Начиная с XVII века, члены Ост-Индской компании привозили индийских слуг в американские колонии . [16] В течение американской колониальной эпохи в Соединенных Штатах также было некоторое количество рабов из Ост-Индии. [17] [18] В частности, судебные записи 1700-х годов указывают на то, что некоторое количество «восточных индейцев» содержалось в качестве рабов в Мэриленде и Делавэре. [19] Говорят, что после освобождения они смешались со свободным афроамериканским населением , считавшимся « мулатами ». [20]
Три брата из «современной Индии или Пакистана» получили свободу в 1710 году и женились на представительнице индейского племени в Вирджинии. [21] Современные нансемонды ведут свою родословную от этого смешанного брака. [22]
19 век
Члены племени Нансемонд , потомки индейцев, коренных американцев и афроамериканцев, около 1900 г., Смитсоновский институт.
В 1850 году в федеральной переписи населения округа Сент-Джонс, штат Флорида , был указан 40-летний чертежник по имени Джон Дик, чье место рождения было указано как « Индостан », проживающий в городе Сент-Огастин . [23] Его раса указана как белая, что позволяет предположить, что он был британского происхождения.
К 1900 году в Соединенных Штатах проживало более 2000 индийских сикхов , в основном в Калифорнии . [24] По крайней мере один ученый установил более низкий уровень, обнаружив в общей сложности 716 индийских иммигрантов в США между 1820 и 1900 годами. [25] Эмиграция из Индии была вызвана трудностями, с которыми сталкивались индийские фермеры, включая проблемы, создаваемые колониальной системой землевладения для мелких землевладельцев, а также засухой и нехваткой продовольствия, которые ухудшились в 1890-х годах. В то же время канадские пароходные компании, действуя от имени работодателей Тихоокеанского побережья, нанимали сикхских фермеров с экономическими возможностями в Британской Колумбии . [26]
Присутствие индийцев в США также способствовало развитию интереса к восточным религиям в США и привело к его влиянию на американские философии, такие как трансцендентализм . Прибытие Свами Вивекананды в Чикаго на Всемирную выставку привело к созданию Общества Веданты . [25]
20 век
Первая сикхская гурудвара была основана в 1912 году первыми иммигрантами-сикхами-фермерами в Стоктоне, Калифорния.
Спасаясь от расистских нападений в Канаде, сикхи мигрировали в штаты Тихоокеанского побережья США в 1900-х годах, чтобы работать на лесопилках Беллингхэма и Эверетта, штат Вашингтон . [27] Позднее сикхские рабочие были сосредоточены на железных дорогах и начали мигрировать в Калифорнию; около 2000 индийцев были заняты на основных железнодорожных линиях, таких как Southern Pacific Railroad и Western Pacific Railroad в период с 1907 по 1908 год. [28] Некоторые белые американцы, возмущенные экономической конкуренцией и прибытием людей из других культур, ответили на иммиграцию сикхов расизмом и жестокими нападениями. [29] Беспорядки в Беллингхэме , штат Вашингтон, 5 сентября 1907 года стали олицетворением низкой терпимости в США к индийцам и сикхам, которых местные жители называли « индуистами ». В то время как антиазиатский расизм был укоренен в политике и культуре США в начале 20-го века, индийцы также подвергались расовой дискриминации за свой антиколониализм, а американские чиновники, которые продвигали западную имперскую экспансию за рубежом, называли их «индуистской» угрозой. [30] Хотя их и называли индуистами, большинство индийцев были сикхами. [30]
В начале 20-го века ряд государственных и федеральных законов ограничивали иммиграцию индийцев и права индийских иммигрантов в США. На протяжении 1910-х годов американские нативистские организации проводили кампании за прекращение иммиграции из Индии, кульминацией которых стало принятие Закона об азиатской запретной зоне в 1917 году. [29] В 1913 году Закон о землях иностранцев Калифорнии запретил негражданам владеть землей. [31] Однако азиатские иммигранты обходили систему, заставляя друзей-англоговорящих или своих собственных детей, родившихся в США, законно владеть землей, на которой они работали. В некоторых штатах законы, запрещающие смешанные браки, запрещали индийским мужчинам жениться на белых женщинах. Однако для «коричневых» рас было законно смешиваться. Многие индийские мужчины, особенно мужчины-пенджабцы, женились на латиноамериканках, и браки между пенджабцами и мексиканцами стали нормой на Западе. [32] [33]
Бхикаджи Балсара стал первым известным индийцем, получившим натурализованное гражданство США. Как парс , он считался «чистым членом персидской секты» и, следовательно, «свободным белым человеком». В 1910 году судья Эмиль Генри Лакомб из Южного округа Нью-Йорка предоставил Балсаре гражданство в надежде, что прокурор США действительно оспорит его решение и подаст апелляцию, чтобы создать «авторитетное толкование» закона. Прокурор США придерживался пожеланий Лакомба и передал дело в Окружной апелляционный суд в 1910 году. Окружной апелляционный суд согласился, что парсы классифицируются как белые. [34] На тех же основаниях другое решение федерального суда предоставило гражданство А. К. Мозумдару . [35] Эти решения противоречили заявлению Генерального прокурора США Чарльза Дж. Бонапарта от 1907 года : «...ни при каком толковании закона уроженцы Британской Индии не могут считаться белыми людьми». [35] После принятия Закона об иммиграции 1917 года иммиграция индийцев в США сократилась. Нелегальный въезд через мексиканскую границу стал способом въезда в страну для иммигрантов из Пенджаба. В долине Империал в Калифорнии проживало большое количество пенджабцев, которые помогали этим иммигрантам и оказывали им поддержку. Иммигранты смогли смешаться с этим относительно однородным населением. Партия Гадар , группа в Калифорнии, которая выступала за независимость Индии , способствовала незаконному пересечению мексиканской границы, используя средства от этой миграции «в качестве средства для укрепления финансов партии». [36] Партия Гадар взимала разные цены за въезд в США в зависимости от того, были ли готовы иммигранты из Пенджаба сбрить бороду и подстричься. По оценкам, между 1920 и 1935 годами около 1800–2000 индийских иммигрантов нелегально въехали в США. [36]
Бхагату Сингху Тинду дважды отказывали в гражданстве, поскольку его не считали белым. [37]
К 1920 году население американцев индийского происхождения составляло приблизительно 6400 человек. [38] В 1923 году Верховный суд Соединенных Штатов постановил в деле Соединенные Штаты против Бхагата Сингха Тхинда , что индийцы не имеют права на гражданство, поскольку они не являются «свободными белыми людьми». [39] Суд также утверждал, что «большая часть нашего народа» отвергнет ассимиляцию с индийцами. [40] Кроме того, суд постановил, что на основе популярного понимания расы термин «белый человек» относится к людям северного или западноевропейского происхождения, а не к «кавказцам» в самом техническом смысле. [41] После этого решения более пятидесяти индийцев лишились гражданства, но Сахарам Ганеш Пандит боролся против денатурализации . Он был юристом и женился на белой американке, и он восстановил свое гражданство в 1927 году. Однако после этого решения никакая другая натурализация не была разрешена, что привело к тому, что около 3000 индийцев покинули США в период с 1920 по 1940 год. У многих других индийцев не было возможности вернуться в Индию. [39]
Индийцы начали продвигаться по социальной лестнице, получив высшее образование. Например, в 1910 году Дхан Гопал Мукерджи поступил в Калифорнийский университет в Беркли, когда ему было 20 лет. Он был автором многих детских книг и получил медаль Ньюбери в 1928 году за свою книгу Gay-Neck: The Story of a Pigeon . [42] Однако он покончил жизнь самоубийством в возрасте 46 лет, страдая от депрессии. Другой студент, Йеллапрагада Суббароу , переехал в США в 1922 году. Он стал биохимиком в Гарвардском университете и «открыл функцию аденозинтрифосфата (АТФ) как источника энергии в клетках и разработал метотрексат для лечения рака». Однако, будучи иностранцем, ему отказали в постоянстве в Гарварде. Гобинд Бехари Лал , поступивший в Калифорнийский университет в Беркли в 1912 году, стал научным редактором газеты San Francisco Examiner и первым американцем индийского происхождения, получившим Пулитцеровскую премию за журналистику. [43]
После Второй мировой войны политика США вновь открыла двери для индийской иммиграции, хотя поначалу медленно. Закон Люса-Селлера 1946 года разрешил квоту в 100 индийцев в год для иммиграции в США. Он также позволил индийским иммигрантам натурализоваться и стать гражданами США, фактически отменив постановление Верховного суда 1923 года по делу Соединенные Штаты против Бхагата Сингха Тхинда . [44] Закон о натурализации 1952 года, также известный как Закон Маккаррана-Уолтера , отменил Закон о запретной зоне 1917 года, но ограничил иммиграцию из бывшей запретной зоны в общей сложности 2000 человек в год. В 1910 году 95% всех индийских американцев проживали на западном побережье Соединенных Штатов. В 1920 году эта доля снизилась до 75%; к 1940 году она составила 65%, поскольку все больше индийских американцев переезжали на Восточное побережье. В том году индийские американцы были зарегистрированы как резиденты в 43 штатах. Большинство индийских американцев на западном побережье проживали в сельской местности, но на восточном побережье они стали резидентами городских районов. В 1940-х годах цены на землю выросли, и программа Bracero привлекла тысячи мексиканских гастарбайтеров для работы на фермах, что помогло перевести индийских американских фермеров второго поколения в «коммерческие, несельскохозяйственные профессии, от управления небольшими магазинами и продуктовыми лавками до управления службами такси и становления инженерами». В Стоктоне и Сакраменто новая группа индийских иммигрантов из штата Гуджарат открыла несколько небольших отелей. [45] В 1955 году 14 из 21 гостиничных предприятий в Сан-Франциско управлялись гуджаратскими индусами. [46] К 1980-м годам индийцы владели примерно 15 000 мотелей, около 28% всех отелей и мотелей в США [47]
Начало 21-го века ознаменовало значительную волну в тенденции миграции из Индии в Соединенные Штаты. Появление индустрии информационных технологий в индийских городах, таких как Бангалор , Ченнаи , Пуна , Мумбаи и Хайдарабад, привело к большому количеству миграций в США, в основном из штатов Телангана, Андхра-Прадеш, Карнатака, Керала и Тамилнад в Южной Индии. В Соединенных Штатах проживает значительное количество людей из штатов Пенджаб , Андхра-Прадеш , Махараштра , Телангана , Гуджарат , Западная Бенгалия , Карнатака , Керала и Тамилнад . [51] Индийцы составляют более 80% всех виз H-1B . [52] Индийские американцы стали самой богатой этнической группой в Америке, со средним доходом домохозяйства в 126 891 доллар, что почти вдвое превышает средний показатель по США в 65 316 долларов. [53]
С 2000 года большое количество студентов начали мигрировать в Соединенные Штаты для получения высшего образования. По разным оценкам, более 500 000 индийских американских студентов посещают высшие учебные заведения в любой год. [54] [55] Согласно отчету Института международного образования (IIE) 'Opendoors', 202 014 новых студентов из Индии поступили в учебные заведения США. [56]
20 января 2021 года Камала Харрис , индийская американка, вошла в историю как первая женщина- вице-президент Соединенных Штатов . [57] Она была избрана вице-президентом в качестве напарницы президента Джо Байдена на президентских выборах 2020 года . Это стало важной вехой в истории индийской Америки, и помимо Харрис на ключевые должности в администрации были номинированы еще 20 индийских американцев. [58]
Демография
Процент населения с индийскими корнями в 2010 году. Нью-Джерси стоит особняком в демографическом отношении, в 2020 году в нем проживало более 4% индийцев.
По данным переписи населения США 2010 года , [62] численность индейского населения Азии в США увеличилась с почти 1 678 765 человек в 2000 году (0,6% населения США) до 2 843 391 человек в 2010 году (0,9% населения США), темп роста составил 69,37% , что является одной из самых быстрорастущих этнических групп в США. [63]
В самом Нью-Йорке проживает самая большая численность индейского населения среди всех городов Северной Америки, которая оценивается в 246 454 человека по состоянию на 2017 год. [65] Городок Монро , округ Миддлсекс , в центральном Нью-Джерси , признанный самым безопасным малым городом в Соединенных Штатах, [66] продемонстрировал один из самых быстрых темпов роста численности индейского населения в Западном полушарии , увеличившись с 256 человек (0,9%) по данным переписи 2000 года [67] до предполагаемых 5943 человек (13,6%) по состоянию на 2017 год [68] , что составляет рост на 2221,5% за этот период. Богатые профессионалы и пожилые граждане , умеренный климат с многочисленными зелеными поясами , благотворительные спонсоры усилий по оказанию помощи COVID в Индии в официальной координации с городком Монро, индуистские мандиры , индийские фургончики с едой и актеры Болливуда со вторыми домами — все это способствует росту индийского населения в городке, а также его относительной близости к высокорейтинговому Принстонскому университету . К 2022 году индийское население превысило треть населения городка Монро, и появилось прозвище Эдисон -Юг в связи со статусом Маленькой Индии обоих тауншипов округа Миддлсекс, штат Нью-Джерси . [69] В 2014 году 12 350 индийцев легально иммигрировали в статистическую зону Нью-Йорк-Северный Нью-Джерси-Лонг-Айленд, штат Нью-Йорк-Нью-Джерси-Пенсильвания; [70] По состоянию на февраль 2022 года индийская авиакомпания Air India , а также американская авиакомпания United Airlines предлагали прямые рейсы из столичного района Нью-Йорка в Дели и Мумбаи и обратно . В мае 2019 года Delta Air Lines объявила о беспосадочном полете между Нью-Йорком (JFK) и Мумбаи, который начнется 22 декабря 2019 года. [71] А в ноябре 2021 года American Airlines начала беспосадочное полетное обслуживание между Нью-Йорком (JFK) и Дели с код-шерингом IndiGo Air на этом рейсе. По крайней мере 24 индо-американских анклава, характеризуемых как Маленькая Индия, появились в столичном районе Нью-Йорка.
В следующей таблице показано количество людей в каждом штате, которые идентифицировали себя как «индуисты» в переписях 1910, 1920, 1930 и 1940 годов, а также количество людей, идентифицирующих себя как «азиатские индийцы» в каждом штате, начиная с переписи 1980 года. [73] Между переписями 1910 и 1940 годов « индуисты » были категорией переписи для обозначения расы, [73] термин, который сейчас ассоциируется с религией, но тогда относился к южноазиатам в целом. [74] В то время южноазиатское американское население составляло 85% сикхов, 12% мусульман и 3% индуистов, [75] [76] но все они, тем не менее, назывались индуистами. [75] [77] Либерализация иммиграционного законодательства в середине века привела к более разнообразной миграции из Индии, и доля сикхов среди индийских американцев упала до 8%. [9]
List of communities by number of Asian Indians (as of the 2010 census)
In recent years, especially following the 1990 inception of the H-1B visa program and the dot-com boom, there has been a shift in the Indian American population from being dominated by immigrants from Gujarat and Punjab to being increasingly represented more broadly, including by immigrants from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Tamil Nadu, as well as immigrants from Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.[86][87] Between 2010 and 2021, Telugu rose from being the sixth most spoken South Asian language to being the third most spoken, while Punjabi fell from being the fourth most spoken South Asian language in the United States to become the seventh most spoken. There are significant differences between these groups in terms of socioeconomic factors like education, geographic location, and income; in 2021, 81% of Americans speaking Telugu at home spoke English very well while only 59% of Americans speaking Punjabi at home did the same.[88][89]
Socioeconomic status
The United States is host to the second largest Indian diaspora on the planet
From the 1990 census to the 2000 census, the Asian Indian population increased by 105.87%. Meanwhile, the U.S. population increased by only 7.6%. In 2000, the Indian-born population in the U.S. was 1.007 million. In 2006, of the 1,266,264 legal immigrants to the United States, 58,072 were from India. Between 2000 and 2006, 421,006 Indian immigrants were admitted to the U.S., up from 352,278 during the 1990–1999 period.[91] At 16.4% of the Asian population, Indian Americans make up the third largest Asian-American ethnic group, following Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans.[92][93][94]
A joint Duke University-UC Berkeley study revealed that Indian immigrants have founded more engineering and technology companies from 1995 to 2005 than immigrants from the United Kingdom, China, Taiwan, and Japan combined.[95] The percentage of Silicon Valley startups founded by Indian immigrants has increased from 7% in 1999 to 15.5% in 2006, as reported in the 1999 study by AnnaLee Saxenian[96] and her updated work in 2006 in collaboration with Vivek Wadhwa.[97] Indian Americans have risen to top positions at many major companies (e.g., IBM, PepsiCo, MasterCard, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Cisco, Oracle, Adobe, Softbank, Cognizant, Sun Microsystems.) A 2014 study indicates that 23% of Indian business school graduates take a job in the United States.[98]
Indian Americans continually outpace every other ethnic group socioeconomically per U.S. census statistics.[99]Thomas Friedman of The New York Times, in his 2005 book The World Is Flat, explains this trend in terms of brain drain, whereby a sample of the best and brightest people in India emigrate to the United States in order to seek better financial opportunities.[100] Indians form the second largest group of physicians after non-Hispanic Caucasian Americans (3.9%) as of the 1990 survey, and the share of Indian physicians rose to approximately 6% in 2005.[101]
Education
Indra Nooyi's career exemplifies the high level of educational attainment and professional success.
According to Pew Research in 2015, of Indian Americans aged 25 and older, 72% had obtained a bachelor's degree and 40% had obtained a postgraduate degree, whereas of all Americans, 19% had obtained a bachelor's degree and 11% had obtained a postgraduate degree.[102]
Household income
The median household income for Indian immigrants in 2019 was much higher than that of the overall foreign- and native-born populations. Indians overall have much higher incomes than the total foreign and native-born populations.
In a 2019 survey, it was found that households headed by an Indian immigrant had a median income of $132,000, compared to $64,000 and $66,000 for all immigrant and U.S.-born households, respectively. Indian immigrants were also much less likely to be in poverty (5%) than immigrants overall (14%) or the U.S. born (12%).[103]
According to 2022 US Census data, the median Indian American household income is now $151,485.
Communities of Hindus, Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, irreligious people, and smaller numbers of Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, and Indian Jews, have established their religious (or irreligious) beliefs in the United States. According to 2023 Pew Research Center research, 48% consider themselves Hindu, 15% as Christian (7% Catholic, 4% Evangelical Protestant, 4% Nonevangelical Protestant), 18% as unaffiliated, 8%
as Muslims, 8% as Sikh, and 3% as a member of another religion.[9]The first religious center of an Indian religion to be established in the U.S. was a Sikh Gurudwara in Stockton, California in 1912. Today there are many Sikh Gurudwaras, Hindu temples, Muslim mosques, Christian churches, and Buddhist and Jain temples in all 50 states.
From the time of their arrival to the U.S. in the late 1800s, Sikh women and men have been making notable contributions to American society. In 2007, there were estimated to be between 250,000 and 500,000 Sikhs living in the United States, with largest populations living on the East and West Coasts, together with smaller additional populations in Detroit, Chicago, and Austin. The United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism.
Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and turbans (head coverings), articles of their faith. Many organisations like World Sikh Organisation (WSO), Sikh Riders of America, SikhNet, Sikh Coalition, SALDEF, United Sikhs, National Sikh Campaign continue to educate people about Sikhism. There are many "Gurudwaras" Sikh temples present in all states of USA.
Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. Jain immigration became more significant in the second half of the 20th century. The U.S. has since become the epicenter of the Jain diaspora. Jains in America are also one of the highest-earning socio-economic adherents of any religion in the United States. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations.[113] Unlike India and United Kingdom, the Jain community in United States does not find sectarian differences—both Digambara and Śvētāmbara share a common roof.[citation needed]
The large Parsi and Irani community is represented by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America.[128]Indian Jews are perhaps the smallest organized religious group among Indian Americans, consisting of approximately 350 members in the U.S. They form the Indian Jewish Congregation of USA, with their headquarters in New York City.[129]
Passaic, New Jersey established Diwali as a school holiday in 2005.[130][131]South Brunswick, New Jersey in 2010 became the first of the many school districts with large Indian student populations in Middlesex County in New Jersey to add Diwali to the school calendar.[131]Glen Rock, New Jersey in February 2015 became the first municipality in Bergen County, with its own burgeoning Indian population post-2010,[133][134] to recognize Diwali as an annual school holiday,[135][136] while thousands in Bergen County celebrated the first U.S. county-wide Diwali Mela festival under a unified sponsorship banner in 2016,[137] while Fair Lawn in Bergen County has celebrated an internationally prominent annual Holi celebration since 2022.[138][139][140] Diwali/Deepavali is also recognized by Monroe Township, New Jersey.
Efforts have been undertaken in Millburn,[130] Monroe Township, West Windsor-Plainsboro, Bernards Township, and North Brunswick, New Jersey,[131]Long Island, as well as in New York City (ultimately successfully),[141][142] among other school districts in the metropolitan region, to make Diwali a holiday on the school calendar. According to the Star-Ledger, Edison, New Jersey councilman Sudhanshu Prasad has noted parents' engagement in making Deepavali a holiday there; while in Jersey City, the four schools with major Asian Indian populations mark the holiday by inviting parents to the school buildings for festivities.[131]Mahatma Gandhi Elementary School is located in Passaic, New Jersey.[143] Efforts are also progressing toward making Diwali and Eid official holidays at all 24 school districts in Middlesex County.[144] At least 12 school districts on Long Island closed for Diwali in 2022,[145] and over 20 in New Jersey.[146]
Like the terms "Asian American" or "South Asian American", the term "Indian American" is also an umbrella label applying to a variety of views, values, lifestyles, and appearances. Although Asian Indian Americans retain a high ethnic identity, they are known to assimilate into American culture while at the same time keeping the culture of their ancestors.[147]
Deep Foods, founded in 1977 in New Jersey, is one of the largest Indian food companies in the US.[148] Specializing in frozen Indian food, their products were sold in around 20,000 stores as of 2024.[149]
Notable Indian Americans in the Business and technology industry
Tamil, Gujarati, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Punjabi, Malayalam, and Hindi radio stations are available in areas with high Indian populations, for example, Punjabi Radio USA, Easy96.com in the New York City metropolitan area, KLOK 1170 AM in San Francisco, KSJO Bolly 92.3FM in San Jose, RBC Radio; Radio Humsafar, Desi Junction in Chicago; Radio Salaam Namaste and FunAsia Radio in Dallas; and Masala Radio, FunAsia Radio, Sangeet Radio, Radio Naya Andaz in Houston and Washington Bangla Radio on Internet from the Washington DC Metro Area. There are also some radio stations broadcasting in Tamil within these communities.[150][151] Houston-based Kannada Kaaranji radio focuses on a multitude of programs for children and adults.[152]
AVS (Asian Variety Show) and Namaste America are South Asian programming available in most of the U.S. that is free to air and can be watched with a television antenna.
In July 2005, MTV premiered a spin-off network called MTV Desi which targets Indian Americans.[153] It has been discontinued by MTV.
In 2012, the film Not a Feather, but a Dot directed by Teju Prasad, was released which investigates the history, perceptions and changes in the Indian American community over the last century.
The annual New York City India Day Parade, held on or approximately every August 15 since 1981, is the world's largest Indian Independence Day parade outside of India[155] and is hosted by The Federation of Indian Associations (FIA). According to the website of Baruch College of the City University of New York, "The FIA, which came into being in 1970 is an umbrella organization meant to represent the diverse Indian population of NYC. Its mission is to promote and further the interests of its 500,000 members and to collaborate with other Indian cultural organization. The FIA acts as a mouth piece for the diverse Indian Asian population in United States, and is focused on furthering the interests of this diverse community. The parade begins on East 38th Street and continues down Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan until it reaches 28th Street. At the review stand on 28th Street, the grand marshal and various celebrities greet onlookers. Throughout the parade, participants find themselves surrounded by the saffron, white and green colors of the Indian flag. They can enjoy Indian food, merchandise booths, live dancing and music present at the Parade. After the parade is over, various cultural organizations and dance schools participate in program on 23rd Street and Madison Avenue until 6PM."[156] The New York/New Jersey metropolitan region's second-largest India Independence Day parade takes place in Little India, Edison/Iselin in Middlesex County, New Jersey, annually in August.
Sikh Day Vaisakhi Parade
The world's largest Sikh Day Parade outside India celebrating Vaisakhi and the season of renewal is held in Manhattan annually in April. The parade is widely regarded as being one of the most colourful parades.[157]
1635: An "East Indian" is documented present in Jamestown, Virginia.[158][17]
1680: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, a mixed-race girl born to an Indian father and an Irish mother is classified as mulatto and sold into slavery.[16]
1790: The first officially confirmed Indian immigrant arrives in the United States from Madras, South India, on a British ship.[159][160]
1909: Bhicaji Balsara becomes the first known Indian-born person to gain naturalised U.S. citizenship. As a Parsi, he was considered a "pure member of the Persian sect" and therefore a free White person. The judge Emile Henry Lacombe, of the Southern District of New York, only gave Balsara citizenship on the hope that the United States attorney would indeed challenge his decision and appeal it to create "an authoritative interpretation" of the law. The U.S. attorney adhered to Lacombe's wishes and took the matter to the Circuit Court of Appeals in 1910. The Circuit Court of Appeal agrees that Parsis are classified as white.[34]
1913: A. K. Mozumdar becomes the second Indian-born person to earn U.S. citizenship, having convinced the Spokane district judge that he was "Caucasian" and met the requirements of naturalization law that restricted citizenship to free White persons. In 1923, as a result of United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, his citizenship was revoked.
1914: Dhan Gopal Mukerji obtains a graduate degree from Stanford University, studying also at University of California, Berkeley and later goes on to win the Newbery Medal in 1928, and thus becomes the first successful India-born man of letters in the United States, as well as the first popular Indian writer in English.
1917: The Barred Zone Act passes in Congress through two-thirds majority, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's earlier veto. Asians, including Indians, are barred from entering the United States.
1918: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, there was significant controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his White American tenants.[161]
1918: Private Raghunath N. Banawalkar is the first Indian American recruited into the U.S. Army on February 25, 1918, and serves in the Sanitary Detachment of the 305th Infantry Regiment, 77th Division, American Expeditionary Forces in France. Gassed while on active service in October 1918 and subsequently awarded Purple Heart medal.[162]
1918: Earliest record of LGBT Indian Americans—Jamil Singh in Sacramento, California[163]
1922: Yellapragada Subbarao, a Telugu from the state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India arrived in Boston on October 26, 1922. He discovered the role of phosphocreatine and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in muscular activity, which earned him an entry into biochemistry textbooks in the 1930s. He obtained his Ph.D. the same year, and went on to make other major discoveries; including the synthesis of aminopterin (later developed into methotrexate), the first cancer chemotherapy.
1946: President Harry S. Truman signs into law the Luce–Celler Act of 1946, returning the right to Indian Americans to immigrate to the United States and become naturalized citizens.
1956: Dalip Singh Saund elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from California. He was re-elected to a second and third term, winning over 60% of the vote. He is also the first Asian immigrant from any country to be elected to Congress.
1962: Zubin Mehta appointed music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, becoming the first person of Indian origin to become the principal conductor of a major American orchestra. Subsequently, he was appointed principal conductor of the New York Philharmonic.
1965: President Lyndon Johnson signs the INS Act of 1965 into law, eliminating per-country immigration quotas and introducing immigration on the basis of professional experience and education. Satinder Mullick is one of the first to immigrate under the new law in November 1965—sponsored by Corning Glass Works.
1968: Hargobind Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for discovering the mechanisms by which RNA codes for the synthesis of proteins. He was then on faculty at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, but later moved to MIT.
1974: Mafat and Tulsi Patel open the first location of Patel Brothers on Devon Avenue in Chicago, one of the first Indian grocery chains in America
1975: Launch of India-West, a leading newspaper covering issues of relevance to the Indian American community.
1983: Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar won the Nobel Prize for Physics; Asian Indian Women in America[165] attended the first White House Briefing for Asian American Women. (AAIWA, formed in 1980, is the 1st Indian women's organization in North America.)
1989: Launch of RBC Radio, the first South Asian-Indian radio station in the United States.[166]
1990: Shiva Subramanya (an India-born Nuclear Physicist and Space Scientist working at TRW, Inc) became the first South Asian and first Indian American to win the Medal of Merit, the AFCEA's highest award for a civilian and one of the America's top defense award, in recognition of his exceptional service to AFCEA and the fields of Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I).[167]
1994: Guitarist Kim Thayil, of Indian origin, wins Grammy award for his Indian inspired guitarwork on the album Superunknown by his band Soundgarden.
1994: Raj Reddy received the ACM Turing Award (with Edward Feigenbaum) "For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology."
2008: Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson appoints Neel Kashkari as the Interim U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability.
2008: Raj Chetty appointed as professor of economics at Harvard University the age of 29, one of the youngest ever to receive tenure of professorship in the Department of Economics at Harvard.
2010: Year marks the most candidates of Indian origin, running for political offices in the United States, including candidates such as Ami Bera.
2010: State Representative Nikki Haley is elected Governor of South Carolina and becomes the first Indian American woman and second Indian American in general to serve as governor of a U.S. state.
2013: Arun M Kumar appointed as assistant secretary and director general of the U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service, International Trade Administration in the Department of Commerce.[170]
2016: Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna, and Raja Krishnamoorthi are elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. This puts the total number of people of Indian and South Asian origin in Congress at 5, the largest in history.
2019: Seven out of the eight winners of the Scripps National Spelling Bee (Saketh Sundar, Abhijay Kodali, Shruthika Padhy, Sohum Sukhatankar, Christopher Serrao, Rohan Raja, and Rishik Gandhasri), are Indian Americans. They have broken the spelling bee according to several experts and have dominated this American institution.[172]
2022: Aruna Miller elected the first Asian-American lieutenant governor of Maryland and first South Asian woman elected lieutenant governor in the U.S.[183]
According to the official U.S. racial categories employed by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget and other U.S. government agencies, American citizens or resident aliens who marked "Asian Indian" as their ancestry or wrote in a term that was automatically classified as an Asian Indian became classified as part of the Asian race at the 2000 Census.[186] As with other modern official U.S. government racial categories, the term "Asian" is in itself a broad and heterogeneous classification, encompassing all peoples with origins in the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.
In previous decades, Indian Americans were also variously classified as White American, the "Hindu race," and "other."[187] Even today, where individual Indian Americans do not racially self-identify, and instead report Muslim, Jewish, and Zoroastrian as their "race" in the "some other race" section without noting their country of origin, they are automatically tallied as white.[188] This may result in the counting of persons such as Indian Muslims, Indian Jews, and Indian Zoroastrians as white, if they solely report their religious heritage without their national origin.
Current issues
Discrimination
In the 1980s, a gang known as the Dotbusters specifically targeted Indian Americans in Jersey City, New Jersey with violence and harassment.[189] Studies of racial discrimination, as well as stereotyping and scapegoating of Indian Americans have been conducted in recent years.[190] In particular, racial discrimination against Indian Americans in the workplace has been correlated with Indophobia due to the rise in outsourcing/offshoring, whereby Indian Americans are blamed for U.S. companies offshoring white-collar labor to India.[191][192] According to the offices of the Congressional Caucus on India, many Indian Americans are severely concerned of a backlash, though nothing serious has taken place.[192] Due to various socio-cultural reasons, implicit racial discrimination against Indian Americans largely go unreported by the Indian American community.[190]
Numerous cases of religious stereotyping of American Hindus (mainly of Indian origin) have also been documented.[193]
Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, there have been scattered incidents of Indian Americans becoming mistaken targets for hate crimes. In one example, a Sikh, Balbir Singh Sodhi, was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist. This happened after September 11, and the murderer claimed that his turban made him think that the victim was a Middle Eastern American.[194] In another example, a pizza deliverer was mugged and beaten in Massachusetts for "being Muslim" though the victim pleaded with the assailants that he was in fact a Hindu.[195] In December 2012, an Indian American in New York City was pushed from behind onto the tracks at the 40th Street-Lowery Street station in Sunnyside and killed.[196] The police arrested a woman, Erika Menendez, who admitted to the act and justified it, stating that she shoved him onto the tracks because she believed he was "a Hindu or a Muslim" and she wanted to retaliate for the attacks of September 11, 2001.[197]
In 2004, New York Senator Hillary Clinton joked at a fundraising event with South Asians for Nancy Farmer that Mahatma Gandhi owned a gas station in downtown St. Louis, fueling the stereotype that gas stations are owned by Indians and other South Asians. She clarified in the speech later that she was just joking, but still received some criticism for the statement later on for which she apologized again.[198]
On April 5, 2006, the Hindu Mandir of Minnesota was vandalized allegedly on the basis of religious discrimination.[199] The vandals damaged temple property leading to $200,000 worth of damage.[200][201][202]
On August 11, 2006, Senator George Allen allegedly referred to an opponent's political staffer of Indian ancestry as "macaca" and commenting, "Welcome to America, to the real world of Virginia." Some members of the Indian American community saw Allen's comments, and the backlash that may have contributed to Allen losing his re-election bid, as demonstrative of the power of YouTube in the 21st century.[203]
In 2006, then DelawareSenator and current U.S PresidentJoe Biden was caught on microphone saying: "In Delaware, the largest growth in population is Indian Americans moving from India. You cannot go to a 7-Eleven or a Dunkin' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent. I'm not joking."[204]
On February 22, 2017, recent immigrants Srinivas Kuchibhotla and Alok Madasani were shot at a bar in Olathe, Kansas by Adam Purinton, a white American who mistook them for persons of Middle Eastern descent, yelling "get out of my country" and "terrorist." Kuchibhotla died instantly while Madasani was injured, but later recovered.[205]
Punjabi Sikh Americans in Indianapolis suffered many losses in their community on April 15, 2021, during the Indianapolis FedEx shooting in which gunman Brandon Scott Hole, with a currently unknown motive, entered a FedEx warehouse and killed eight people, half of whom were Sikh. The Sikh victims were Jaswinder Singh, Jasvinder Kaur, Amarjit Sekhon, and Amarjeet Johal. 90% of the workers at the facility were Sikh according to some accounts.[206] Another Sikh, Taptejdeep Singh, was one of the nine people killed in the San Jose shooting on May 26, 2021.[207]
Immigration
Indians are among the largest ethnic groups legally immigrating to the United States. The immigration of Indians has taken place in several waves since the first Indian moved to the United States in the 1700s. A major wave of immigration to California from the region of Punjab took place in the first decade of the 20th century. Another significant wave followed in the 1950s which mainly included students and professionals. The elimination of immigration quotas in 1965 spurred successively larger waves of immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. With the technology boom of the 1990s, the largest influx of Indians arrived between 1995 and 2000. This latter group has also caused surge in the application for various immigration benefits including applications for green card. This has resulted in long waiting periods for people born in India from receiving these benefits.
As of 2012, over 330,000 Indians were on the visa wait list, third only to Mexico and The Philippines.[208]
In December, 2015, over 30 Indian students seeking admission in two U.S. universities—Silicon Valley University and the Northwestern Polytechnic University—were denied entry by Customs and Border Protection and were deported to India. Conflicting reports suggested that the students were deported because of the controversies surrounding the above-mentioned two universities. However, another report suggested that the students were deported as they had provided conflicting information at the time of their arrival in the U.S. to what was mentioned in their visa application. "According to the U.S. Government, the deported persons had presented information to the border patrol agent which was inconsistent with their visa status," read an advisory published by Ministry of External Affairs (India) which was published in the Hindustan Times.[209]
Following the incident, the Indian government asked the U.S. government to honour the visas given by its embassies and consulates. In response, the United States embassy advised the students considering studying in the U.S. to seek assistance from Education USA.[209][210]
Citizenship
Unlike many countries, India does not allow dual citizenship.[211] Consequently, many Indian citizens residing in U.S., who do not want to lose their Indian nationality, do not apply for American citizenship (ex. Raghuram Rajan[212]). However, many Indian Americans obtain Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status, which allows them to live and work in India indefinitely.
Marriage
Arranged marriages and relationships have been a common cultural tradition in many South Asian cultures, particularly among Indian communities. Arranged marriages and relationships can take many different forms, and that the experiences of those involved can vary greatly depending on a variety of circumstances, including cultural background, familial values, and individual preferences. Although many individuals marry each other out of love for one another, long-term compatibility—rather than love—is frequently prioritized in these arranged marriages. A number of variables could be important in the selecting process, including caste, education, financial standing, and family values. The public's perception of arranged marriages is changing, particularly among younger people. In an effort to strike a balance between family participation and personal preference, some people may decide to combine aspects of both love and planned marriages.[213]
Income disparities
Although Indian Americans have the highest average and median household income of any demographic group in America, there exist significant and severe income disparities among various communities of Indian Americans. In Long Island, the average family income of Indian Americans was roughly $273,000, while in Fresno, the average family income of Indian Americans was only $24,000, an eleven-fold difference.[214]
In the 2000s, a majority of Indian Americans have tended to identify as moderates, and have often leaned Democratic in several recent elections. In the 2012 presidential election, a poll from the National Asian American Survey reported that 68% of Indian Americans planned to vote for Barack Obama.[222] Polls before the 2004 presidential election showed Indian Americans favoring Democratic candidate John Kerry over RepublicanGeorge W. Bush by a 53% to 14% margin, with 30% undecided at the time.[223]
In 2020, Harris briefly ran for President of the United States and was later chosen as the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee, running alongside Joe Biden.[235] She is currently the presumptive candidate for the Democratic ticket in the 2024 General Election.
Indian Americans have played a significant role in promoting better India–United States relations, turning the cold attitude of American legislators to a positive perception of India in the post-Cold War era.[237]
Dalip Singh Saund was in 1956 the first Asian American, Indian American, and member of a non-Abrahamic faith (Sikhism) to be elected to the United States Congress.
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Further reading
Atkinson, David C. The burden of white supremacy: Containing Asian migration in the British empire and the United States (U North Carolina Press, 2016).
Bacon, Jean. Life Lines: Community, Family, and Assimilation among Asian Indian Immigrants (Oxford UP, 1996).
Bhalla, Vibha. "'Couch potatoes and super-women' Gender, migration, and the emerging discourse on housework among Asian Indian immigrants." Journal of American Ethnic History 27.4 (2008): 71–99. online Archived April 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
Chakravorty, Sanjoy; Kapur, Devesh; Singh, Nirvikar (2017). The Other One Percent: Indians in America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190648749.
Joshi, Khyati Y. New Roots in America's Sacred Ground: Religion, Race and Ethnicity in Indian America (Rutgers UP, 2006).
Khandelwal, Madhulika S. Becoming American, Being Indian: An Immigrant Community in New York City (Cornell UP, 2002).
Maira, Sunaina Marr. Desis in the House: Indian American Youth Culture in NYC (Temple UP, 2002).
Min, Pyong Gap, and Young Oak Kim. "Ethnic and sub-ethnic attachments among Chinese, Korean, and Indian immigrants in New York City." Ethnic and Racial Studies 32.5 (2009): 758–780.
Pavri, Tinaz. "Asian Indian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 165–178. online Archived March 26, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Rangaswamy, Padma (2000). Namasté America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-01981-6.
Rudrappa, Sharmila. Ethnic Routes to Becoming American: Indian Immigrants and the Cultures of Citizenship (Rutgers UP, 2004).
Schlund-Vials, Cathy J., Linda Trinh Võ, and K. Scott Wong, eds. Keywords for Asian American Studies (NYU Press, 2015).
Shukla, Sandhya. India Abroad: Diasporic Cultures of Postwar America and England (Princeton UP, 2003).
Sohi, Seema. Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America (2014) excerpt Archived February 14, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Takaki, Ronald (1998) [1989]. Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Revised and updated ed.). New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0-316-83130-7. OCLC 80125499.
Thernstrom, Stephan; Orlov, Ann; Handlin, Oscar, eds. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674375122, (1980), pp 296–301. available to borrow online
External links
The American Institute of India Studies (AIIS)
Madhusudan and Kiran C. Dhar India Studies Program at Indiana University Bloomington
From 1917 to 2017: Immigration, Exclusion, and "National Security" by Seema Sohi
Widely exhibited across museums in the US, historic photography project of Indians living in the late 1980s in America Archived May 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
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