (ajuntament, casa de la ciutat or casa de la vila).
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A highly industrialized region, the nominal GDP of Catalonia in 2018 was €228 billion (second after the community of Madrid, €230 billion) and the per capita GDP was €30,426 ($32,888), behind Madrid (€35,041), the Basque Country (€33,223), and Navarre (€31,389).[142] That year, the GDP growth was 2.3%.[143]
Catalonia's long-term credit rating is BB (Non-Investment Grade) according to Standard & Poor's, Ba2 (Non-Investment Grade) according to Moody's, and BBB- (Low Investment Grade) according to Fitch Ratings.[144][145][146] Catalonia's rating is tied for worst with between 1 and 5 other autonomous communities of Spain, depending on the rating agency.[146]
The city of Barcelona occupies the eighth position as one of the world's best cities to live, work, research and visit in 2021, according to the report "The World's Best Cities 2021", prepared by Resonance Consultancy.[147]
The Catalan capital, despite the current moment of crisis,[when?] is also one of the European bases of "reference for start-ups" and the fifth city in the world to establish one of these companies, behind London, Berlin, Paris and Amsterdam, according to the Eu-Starts-Up 2020 study. Barcelona is behind London, New York, Paris, Moscow, Tokyo, Dubai and Singapore and ahead of Los Angeles and Madrid.[148]
In the context of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Catalonia was expected to suffer a recession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009.[149] Catalonia's debt in 2012 was the highest of all Spain's autonomous communities,[150] reaching €13,476 million, i.e. 38% of the total debt of the 17 autonomous communities,[151] but in recent years its economy recovered a positive evolution and the GDP grew a 3.3% in 2015.[152]
Catalonia is amongst the List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars and is a member of the Four Motors for Europe organisation.
The distribution of sectors is as follows:[153]
The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava in Girona, the beaches of the Costa del Maresme and Costa del Garraf from Malgrat de Mar to Vilanova i la Geltrú and the Costa Daurada in Tarragona. In the High Pyrenees there are several ski resorts, near Lleida. On 1 November 2012, Catalonia started charging a tourist tax.[154] The revenue is used to promote tourism, and to maintain and upgrade tourism-related infrastructure.
Many of Spain's leading savings banks were based in Catalonia before the independence referendum of 2017. However, in the aftermath of the referendum, many of them moved their registered office to other parts of Spain. That includes the two biggest Catalan banks at that moment, La Caixa, which moved its office to Palma de Mallorca, and Banc Sabadell, ranked fourth among all Spanish private banks and which moved its office to Alicante.[155][156] That happened after the Spanish government passed a law allowing companies to move their registered office without requiring the approval of the company's general meeting of shareholders.[157] Overall, there was a negative net relocation rate of companies based in Catalonia moving to other autonomous communities of Spain. From the 2017 independence referendum until the end of 2018, for example, Catalonia lost 5454 companies to other parts of Spain (mainly Madrid), 2359 only in 2018, gaining 467 new ones from the rest of the country during 2018.[158][159] It has been reported that the Spanish government and the Spanish King Felipe VI pressured some of the big Catalan companies to move their headquarters outside of the region.[160][161]
The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2016 had a volume of around €152 billion, is the second largest of Spain after Madrid, and Fira de Barcelona organizes international exhibitions and congresses to do with different sectors of the economy.[162]
The main economic cost for Catalan families is the purchase of a home. According to data from the Society of Appraisal on 31 December 2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397 €/m2 on average[citation needed] (see Spanish property bubble).
The unemployment rate stood at 10.5% in 2019 and was lower than the national average.[163]
Airports in Catalonia are owned and operated by Aena (a Spanish Government entity) except two airports in Lleida which are operated by Aeroports de Catalunya (an entity belonging to the Government of Catalonia).
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Since the Middle Ages, Catalonia has been well integrated into international maritime networks. The port of Barcelona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado, a Spanish Government entity) is an industrial, commercial and tourist port of worldwide importance. With 1,950,000 TEUs in 2015, it is the first container port in Catalonia, the third in Spain after Valencia and Algeciras in Andalusia, the 9th in the Mediterranean Sea, the 14th in Europe and the 68th in the world. It is sixth largest cruise port in the world, the first in Europe and the Mediterranean with 2,364,292 passengers in 2014. The ports of Tarragona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado) in the southwest and Palamós near Girona at northeast are much more modest. The port of Palamós and the other ports in Catalonia (26) are operated and administered by Ports de la Generalitat [ca], a Catalan Government entity.
The development of these infrastructures, resulting from the topography and history of the Catalan territory, responds strongly to the administrative and political organization of this autonomous community.
There are 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi) of roads throughout Catalonia.
The principal highways are AP-7 (Autopista de la Mediterrània) and A-7 (Autovia de la Mediterrània). They follow the coast from the French border to Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia. The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona. The AP-2 
(Autopista del Nord-est) and A-2 (Autovia del Nord-est) connect inland and onward to Madrid.
Other major roads are:
Public-own roads in Catalonia are either managed by the autonomous government of Catalonia (e.g., C- roads) or the Spanish government (e.g., AP- , A- , N- roads).
Catalonia saw the first railway construction in the Iberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona with Mataró. Given the topography, most lines radiate from Barcelona. The city has both suburban and inter-city services. The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with the SNCF (French Railways) at Portbou on the coast.
There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the Catalan FGC that operates commuter and regional services, and the Spanish national Renfe that operates long-distance and high-speed rail services (AVE and Avant) and the main commuter and regional service Rodalies de Catalunya, administered by the Catalan government since 2010.
High-speed rail (AVE) services from Madrid currently reach Barcelona, via Lleida and Tarragona. The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20 February 2008. The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about two-and-a-half hours. A connection to the French high-speed TGV network has been completed (called the Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) and the Spanish AVE service began commercial services on the line 9 January 2013, later offering services to Marseille on their high speed network.[164][165] This was shortly followed by the commencement of commercial service by the French TGV on 17 January 2013, leading to an average travel time on the Paris-Barcelona TGV route of 7h 42m.[165][166] This new line passes through Girona and Figueres with a tunnel through the Pyrenees.
As of 2017, the official population of Catalonia was 7,522,596.[167] 1,194,947 residents did not have Spanish citizenship, accounting for about 16% of the population.[168]
The Urban Region of Barcelona includes 5,217,864 people and covers an area of 2,268 km2 (876 sq mi). The metropolitan area of the Urban Region includes cities such as L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Sabadell, Terrassa, Badalona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Cornellà de Llobregat.
In 1900, the population of Catalonia was 1,966,382 people and in 1970 it was 5,122,567.[167] The sizeable increase of the population was due to the demographic boom in Spain during the 1960s and early 1970s[169] as well as in consequence of large-scale internal migration from the rural economically weak regions to its more prospering industrial cities. In Catalonia, that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially from Andalusia, Murcia[170] and Extremadura.[171] As of 1999, it was estimated that over 60% of Catalans descended from 20th century migrations from other parts of Spain.[172]
Immigrants from other countries settled in Catalonia since the 1990s;[173] a large percentage comes from Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe, and smaller numbers from Asia and Southern Europe, often settling in urban centers such as Barcelona and industrial areas.[174] In 2017, Catalonia had 940,497 foreign residents (11.9% of the total population) with non-Spanish ID cards, without including those who acquired Spanish citizenship.[175]
Religion in Catalonia (2020):[178]
Historically, all the Catalan population was Christian, specifically Catholic, but since the 1980s there has been a trend of decline of Christianity. Nevertheless, according to the most recent study sponsored by the Government of Catalonia, as of 2020, 62.3% of the Catalans identify as Christians (up from 61.9% in 2016[179] and 56.5% in 2014[180]) of whom 53.0% Catholics, 7.0% Protestants and Evangelicals, 1.3% Orthodox Christians and 1.0% Jehovah's Witnesses. At the same time, 18.6% of the population identify as atheists, 8.8% as agnostics, 4.3% as Muslims, and a further 3.4% as being of other religions.[178]
According to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013, Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia (46.53% claim Spanish as "their own language"), followed by Catalan (37.26% claim Catalan as "their own language"). In everyday use, 11.95% of the population claim to use both languages equally, whereas 45.92% mainly use Spanish and 35.54% mainly use Catalan. There is a significant difference between the Barcelona metropolitan area (and, to a lesser extent, the Tarragona area), where Spanish is more spoken than Catalan, and the more rural and small town areas, where Catalan clearly prevails over Spanish.[182]
Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia, Catalan has enjoyed special status since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be "Catalonia's own language",[183] a term which signifies a language given special legal status within a Spanish territory, or which is historically spoken within a given region. The other languages with official status in Catalonia are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese Occitan, which is spoken in Val d'Aran.
Since the Statute of Autonomy of 1979, Aranese (a Gascon dialect of Occitan) has also been official and subject to special protection in Val d'Aran. This small area of 7,000 inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan had received full official status. Then, on 9 August 2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia. Occitan is the mother tongue of 22.4% of the population of Val d'Aran, which has attracted heavy immigration from other Spanish regions to work in the service industry.[184] Catalan Sign Language is also officially recognised.[5]
Although not considered an "official language" in the same way as Catalan, Spanish, and Occitan, the Catalan Sign Language, with about 18,000 users in Catalonia,[185] is granted official recognition and support: "The public authorities shall guarantee the use of Catalan sign language and conditions of equality for deaf people who choose to use this language, which shall be the subject of education, protection and respect."[5]
As was the case since the ascent of the Bourbon dynasty to the throne of Spain after the War of the Spanish Succession, and with the exception of the short period of the Second Spanish Republic, under Francoist Spain Catalan was banned from schools and all other official use, so that for example families were not allowed to officially register children with Catalan names.[186] Although never completely banned, Catalan language publishing was severely restricted during the early 1940s, with only religious texts and small-run self-published texts being released. Some books were published clandestinely or circumvented the restrictions by showing publishing dates prior to 1936.[187] This policy was changed in 1946, when restricted publishing in Catalan resumed.[188]
Rural–urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of Catalan in urban areas and increased the use of Spanish. Lately, a similar sociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration. Catalan cultural activity increased in the 1960s and the teaching of Catalan began thanks to the initiative of associations such as Òmnium Cultural.
After the end of Francoist Spain, the newly established self-governing democratic institutions in Catalonia embarked on a long-term language policy to recover the use of Catalan[189] and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect and extend the use of Catalan. This policy, known as the "linguistic normalisation" (normalització lingüística in Catalan, normalización lingüística in Spanish) has been supported by the vast majority of Catalan political parties through the last thirty years. Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish,[190][191][192][193] whereas some others, including the Catalan government[194] and the European Union[195] consider the policies respectful,[196] or even as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union".[197]
Today, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction. Basic public education is given mainly in Catalan, but also there are some hours per week of Spanish medium instruction. Although businesses are required by law to display all information (e.g. menus, posters) at least in Catalan, this not systematically enforced. There is no obligation to display this information in either Occitan or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages. The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law[200] that aims to increase the public use of Catalan and defend the rights of Catalan speakers. On the other hand, the Spanish Constitution does not recognize equal language rights for national minorities since it enshrined Spanish as the only official language of the state, the knowledge of which being compulsory. Numerous laws regarding for instance the labelling of pharmaceutical products, make in effect Spanish the only language of compulsory use.
The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities.[201] The Generalitat uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, but citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so wish.[202] Debates in the Catalan Parliament take place almost exclusively in Catalan and the Catalan public television broadcasts programs mainly in Catalan.
Due to the intense immigration[citation needed] which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular experienced in the first decade of the 21st century, many foreign languages are spoken in various cultural communities in Catalonia, of which Rif-Berber,[203] Moroccan Arabic, Romanian[204] and Urdu are the most common ones.[205]
In Catalonia, there is a high social and political consensus on the language policies favoring Catalan, also among Spanish speakers and speakers of other languages.[206][207][208][209][needs update] However, some of these policies have been criticised for trying to promote Catalan by imposing fines on businesses. For example, following the passage of the law on Catalan cinema in March 2010, which established that half of the movies shown in Catalan cinemas had to be in Catalan, a general strike of 75% of the cinemas took place.[210] The Catalan government gave in and dropped the clause that forced 50% of the movies to be dubbed or subtitled in Catalan before the law came to effect.[211] On the other hand, organisations such as Plataforma per la Llengua reported different violations of the linguistic rights of the Catalan speakers in Catalonia and the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain, most of them caused by the institutions of the Spanish government in these territories.[212]
The Catalan language policy has been challenged by some political parties in the Catalan Parliament. Citizens, currently the main opposition party, has been one of the most consistent critics of the Catalan language policy within Catalonia. The Catalan branch of the People's Party has a more ambiguous position on the issue: on one hand, it demands a bilingual Catalan–Spanish education and a more balanced language policy that would defend Catalan without favoring it over Spanish,[213] whereas on the other hand, a few local PP politicians have supported in their municipalities measures privileging Catalan over Spanish[214] and it has defended some aspects of the official language policies, sometimes against the positions of its colleagues from other parts of Spain.[215]
Catalonia has given to the world many important figures in the area of the art. Catalan painters internationally known are, among others, Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró and Antoni Tàpies. Closely linked with the Catalan pictorial atmosphere, Pablo Picasso lived in Barcelona during his youth, training them as an artist and creating the movement of cubism. Other important artists are Claudi Lorenzale for the medieval Romanticism that marked the artistic Renaixença, Marià Fortuny for the Romanticism and Catalan Orientalism of the nineteenth century, Ramon Casas or Santiago Rusiñol, main representatives of the pictorial current of Catalan modernism from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century, Josep Maria Sert for early 20th-century Noucentisme, or Josep Maria Subirachs for expressionist or abstract sculpture and painting of the late twentieth century.
The most important painting museums of Catalonia are the Teatre-Museu Dalí in Figueres, the National Art Museum of Catalonia (MNAC), Picasso Museum, Fundació Antoni Tàpies, Joan Miró Foundation, the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art (MACBA), the Centre of Contemporary Culture of Barcelona (CCCB), and the CaixaForum.
In the field of architecture were developed and adapted to Catalonia different artistic styles prevalent in Europe, leaving footprints in many churches, monasteries and cathedrals, of Romanesque[216] (the best examples of which are located in the northern half of the territory) and Gothic styles. The Gothic developed in Barcelona and its area of influence is known as Catalan Gothic, with some particular characteristics. The church of Santa Maria del Mar is an example of this kind of style. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers.
There are some examples of Renaissance (such as the Palau de la Generalitat), Baroque and Neoclassical architectures. In the late nineteenth century Modernism (Art Nouveau) appeared as the national art. The world-renowned Catalan architects of this style are Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Thanks to the urban expansion of Barcelona during the last decades of the century and the first ones of the next, many buildings of the Eixample are modernists. In the field of architectural rationalism, which turned especially relevant in Catalonia during the Republican era (1931–1939) highlighting Josep Lluís Sert and Josep Torres i Clavé, members of the GATCPAC and, in contemporany architecture, Ricardo Bofill and Enric Miralles.
There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia:
The oldest surviving literary use of the Catalan language is considered to be the religious text known as Homilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12th century.
There are two historical moments of splendor of Catalan literature. The first begins with the historiographic chronicles of the 13th century (chronicles written between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon) and the subsequent Golden Age of the 14th and 15th centuries. After that period, between the 16th and 19th centuries the Romantic historiography defined this era as the Decadència, considered as the "decadent" period in Catalan literature because of a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility.
The second moment of splendor began in the 19th century with the cultural and political Renaixença (Renaissance) represented by writers and poets such as Jacint Verdaguer, Víctor Català (pseudonym of Caterina Albert i Paradís), Narcís Oller, Joan Maragall and Àngel Guimerà. During the 20th century, avant-garde movements developed, initiated by the Generation of '14 (called Noucentisme in Catalonia), represented by Eugenio d'Ors, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner, Carles Riba, J.V. Foix and others. During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Civil War (Generation of '36) and the Francoist period, Catalan literature was maintained despite the repression against the Catalan language, being often produced in exile.
The most outstanding authors of this period are Salvador Espriu, Josep Pla, Josep Maria de Sagarra (who are considered mainly responsible for the renewal of Catalan prose), Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Oliver Sallarès or "Pere Quart", Pere Calders, Gabriel Ferrater, Manuel de Pedrolo, Agustí Bartra or Miquel Martí i Pol. In addition, several foreign writers who fought in the International Brigades, or other military units, have since recounted their experiences of fighting in their works, historical or fictional, with for example, George Orwell, in Homage to Catalonia (1938) or Claude Simon's Le Palace (1962) and Les Géorgiques (1981).
After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Generalitat (1977), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture. Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods include Joan Brossa, Agustí Bartra, Manuel de Pedrolo, Pere Calders or Quim Monzó.
Ana María Matute, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán and Juan Goytisolo are among the most prominent Catalan writers in the Spanish language since the democratic restoration in Spain.
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Castells are one of the main manifestations of Catalan popular culture. The activity consists in constructing human towers by competing colles castelleres (teams). This practice originated in Valls, on the region of the Camp de Tarragona,[217] during the 18th century, and later it was extended to the rest of the territory, especially in the late 20th century. The tradition of els Castells i els Castellers was declared Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010.
In main celebrations, other elements of the Catalan popular culture[218] are also usually present: parades with gegants (giants), bigheads, stick-dancers and musicians, and the correfoc, where devils and monsters dance and spray showers of sparks using firecrackers. Another traditional celebration in Catalonia is La Patum de Berga, declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO on 25 November 2005.[219]
Christmas in Catalonia lasts two days, plus Christmas Eve. On the 25th, Christmas is celebrated, followed by a similar feast on the 26, called Sant Esteve (Saint Steve's Day). This allows families to visit and dine with different sectors of the extended family or get together with friends on the second day.
One of the most deeply rooted and curious Christmas traditions is the popular figure of the Tió de Nadal, consisting of an (often hollow) log with a face painted on it and often two little front legs appended, usually wearing a Catalan hat and scarf. The word has nothing to do with the Spanish word tío, meaning uncle. Tió means log in Catalan. The log is sometimes "found in the woods" (in an event staged for children) and then adopted and taken home, where it is fed and cared for during a month or so. On Christmas Day or on Christmas Eve, a game is played where children march around the house singing a song requesting the log to poop, then they hit the log with a stick, to make it poop, and lo and behold, as if through magic, it poops candy, and sometimes other small gifts. Usually, the larger or main gifts are brought by the Three Kings on 6 January, and the tió only brings small things.
Another custom is to make a pessebre (nativity scene) in the home or in shop windows, the latter sometimes competing in originality or sheer size and detail. Churches often host exhibits of numerous dioramas by nativity scene makers, or a single nativity scene they put out, and town halls generally put out a nativity scene in the central square. In Barcelona, every year, the main nativity scene is designed by different artists, and often ends up being an interesting, post-modern or conceptual and strange creation. In the home, the nativity scene often consists of strips of cork bark to represent cliffs or mountains in the background, moss as grass in the foreground, some wood chips or other as dirt, and aluminum foil for rivers and lakes. The traditional figurines often included are the three wise men on camels or horses, which are moved every day or so to go closer to the manger, a star with a long tail in the background to lead people to the spot, the annunciation with shepherds having a meal and an angel appearing (hanging from something), a washer lady washing clothes in the pond, sheep, ducks, people carrying packages on their backs, a donkey driver with a load of twigs, and atrezzo such as a starry sky, miniature towns placed in the distance, either Oriental-styled or local-looking, a bridge over the river, trees, etc.
One of the most astonishing and sui-generis figurines traditionally placed in the nativity scene, to the great glee of children, is the caganer, a person depicted in the act of defecating.[220] This figurine is hidden in some corner of the nativity scene and the game is to detect it. Of course, churches forgo this figurine, and the main nativity scene of Barcelona, for instance, likewise does not feature it. The caganer is so popular it has, together with the tió, long been a major part of the Christmas markets, where they come in the guise of your favorite politicians or other famous people, as well as the traditional figures of a Catalan farmer. People often buy a figurine of a caganer in the guise of a famous person they are actually fond of, contrary to what one would imagine, though sometimes people buy a caganer in the guise of someone they dislike, although this means they have to look at them in the home.
Another (extended) Christmas tradition is the celebration of the Epiphany on 6 January, which is called Reis, meaning Three Kings Day. This is every important in Catalonia and the Catalan-speaking areas, and families go to watch major parades on the eve of the Epiphany, where they can greet the kings and watch them pass by in pomp and circumstance, on floats and preceded and followed by pages, musicians, dancers, etc. They often give the kings letters with their gift requests, which are collected by the pages. On the next day, the children find the gifts the three kings brought for them.
In addition to traditional local Catalan culture, traditions from other parts of Spain can be found as a result of migration from other regions, for instance the celebration of the Andalusian Feria de Abril in Catalonia.
On 28 July 2010, second only after the Canary Islands, Catalonia became another Spanish territory to forbid bullfighting. The ban, which went into effect on 1 January 2012, had originated in a popular petition supported by over 180,000 signatures.[221]
The sardana is considered to be the most characteristic Catalan folk dance, interpreted to the rhythm of tamborí, tible and tenora (from the oboe family), trumpet, trombó (trombone), fiscorn (family of bugles) and contrabaix with three strings played by a cobla, and are danced in a circle dance. Other tunes and dances of the traditional music are the contrapàs (obsolete today), ball de bastons (the "dance of sticks"), the moixiganga, the goigs (popular songs), the galops or the jota in the southern part. The havaneres are characteristic in some marine localities of the Costa Brava, especially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by a cremat of burned rum.
Art music was first developed, up to the nineteenth century and, as in much of Europe, in a liturgical setting, particularly marked by the Escolania de Montserrat. The main Western musical trends have marked these productions, medieval monodies or polyphonies, with the work of Abbot Oliba in the eleventh century or the compilation Llibre Vermell de Montserrat ("Red Book of Montserrat") from the fourteenth century. Through the Renaissance there were authors such as Pere Albert Vila, Joan Brudieu or the two Mateu Fletxa ("The Old" and "The Young"). Baroque had composers like Joan Cererols. The Romantic music was represented by composers such as Fernando Sor, Josep Anselm Clavé (father of choir movement in Catalonia and responsible of the music folk reviving) or Felip Pedrell.
Modernisme also expressed in musical terms from the end of the 19th century onwards, mixing folkloric and post-romantic influences, through the works of Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The avant-garde spirit initiated by the modernists is prolonged throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the activities of the Orfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891, with its monumental concert hall, the Palau de la Música Catalana in Catalan, built by Lluís Domènech i Montaner from 1905 to 1908, the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra created in 1944 and composers, conductors and musicians engaged against the Francoism like Robert Gerhard, Eduard Toldrà and Pau Casals.
Performances of opera, mostly imported from Italy, began in the 18th century, but some native operas were written as well, including the ones by Domènec Terradellas, Carles Baguer, Ramon Carles, Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The Barcelona main opera house, Gran Teatre del Liceu (opened in 1847), remains one of the most important in Spain, hosting one of the most prestigious music schools in Barcelona, the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu. Several lyrical artists trained by this institution gained international renown during the 20th century, such as Victoria de los Ángeles, Montserrat Caballé, Giacomo Aragall and Josep Carreras.
Cellist Pau Casals is admired as an outstanding player. Other popular musical styles were born in the second half of the 20th century such as Nova Cançó from the 1960s with Lluís Llach and the group Els Setze Jutges, the Catalan rumba in the 1960s with Peret, Catalan Rock from the late 1970s with La Banda Trapera del Río and Decibelios for Punk Rock, Sau, Els Pets, Sopa de Cabra or Lax'n'Busto for pop rock or Sangtraït for hard rock, electropop since the 1990s with OBK and indie pop from the 1990s.
Catalonia is the autonomous community, along with Madrid, that has the most media (TV, magazines, newspapers etc.). In Catalonia there is a wide variety of local and comarcal media. With the restoration of democracy, many newspapers and magazines, until then in the hands of the Franco government, were recovered in order to convert them into free and democratic media, while local radios and televisions were implemented.
Televisió de Catalunya, which broadcasts entirely in the Catalan language, is the main Catalan public TV. It has five channels: TV3, El 33, Super3, 3/24, Esport3 and TV3CAT. In 2018, TV3 became the first television channel to be the most viewed one for nine consecutive years in Catalonia.[222][223] State televisions that broadcast in Catalonia in Spanish language include Televisión Española (with few emissions in Catalan), Antena 3, Cuatro, Telecinco, and La Sexta. Other smaller Catalan television channels include 8TV (owned by Grup Godó), Barça TV and the local televisions, the greatest exponent of which is betevé, the TV channel of Barcelona, which also broadcasts in Catalan.
The two main Catalan newspapers of general information are El Periódico de Catalunya and La Vanguardia, both with editions in Catalan and Spanish. Catalan only published newspapers include Ara and El Punt Avui (from the fusion of El Punt and Avui in 2011), as well as most part of the local press. The Spanish newspapers, such as El País, El Mundo or La Razón, can be also acquired.
Catalonia has a long tradition of use of radio, the first regular radio broadcast in the country was from Ràdio Barcelona in 1924.[224] Today, the public Catalunya Ràdio (owned by Catalan Media Corporation) and the private RAC 1 (belonging to Grup Godó) are the two main radios of Catalonia, both in Catalan.
Regarding the cinema, after the democratic transition, three styles have dominated since then. First, auteur cinema, in the continuity of the Barcelona School, emphasizes experimentation and form, while focusing on developing social and political themes. Worn first by Josep Maria Forn or Bigas Luna, then by Marc Recha, Jaime Rosales and Albert Serra, this genre has achieved some international recognition. Then, the documentary became another genre particularly representative of contemporary Catalan cinema, boosted by Joaquim Jordà i Català and José Luis Guerín. Later, horror films and thrillers have also emerged as a specialty of the Catalan film industry, thanks in particular to the vitality of the Sitges Film Festival, created in 1968. Several directors have gained worldwide renown thanks to this genre, starting with Jaume Balagueró and his series REC (co-directed with Valencian Paco Plaza), Juan Antonio Bayona and El Orfanato or Jaume Collet-Serra with Orphan, Unknown and Non-Stop.
Catalan actors have shot for Spanish and international productions, such as Sergi López.
The Museum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection (Museu del Cinema – Col.lecció Tomàs Mallol in Catalan) of Girona is home of important permanent exhibitions of cinema and pre-cinema objects. Other important institutions for the promotion of cinema are the Gaudí Awards (Premis Gaudí in Catalan, which replaced from 2009 Barcelona Film Awards themselves created in 2002), serving as equivalent for Catalonia to the Spanish Goya or French César.
Seny is a form of ancestral Catalan wisdom or sensibleness. It involves well-pondered perception of situations, level-headedness, awareness, integrity, and right action. Many Catalans consider seny something unique to their culture, is based on a set of ancestral local customs stemming from the scale of values and social norms of their society.
Sport has had a distinct importance in Catalan life and culture since the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, the region has a well-developed sports infrastructure. The main sports are football, basketball, handball, rink hockey, tennis and motorsport.
Despite the fact that the most popular sports are represented at international level by the Spanish national teams, Catalonia plays as itself in some others, such as korfball, futsal or rugby league.[225] Various Catalan Sports Federations have a long tradition and some of them participated in the foundation of international sports federations, as the Catalan Federation of Rugby, that was one of the founder members of the Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) in 1934.[226] The majority of Catalan sport federations are part of the Sports Federation Union of Catalonia (Catalan: Unió de Federacions Esportives de Catalunya), founded in 1933. The presence of Catalan. The presence of separate Catalan teams has caused disputes with Spanish sports institutions, as happened to roller hockey in the Fresno Case (2004).[227]
The Catalan Football Federation also periodically fields a national team against international opposition, organizing friendly matches. In the recent years they have played with Bulgaria, Argentina, Brazil, Basque Country, Colombia, Nigeria, Cape Verde and Tunisia. The biggest football clubs are Barcelona (also known as Barça), who have won five European Cups (UEFA Champions League), and Espanyol, who have twice been runner-up of the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League). Barcelona currently play in La Liga while Espanyol currently play in the Segunda División.
The Catalan waterpolo is one of the main powers of the Iberian Peninsula. The Catalans won triumphs in waterpolo competitions at European and world level by club (the Barcelona was champion of Europe in 1981/82 and the Catalonia in 1994/95) and national team (one gold and one silver in Olympic Games and World Championships). It also has many international synchronized swimming champions.
Motorsport has a long tradition in Catalonia, which involving many people, with some world champions and several competitions organized since the beginning of the 20th century. The Circuit de Catalunya, built in 1991, is one of the main motorsport venues, holding the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish F1 Grand Prix, a DTM race, and several other races.
Catalonia hosted many relevant international sport events, such as the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, as well as the 1955 Mediterranean Games, the 2013 World Aquatics Championships or the 2018 Mediterranean Games. It held annually the fourth-oldest still-existing cycling stage race in the world, the Volta a Catalunya (Tour of Catalonia).[228]
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Catalonia has its own representative and distinctive national symbols such as:[229]
Catalan gastronomy has a long culinary tradition. Various local food recipes have been described in documents dating from the fifteenth century. As with all the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Catatonian dishes make abundant use of fish, seafood, olive oil, bread and vegetables. Regional specialties include the pa amb tomàquet (bread with tomato), which consists of bread (sometimes toasted), and tomato seasoned with olive oil and salt. Often the dish is accompanied with any number of sausages (cured botifarres, fuet, iberic ham, etc.), ham or cheeses. Others dishes include the calçotada, escudella i carn d'olla, suquet de peix (fish stew), and a dessert, Catalan cream.
Catalan vineyards also have several Denominacions d'Origen wines, such as: Priorat, Montsant, Penedès and Empordà. There is also a sparkling wine, the cava.[233]
Catalonia is internationally recognized for its fine dining. Three of the World's 50 Best Restaurants are in Catalonia,[234] and four restaurants have three Michelin stars, including restaurants like El Bulli or El Celler de Can Roca, both of which regularly dominate international rankings of restaurants.[235] The region has been awarded the European Region of Gastronomy title for the year 2016.[236]
California[240]
Quebec[241]Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an autonomous community, in accordance with the Constitution and with this Statute, which is its basic institutional law.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Catalonia". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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