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Народ рома

Цыганский народ [k] ( / ˈr oʊ mə n i / ROH -mə-nee или / ˈr ɒ mə n i / ROM -ə-nee ), также известный как рома ( ед. ч . ром ), является этнической группой индоарийского происхождения [ 74 ] [75] [76], которая традиционно вела кочевой , странствующий образ жизни. Лингвистические и генетические данные свидетельствуют о том, что рома возникли на индийском субконтиненте , в частности в регионе Раджастхан [77] . Считается, что их первая волна миграции на запад произошла где-то между V и XI веками [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] Их название происходит от санскритского слова डोम ( ḍoma ), которое переводится как член касты Дом странствующих музыкантов и танцоров. [83] [84] Цыганское население переместилось на запад в империю Газневидов , а затем в Византийскую империю . [85] [86] Считается, что цыгане прибыли в Европу примерно в 13-14 веках. [87] Хотя они широко расселены , считается, что их наиболее концентрированное население находится в Болгарии , Венгрии , Румынии , Сербии и Словакии . [88] [89] [90]

В английском языке цыгане уже давно известны под экзонимом Gypsies или Gipsies , [91] который многие цыгане считают расовым оскорблением . [92] [93] Участники первого Всемирного конгресса цыган в 1971 году единогласно проголосовали за то, чтобы отклонить использование всех экзонимов для цыган, включая «Gypsy». [94] Тем не менее, цыгане в Соединенном Королевстве обычно называют себя «цыганами». [95]

Первые цыгане, прибывшие в Соединенные Штаты, прибыли в Вирджинию, Джорджию , Нью-Джерси и Луизиану в 1500-х годах. [96] Впервые рабы-цыгане были отправлены в Америку вместе с Колумбом в 1498 году . [97] Испания отправляла рабов-цыган в свою колонию в Луизиане между 1762 и 1800 годами. [98] Афро -цыганская община существует в приходе Святого Мартина из-за смешанных браков между освобожденными афроамериканскими рабами и цыганами. [99] Численность цыганского населения в Соединенных Штатах оценивается более чем в один миллион человек. [l] В Бразилии проживает от 800 000 до 1  миллиона цыган , большинство предков которых эмигрировали в 19 веке из Восточной Европы. Бразильские цыгане в основном произошли от немецких/итальянских синти (в южных/юго-восточных регионах), а также от цыган и калонов. В Бразилии также проживает значительная община рома, происходящая от синти и рома, депортированных из Португальской империи во время португальской инквизиции . [100] С конца 19 века рома также мигрировали в другие страны Южной Америки и Канаду.

Цыганский язык — индоарийский язык с сильным балканским и греческим влиянием. [101] Он делится на несколько диалектов , которые, по оценкам, в общей сложности имеют более 2 миллионов носителей. [102] Поскольку язык традиционно был устным, многие цыгане являются носителями доминирующего языка в стране своего проживания или же смешанных языков , которые объединяют доминирующий язык с диалектом цыганского в разновидностях , иногда называемых пара-цыганами . [103]

Имена

Эндонимы языка рома

Rom буквально означает муж на языке цыган , [104] [105] с множественным числом Roma . Женский род от Rom на языке цыган — Romni/Romli/Romnije или Romlije . Однако в большинстве других языков Rom теперь используется для людей независимо от пола. [106] Он имеет варианты dom и lom , которые могут быть связаны с санскритскими словами dam-pati (хозяин дома, муж), dama (подчинять), lom (волосы), lomaka (волосатый), loman , roman (волосатый), romaça (человек с бородой и длинными волосами). [107] Другое возможное происхождение — от санскритского डोम doma (член низшей касты странствующих музыкантов и танцоров). Несмотря на их присутствие в стране и соседних странах, это слово никак не связано с названием Румынии.

Romani — это женское прилагательное, а Romano — мужское прилагательное. Некоторые цыгане используют Rom или Roma как этническое имя, в то время как другие (например, Sinti или Romanichal) не используют этот термин как самоописание для всей этнической группы. [108]

Иногда rom и romani пишутся с двойным r , т. е. rrom и rromani . В этом случае rr используется для представления фонемы /ʀ/ (также пишется как ř и rh ), которая в некоторых диалектах цыганского языка осталась отличной от той, которая пишется с одним r . Написание rr распространено в некоторых учреждениях (например, в Институте INALCO в Париже) или используется в некоторых странах, например, в Румынии, для отличия от эндонима / омонима для румын ( ед. ч. român, мн. ч. români ). [109]

В Норвегии термин Romani используется исключительно для обозначения более старого населения, говорящего на северном цыганском языке (которое прибыло в 16 веке), в то время как термин Rom/Romanes используется для обозначения групп, говорящих на влахском цыганском языке , которые мигрировали с 19 века. [110]

Эндонимы английского языка

В английском языке (согласно Оксфордскому словарю английского языка ) Rom является как существительным (во множественном числе Roma или Roms ), так и прилагательным. Аналогично, Romani ( Romany ) является как существительным (во множественном числе Romani , Romani , Romanies или Romanis ), так и прилагательным. И Rom , и Romani используются в английском языке с 19 века в качестве альтернативы Gypsy . [111] Romani иногда писалось как Rommany , но чаще Romany , в то время как сегодня Romani является наиболее популярным написанием. Иногда в английских текстах встречается также удвоенное написание r (например, Rroma , Rromani ), упомянутое выше.

Термин «рома» все чаще встречается [112] [113] как общее название для рома. [114] [115] [116]

Поскольку не все рома используют слово Romani как прилагательное, этот термин стал существительным для всей этнической группы. [117] Сегодня термин Romani используется некоторыми организациями, включая Организацию Объединенных Наций и Библиотеку Конгресса США. [109] Однако Совет Европы и другие организации считают, что Roma — это правильный термин, относящийся ко всем родственным группам, независимо от страны их происхождения, и рекомендуют ограничить Romani языком и культурой: язык Romani , культура Romani . [106] Британское правительство использует термин «Roma» как подгруппу « White » в своей системе этнической классификации. [118]

Стандартное предположение заключается в том, что демонимы цыган, Лом и Дом , имеют одинаковое происхождение. [119] [120]

Другие обозначения

Английский экзоним Gypsy (или Gipsy ) происходит от среднеанглийского gypcian , сокращения от Egipcien . Испанский термин Gitano и французский Gitan имеют схожую этимологию. Они в конечном итоге произошли от греческого Αιγύπτιοι ( Aigyptioi ), что означает «египтянин», через латынь . Это обозначение обязано своим существованием распространенному в Средние века убеждению, что рома или какая-то родственная им группа (например, индийский народ дом ) были странствующими египтянами . [121] [122] Это убеждение, по-видимому, происходит от стихов в библейской Книге Иезекииля (29: 6 и 12–13), в которых говорится о том, что египтяне были рассеяны среди народов разгневанным Богом. Согласно одному повествованию, они были изгнаны из Египта в наказание за то, что якобы укрывали младенца Иисуса . [123] В своей книге «The Zincali: an account of the Gypsies of Spain » Джордж Борроу отмечает, что когда они впервые появились в Германии, то носили характер египтян, искупавших себя за то, что отказали в гостеприимстве Марии и ее сыну. Как описано в романе Виктора Гюго «Горбун из Нотр-Дама» , средневековые французы называли цыган Égyptiens .

Эти экзонимы иногда пишутся с заглавной буквы, чтобы показать, что они обозначают этническую группу . [124] Однако это слово часто считается уничижительным из-за его негативных и стереотипных ассоциаций. [115] [125] [126] [127] Совет Европы считает, что «цыганский» или эквивалентные термины, а также административные термины, такие как «Gens du Voyage», не соответствуют европейским рекомендациям. [106] В Великобритании многие цыгане с гордостью идентифицируют себя как «цыгане», [128] и, как часть группы цыган, рома и путешественники, это название используется для описания всех парацыганских групп в официальных контекстах. [129] В Северной Америке слово «цыганский» чаще всего используется в качестве ссылки на этническую принадлежность цыган, хотя образ жизни и мода иногда также упоминаются с использованием этого слова. [130]

Другое обозначение цыган — Cingane (альтернативно Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), вероятно, происходящее от персидского слова چنگانه ( chingane ), произошедшего от тюркского слова çıgañ , означающего бедного человека. [131] Также возможно, что происхождение этого слова — Athinganoi , название христианской секты, с которой цыгане (или какая-то родственная группа) могли ассоциироваться в прошлом. [122] [132] [133] [134]

Население и подгруппы

Цыганское население

Не существует официального или надежного подсчета численности цыганского населения во всем мире. [135] Многие цыгане отказываются регистрировать свою этническую принадлежность в официальных переписях по разным причинам, таким как страх дискриминации. [136] [137] Другие являются потомками смешанных браков с местным населением, некоторые из которых больше не идентифицируют себя только как цыгане, а некоторые вообще не идентифицируют себя как цыгане. Кроме того, некоторые страны не собирают данные по этнической принадлежности.

«Два цыгана» Франсиско Итуррино

Несмотря на эти трудности с получением точной картины расселения цыган, в Европе их было около 10 миллионов (по состоянию на 2019 год) [138] , хотя некоторые цыганские организации ранее давали оценки до 14 миллионов. [139] [140] Значительное количество цыган проживает на Балканах , в некоторых странах Центральной Европы, в Испании, Франции, России и Украине. В Европейском союзе насчитывается около 6 миллионов цыган. [141]

За пределами Европы может быть еще несколько миллионов цыган, в частности на Ближнем Востоке и в Америке. [142] [143]

Подгруппы цыган

Женщины-ромы Кало в Хельсинки , Финляндия, 1930-е годы.

Цыгане могут идентифицировать себя как отдельные этнические группы, основываясь частично на территориальных, культурных и диалектных различиях, а также на самоназвании. [144] [145] [146] [147]

Как и рома в целом, подгруппам рома дано много разных этнонимов . Иногда подгруппа использует более одного эндонима , обычно известна по экзониму или ошибочно по эндониму другой подгруппы. Единственное название, приближающееся к всеобъемлющему самоописанию, — это Rom . [148] Даже когда подгруппы не используют это название, все они признают общее происхождение и дихотомию между собой и Gadjo (не-рома). [148] Например, в то время как основная группа рома в немецкоязычных странах называет себя Sinti , их название для их исходного языка — Romanes .

Подгруппы были описаны как, отчасти, результат каст и подкаст в Индии, которые изначальное население рома почти наверняка испытало на своей южноазиатской прародине . [148] [149]

Жан-Батист Дебре : Интерьер цыганского дома в Бразилии (ок. 1820 г.)
Цыганский лагерь . Кала Рома около Суонси в Уэльсе, 1953 г.

Многие группы используют названия, полученные от цыганского слова kalo или calo , что означает «черный» или «поглощающий весь свет». Это очень похоже на слова для «черного» или «темного» в индоарийских языках (например, санскрит काल kāla : «черный», «темного цвета»). [148] Аналогичным образом, название народа дом или домба на севере Индии, с которым у цыган есть генетические, [150] культурные и языковые связи, стало подразумевать «темнокожий» в некоторых индийских языках. [151] Следовательно, такие названия, как kale и calé, могли возникнуть как экзоним или эвфемизм для слова цыган .

Урсари Рома в Шмарке , Словения, 1934 год.

Другие эндонимы слова Roma включают в себя, например:

Романичальская вардо на Большой Дорсетской паровой ярмарке в 2007 году, Англия

диаспора

«В гостях у цыган», статья из австралийской газеты The Australasian , 1898 г.

Цыганский народ состоит из ряда отдельных популяций, самой крупной из которых является цыгане, которые достигли Анатолии и Балкан примерно в начале XII века в результате миграции из северо-западной Индии, начавшейся примерно 600 лет назад. [171] [172]

Рома мигрировали по всей Европе и иберийским Кале или Кало. Первые рома, прибывшие в Соединенные Штаты, прибыли в Вирджинию, Джорджию , Нью-Джерси и Луизиану в 1500-х годах. [173] Впервые рабы-рома были отправлены в Америку Колумбом в 1498 году. [174] Испания отправила рабов-ромов в свою колонию в Луизиане между 1762 и 1800 годами. [175] Афро -ромская община существует в приходе Святого Мартина из-за смешанных браков освобожденных афроамериканских и ромских рабов. [176] По оценкам, численность ромов в Соединенных Штатах составляет более одного миллиона. [n]

Цыгане на острове Эллис , США , 1905 г.

В Бразилии цыган в основном называют цыганами бразильцы нецыганского происхождения. Большинство из них принадлежат к этнической подгруппе калес (кале) Пиренейского полуострова. Жуселину Кубичек , президент Бразилии с 1956 по 1961 год, был на 50% чешским цыганом по материнской линии, а Вашингтон Луис , последний президент Первой бразильской республики (1926–1930), имел португальские корни кале . [177]

Преследование рома привело к тому, что многие культурные практики были уничтожены, скрыты или изменены, чтобы выжить в стране, которая исключила их этнически и культурно. Очень распространенные карнавалы по всей Бразилии являются одним из немногих мест, где рома все еще могут выражать свои культурные традиции, включая так называемую «карнавальную свадьбу», на которой мальчик переодевается в невесту, и знаменитый «танец рома», живописно имитируемый женщинами города, шествующими в своих традиционных нарядах. [178]

Страны со значительным цыганским населением по неофициальным оценкам.
  + 1,000,000
  + 100,000
  + 10,000

индийского происхождения

Генетические данные показывают индийское происхождение цыган. [171] [172] [179] Поскольку группы цыган не вели летописей своей истории и не имели устных рассказов о ней, большинство гипотез о ранней миграции цыган основаны на лингвистической теории. [180]

Шахнамелегенда

Согласно легенде, изложенной в персидской эпической поэме « Шахнаме» , сасанидский царь Бахрам V Гур узнал к концу своего правления (421–439), что бедные не могут позволить себе наслаждаться музыкой, и поэтому он попросил царя Индии прислать ему десять тысяч лури , мастеров игры на лютне. Когда лури прибыли, Бахрам дал каждому из них вола, осла и ослиный груз пшеницы, чтобы они могли жить сельским хозяйством и бесплатно играть музыку для бедных. Однако лури съели быков и пшеницу и вернулись через год со впалыми от голода щеками. Царь, разгневанный тем, что они растратили то, что он им дал, приказал им собрать свои сумки и отправиться странствовать по миру на своих ослах. [181]

Лингвистические доказательства

Лингвистические данные неоспоримо показали, что корни цыганского языка лежат в Индии: язык имеет грамматические характеристики индийских языков и разделяет с ними большую часть основного лексикона. [182]

Romani и Domari имеют некоторые сходства: агглютинация послелогов второго слоя (или клитик , маркирующих падеж ) к именной основе, маркеры согласования для прошедшего времени, нейтрализация маркировки рода во множественном числе и использование косвенных падежей в качестве винительного падежа. [183] ​​Это вызвало много дискуссий о взаимоотношениях между этими двумя языками. Когда-то считалось, что Domari является «языком-сестрой» Romani, поскольку эти два языка разделились после ухода с индийского субконтинента, но более поздние исследования показывают, что различия между ними достаточно значительны, чтобы рассматривать их как два отдельных языка в пределах группы языков центральной зоны ( хиндустани ). Таким образом, Dom и Rom, вероятно, произошли от двух волн миграции из Индии, разделенных несколькими столетиями. [184] [185]

В фонологии цыганский язык разделяет несколько изоглоссов с центральной ветвью индоарийских языков, особенно в реализации некоторых звуков древнеиндоарийского. Однако он также сохраняет несколько зубных кластеров. Что касается морфологии глаголов, цыганский язык следует точно такой же модели северо-западных языков, таких как кашмири и шина, посредством принятия косвенных энклитических местоимений в качестве личных маркеров, что подтверждает теорию их центральноиндийского происхождения и последующей миграции в северо-западную Индию. Хотя сохранение зубных кластеров предполагает разрыв с центральными языками во время перехода от древнего к среднеиндоарийскому, общая морфология предполагает, что язык участвовал в некоторых значительных событиях, приведших к появлению новых индоарийских языков . [186] В следующей таблице представлены числительные в языках цыган , домари и ломаврен с соответствующими терминами на санскрите , хинди , одия и сингальском для демонстрации сходства. [187] Обратите внимание, что римские цифры от 7 до 9 были заимствованы из греческого языка .

Генетические доказательства

Генетические открытия 2012 года показывают, что цыгане возникли на северо-западе Индии и мигрировали как группа. [171] [172] [188] Согласно исследованию, предки нынешних зарегистрированных каст и зарегистрированных племен северной Индии , традиционно именуемые в совокупности домой , являются вероятными предками современных европейских цыган. [189]

В декабре 2012 года появились дополнительные данные, подтверждающие, что «рома произошли от одной группы, которая покинула северо-западную Индию около 1500 лет назад». [172] [190] [191] [192] Они достигли Балкан около 900 лет назад [171] и затем распространились по всей Европе. Группа также обнаружила, что рома демонстрируют генетическую изоляцию, а также «дифференциальный поток генов во времени и пространстве с нецыганскими европейцами». [171] [172]

Генетическое исследование, опубликованное в Европейском журнале генетики человека , «выявило, что более 70% мужчин принадлежат к одной линии, которая, по-видимому, уникальна для цыган». [193]

Генетические доказательства подтверждают средневековую миграцию из Индии. Цыгане были описаны как «конгломерат генетически изолированных популяций-основателей» [170] , в то время как ряд общих менделевских расстройств среди цыган со всей Европы указывает на «общее происхождение и эффект основателя ». [170] Исследование всего генома 2020 года подтвердило северо-западное индийское происхождение, а также подтвердило существенное балканское и ближневосточное происхождение. [194]

Исследование 2001 года Грешама и др. предполагает «ограниченное количество родственных основателей, совместимых с небольшой группой мигрантов, отделившихся от отдельной касты или племенной группы». [195] В том же исследовании было обнаружено, что «единая родословная... обнаруженная во всех популяциях цыган, составляет почти треть мужчин цыган». [195] Исследование 2004 года Морара и др. пришло к выводу, что популяция цыган «была основана примерно 32–40 поколений назад, а вторичные и третичные события основателей произошли примерно 16–25 поколений назад». [196]

Гаплогруппа H-M82 является основным кластером линий в группе балканских цыган , на долю которого приходится около 60% от общего числа. [197] Гаплогруппа H редко встречается в Европе, но присутствует на Индийском субконтиненте и на Шри-Ланке .

Исследование 444 человек, представляющих три этнические группы в Северной Македонии, показало, что гаплогруппы мтДНК M5a1 и H7a1a доминируют у цыган (13,7% и 10,3% соответственно). [198]

Состав Y-ДНК мусульманских цыган из муниципалитета Шуто Оризари в Северной Македонии , основанный на 57 образцах: [197]

Цыган подает жалобу местному судье в Венгрии , Шандор Бихари , 1886 г.

Y-ДНК гаплогруппа H1a встречается у цыган с частотой 7–70%. В отличие от этнических венгров, среди венгерских и словацких субпопуляций цыган гаплогруппы E-M78 и I1 обычно встречаются более чем в 10%, а иногда и более чем в 20%, в то время как среди словацких и тисавашварских цыган доминирующей гаплогруппой является H1a; среди токайских цыган это гаплогруппа J2a (23%); а среди цыган Тактахарканов это гаплогруппа I2a (21%). [199]

Пять довольно последовательных линий основателей во всех субпопуляциях были обнаружены среди цыган – J-M67 и J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1) и I-P259 (I1). Гаплогруппа I-P259 как H не встречается с частотой более 3% среди принимающих популяций, в то время как гаплогруппы E и I отсутствуют в Южной Азии. Линии E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) и R-M17 (R1a) могут представлять поток генов из принимающих популяций. У болгарских, румынских и греческих цыган доминирует гаплогруппа H-M82 (H1a1), в то время как среди испанских цыган преобладает J2. [200] В Сербии среди цыган Косово и Белграда преобладает гаплогруппа H, в то время как среди цыган Воеводины H падает до 7 процентов, а E-V13 повышается до преобладающего уровня. [201]

Среди нецыганских европейцев гаплогруппа H встречается крайне редко, достигая пика в 7% среди албанцев из Тираны [202] и 11% среди болгарских турок . Она встречается в 5% среди венгров , [199] хотя носители могут быть цыганского происхождения. [200] Среди нецыганских европейцев она встречается в 2% среди словаков , [203] 2% среди хорватов , [204] 1% среди македонцев из Скопье, 3% среди македонских албанцев , [205] 1% среди сербов из Белграда , [197] 3% среди болгар из Софии, [206] 1% среди австрийцев и швейцарцев, [207] 3% среди румын из Плоешти и 1% среди турок . [203]

Османская оккупация Балкан также оставила значительный генетический след в Y-хромосоме ДНК цыган, что привело к более высокой частоте гаплогрупп J и E3b в цыганском населении региона. [208]

Полный геномный анализ

Наиболее распространенной отцовской гаплогруппой среди цыган является южноазиатская Y-хромосома H, наиболее часто встречающаяся среди дравидийских народов . [197]

Полное геномное аутосомное ДНК-исследование 186 образцов рома из Европы в 2019 году показало, что современные ромы характеризуются общим южноазиатским происхождением и сложной примесью балканских , ближневосточных и кавказских предков. Аутосомные генетические данные связывают протоцыган с группами на северо-западе Индии (в частности, образцы пенджаби и гуджарати ), а также с дравидоязычными группами на юго-востоке Индии (в частности, ирула ). Отцовские линии рома наиболее распространены в южной и центральной Индии среди дравидоязычного населения. Авторы утверждают, что это может указывать на эффект основателя среди ранних рома во время их этногенеза или вскоре после того, как они мигрировали с индийского субконтинента. Кроме того, они выдвинули теорию о возможном происхождении протоцыган из низшей касты ( далитов ), поскольку они были генетически ближе к пенджабскому кластеру, у которого отсутствует общий маркер, характерный для высших каст, а именно западно-евразийская примесь. [209]

Возможный маршрут миграции

Миграция цыган через Ближний Восток и Северную Африку в Европу

The Roma may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE.[210] Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE.[172]It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire.[85] The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Roma did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.[186][211]

The first Romani people are believed to have arrived in Europe via the Balkans in the 13th or 14th century. Romani people began migrating to other parts of the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries.[212][213]

In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Romani community were children of India.[214] The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Romani community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.[215]

Ethnic identities conflated with the Roma

Even though genetic studies confirmed that the Romani people originated in India[216][217] and their language is an Indo-Aryan language,[101] they have a long history of taking on different identities of various ethnic groups.

Romaei

With the Roma fleeing the Muslim conquest of Mahmud of Ghazni in Northern India in the early 11th century,[218] they arrived in the Eastern Roman Empire by the 12th century.[219] The name Roma/Romani is similar to Romaei (Ῥωμαῖοι), or Rhomaioi/Romioi (Ῥωμαῖοι/Ῥωμηοί/Ρωμιοί, "Romans") (the endonym for the Eastern Romans/Byzantines) from which the name could have originated. Roma is also similar to their original Sanskrit word डोम (ḍoma) meaning "drummer", with the Doma being dancers and musicians and a sub-group of the Dalit caste.[220][221]

Athinganoi

In the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire the Roma also took on the identity of the ethnic religious group, the Athinganoi (Greek: Αθίγγανοι). They were a Manichaean sect[222] regarded as Judaizing heretics who lived in Phrygia and Lycaonia but were neither Hebrews nor Gentiles. They kept the Sabbath, but were not circumcised. They were Shomer nagia.[223] The word "Athiganoi" is where the Turkish name Ciganos as well as the Romanian name țigani come from, as the Ottoman Empire had some linguistic and cultural influence on the neighbouring medieval Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. The Turkish Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, hence they ruled over the Roma (Ciganos) as well. Today, Turkey has the highest Romani population.[9]

Egyptians

Some terms for the Romani people trace their origin to conflation with Egyptians. The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy) originates from the Middle English gypcian, short for Egipcien. The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek Αιγύπτιοι (Aigyptioi), meaning "Egyptian", via Latin. This designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Roma, or some related group (such as the Indian Dom people), were itinerant Egyptians.[121]

Bohemians

The Roma from Bohemia (today Czech Republic) were called Bohemian (bohémiens in French) because they were believed to have originated ethnically in Bohemia and later came to Western European countries such as France in the 16th century.[224] The term bohemian came to mean carefree, artistic people. The Roma were musicians and dancers as well as circus performers that moved place to place, having an adventurous nomadic lifestyle, away from society's conventional norms and expectations. This lifestyle inspired the 19th-century European artistic movement, Bohemianism[225] as well as the hippie movement of the late 50's and 60's in the United States.[226]

Irish Travellers

Because Irish Travellers, a sub-group of the Irish (having the same ancestral genetics from within the general population of Ireland[227]) lived as nomads,[228] the Roma and the Irish travellers came to be conflated with each other and in time some of the Roma mixed with some of the native Irish travellers (beginning in the 1650s) because of proximity and similar nomadic traditions.[229][230]

Yenish people

Similar to the Irish Travellers, the Yenish people were confused with the Roma because they were nomadic and itinerant people. The Yenish people have origins in Western Europe, mostly in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg and Belgium. The Yenish descended from members of the marginalized and vagrant poor classes of society in Germanic-speaking regions in Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Most of the Yenish became sedentary in the course of the mid-19th to 20th centuries.[231] The culture of the Irish Travellers and the Yenish people in Western Europe and the culture of the Roma are different while having the nomadic and itinerant similarity.[232][233][234]

Balkan people and Romanians

Forced sterilisation carried out in several European countries, such as Norway, Sweden, Czech Republic and Slovakia, in the mid to late 20th century led to a decrease in Romani populations in those countries.[235][236][237] Countries in South Eastern Europe that had not carried out forced sterilisation, such as Romania and Bulgaria, experienced steady increases of Roma birth rates during the 20th century that continue to this day, mainly because of the Roma tradition to marry young (in their early teens).[238] Once communism fell in Eastern Europe and travel restrictions were lifted as well as Eastern European countries joining the European Union in the 2000's, it was easier for the Eastern European Roma to mass migrate to Western Europe. Often, Romania is wrongly identified as the place of origin of the Roma because of the similar name Roma/Romani and Romanians. Romanians derive their name from the Latin romanus, meaning "Roman",[239] referencing the Roman conquest of Dacia (the Dacians were a sub-group of the Thracians). Romanian genetics show ancient Balkan ancestry (Thracian ancestry)[240] as well as Slavic ancestry[241] and not Indian ancestry like the Roma.

History

Arrival in Europe

According to a 2012 genomic study, the Roma reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century.[171] A document of 1068, describing an event in Constantinople, mentions "Atsingani", probably referring to Roma.[242]

Later historical records of the Roma reaching southeastern Europe are from the 14th century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Roma outside the town of Candia (modern Heraklion), in Crete, calling them "the descendants of Cain"; his account is the earliest surviving description by a western chronicler of the Roma in Europe.[243]

In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos, a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or fortune teller).[244]

In the 14th century, Roma are recorded in Venetian territories, including Methoni and Nafplio in the Peloponnese, and Corfu.[242] Around 1360, a fiefdom called the Feudum Acinganorum was established in Corfu, which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Roma on the island were subservient.[245]

By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany;[246] and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden.[247] Some Roma migrated from Persia through north Africa, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. The two currents met in France.[248]

First arrival of the Romanies outside Bern in the 15th century, described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden ("baptized heathens") and wearing Saracen-style clothing and weapons.[249]

Early modern history

Gypsy Family in Prison, 1864 painting by Carl d´Unker. An actual imprisoned family in Germany served as the models. The reason for their imprisonment remains unknown.

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417. Roma were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Catalonia in 1512, Sweden in 1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. From 1510 onwards, any Rom found in Switzerland was to be executed; while in England (beginning in 1554) and Denmark (beginning of 1589) any Rom who did not leave within a month was to be executed. Portugal began deportations of Roma to its colonies in 1538.[250]

A 1596 English statute gave Roma special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Roma "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital.[251] In 1595, Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia.[250]

Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695, Spanish Roma had been restricted to certain towns.[252] An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so that they would not be concentrated in any one region. In the Great Gypsy Round-up, Roma were arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749.

During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this background, Roma were targets of both the French and the Dutch.[253]

After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Roma were slaughtered with impunity throughout the Dutch Republic. Roma, called 'heiden' by the Dutch, wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. Heidenjachten, translated as "heathen hunt" happened throughout the Dutch Republic in an attempt to eradicate them.[254]

Although some Roma could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in 1856, the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons, as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romani flag.[255] Elsewhere in Europe, they were subjected to ethnic cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labour. In England, Roma were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged; in France, they were branded, and their heads were shaved; in Moravia and Bohemia, the women were marked by their ears being severed. As a result, large groups of the Roma moved to the East, toward Poland, which was more tolerant, and Russia, where the Roma were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes.[256]

Modern history

Romani woman conducting a palm reading in Chile, 1944

Roma began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s, with Romanichal groups from Great Britain. The most significant number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Roma also settled in South America.[257]

World War II

Sinti and other Roma about to be deported from Germany, 22 May 1940

During World War II and the Holocaust, the Nazis committed a systematic genocide against the Roma. In the Romani language, this genocide is known as the Porajmos.[258] Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) on the Eastern Front.[259] The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000.[260]

The Roma were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states. In the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaša killed almost the entire Romani population of 25,000. The concentration camp system of Jasenovac, run by the Ustaša militia and the Croat political police, was responsible for the deaths of between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma.[261]

Post-1945

In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, with threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs.[262][263]

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Roma, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991.[264] New cases were revealed up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".[265]

Society and traditional culture

Münster, Sebastian (1552), "A Gipsy Family", The Cosmographia (facsimile of a woodcut), Basle
Nomadic Romani family travelling in Moldavia, 1837

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Traditionally, virginity is essential in unmarried women. However, Eastern European Roma are more likely to find it acceptable for girls to have sex before marriage compared to other Eastern Europeans.[266] Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage.[267] Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.[268]

Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Romani men wear shoulder-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Romani women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Romani women often dye it blonde with henna.[269]

Romani social behavior has traditionally been regulated by Indian social customs[270] ("marime" or "marhime") which are still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of Sinti). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of the human body are considered impure: the genital organs (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.[271]

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be buried.[272] Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern-day south India tend to bury their dead).[273] Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.[274]

Belonging and exclusion

In Romani philosophy, Romanipen (also romanypen, romanipe, romanype, romanimos, romaimos, romaniya) is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Romani Law, being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.[275]

An ethnic Rom is considered a gadjo in Romani society if they have no Romanipen. Sometimes a non-Rom may be considered a Rom if they do have Romanipen. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a framework of culture than a simple adherence to historically received rules.[276]

Religion

Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in France, 1980s
Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Rom and bear (Belgrade, Banovo brdo, 1980s)

Most Roma are Christian,[277] but many are Muslims; some retained their ancient faith of Hinduism from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization.[278] In parts of Southeast Europe, particularly in Bulgaria, some Roma who are Muslim identify as ethnic Turks, and over generations have adopted the Turkish language.[279] Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.[71][72]

Some Roma practice witchcraft and palmistry.[280]

Beliefs

The modern-day Roma often adopted Christianity or Islam depending on which was the dominant religion in the regions through which they had migrated.[281] It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.[282] In Eastern Europe, most Roma are Orthodox Christians, Muslims or Catholics.[283] In Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Romania and Serbia, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Orthodox Christians. In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo, the majority are Muslims. In Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia, the majority are Catholics. In Western Europe, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Catholic or Protestant. In Crimea and Middle Eastern countries such as Turkey, Egypt, Iraq and Iran, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Muslim. In the United States, the majority of Romani inhabitants adhere to some branch of Christianity.[284]

Members of the Cofradía de los Gitanos parading the "throne" of Mary of the O during the Holy Week in Malaga, Spain

Deities and saints

Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Roma in Roman Catholicism.[285] Saint Sarah, or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, France.[286] Since the turn of the 21st century, Sara e Kali is understood to have been Kali, an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint.[287]

Gypsy fortune-teller in Poland, by Antoni Kozakiewicz, 1884

Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".[287][288]

The Balkans/Southeast Europe

Costume of a Romani woman
Gipsy Woman, Stanisław Masłowski, watercolour, 1877

For the Romani communities that have resided in Southeast Europe for numerous centuries, the following apply with regard to religious beliefs:

Margarita Cansino (later known as Rita Hayworth) with her father and dance partner Eduardo Cansino, 1933
Muslim Romanies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (around 1900)

Other regions

In Ukraine and Russia, the Romani populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.[290]

In the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Góra Monastery.[297]

In southern Spain, many Romanies are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times.

In Egypt, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations.[298]

Music

27 June 2009: Fanfare Ciocărlia live in Athens
Street performance during the Khamoro World Roma Festival in Prague, 2007

Romani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.[299][300]

Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition are Taraful Haiducilor.[301] Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov, a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop-folk singer Azis.

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Romani, as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob și Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do Spitalul de Urgență in Romania, Shantel in Germany, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in Croatia, Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.[302]

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco (especially cante jondo) in Spain.[303]

Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Roma.[304] Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day Spanish dance.[305] The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.

European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt.[306] Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.

The Roma in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka, gırnata and cümbüş.[307]


Folklore

Paramichia is a term used to refer to Romani legends and folktales. A popular legend among the Vlach Roma is of the hero Mundro Salamon, also known by other Roma subgroups as Wise Solomon or O Godjiaver Yanko.[308]

Some Roma believe in the mulo or mullo, meaning "one who is dead"; the Romani version of the vampire.[309] The Roma from Slavic countries believe in werewolves.[310] Roma figure prominently in the 1941 film The Wolf Man and the 2010 remake.

Cuisine

The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious, or lucky (baxtalo), such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic, lemon, tomato, and peppers, and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, pickles and sour cream.[311] Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma.[312]

Contemporary art and culture

Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the "cultural turn". The idea of the cultural turn was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums. Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.[313]

Language

Most Roma speak one of several dialects of the Romani language,[314] an Indo-Aryan language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also often speak the languages of the countries they live in. Typically, they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have. Most of the Ciganos of Portugal, the Gitanos of Spain, the Romanichal of Great Britain, and Scandinavian Travellers have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and speak the mixed languages Caló,[315] Angloromany, and Scandoromani, respectively. Most of the Romani language-speaking communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe.[316]

There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500,000 elsewhere,[316] though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan.[316]

In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European languages.[317] Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:

Persecutions

Roma enslavement

A deed of donation through which Stephen III of Moldavia donates a number of sălașe of Romani slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Roma was their enslavement. Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–14th centuries.[318] Legislation decreed that all the Roma living in these states, as well as any others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves.[319] Slavery was gradually abolished during the 1840s and 1850s.[318]

The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate over whether the Roma came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Roma were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.[318]

Romani slave auction in Bucharest, 19th century
Slave liberation certificate issued during the Wallachian Revolution of 1848

Some Roma may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars, or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies. However, most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Romani population.[320]

Historical persecution

Some branches of the Roma reached western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing from the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees.[321] Although the Roma were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were often suspected of being associated with the Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical appearance was exotic. (The Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496–1498 declared that the Roma were spies for the Turks). In western Europe, such suspicions and discrimination against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution, often violent, with attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era. In times of social tension, the Romani suffered as scapegoats; for instance, they were accused of bringing the plague during times of epidemics.[322]

On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Roma (Gitanos) in its territory. The Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break-up of families because all able-bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing. The measure was eventually reversed and the Roma were freed as protests began to erupt in different communities, sedentary Roma were highly esteemed and protected in rural Spain.[323][324]

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma, as did the United States in 1885.[322]

Romani women in Lincoln Heights Jail, Los Angeles, California, 1940

Forced assimilation

Deportation of Roma from Asperg, Germany, 1940 (photograph by the Rassenhygienische Forschungsstelle)

In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa (1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to integrate the Romanies to get them to permanently settle, removed their rights to horse and wagon ownership (1754) to reduce citizen-mobility, renamed them "New Citizens" and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they had no trade (1761, and Revision 1770), required them to register with the local authorities (1767), and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies (1773) to integrate them into the local population. Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language, both of which were punishable by flogging.[325] During this time, the schools were obliged to register and integrate Romani children; this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration. In Spain, attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619, when the Gitanos were forcibly settled, the use of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages. King Charles III took a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation, proclaiming that they had the same rights as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their race. While he prohibited their nomadic lifestyle, their use of the Calo language, the manufacture and wearing of Romani clothing, their trade in horses and other itinerant trades, he also forbade any form of discrimination against them and he also forbade the guilds from barring them. The use of the word gitano was also forbidden to further their assimilation, it was replaced with "New Castilian", a designation which was also applied to former Jews and Muslims.[326][327]

Most historians believe that Charles III's pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population.[325][328]

Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries, one of these countries was Norway, where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896.[329] This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century.[330]

Porajmos (Romani Holocaust)

During World War II and the Holocaust, the persecution of the Roma reached a peak during the Romani Holocaust (the Porajmos), the genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany. In 1935, the Roma who lived in Germany lost their citizenship when it was stripped from them by the Nuremberg laws, and after that, they were subjected to violence and imprisonment in concentration camps. During the war, the policy was extended to areas under German occupation, and it was also implemented by other axis countries, most notably, by the Independent State of Croatia, Romania, and Hungary. From 1942, Roma were subjected to genocide in extermination camps.[331]

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Roma, the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed. Most estimates of the number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust range from 200,000 to 500,000, but other estimates vary broadly from 90,000 to as high as 4,000,000. Lower estimates do not include those Roma who were killed in all Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton, a former senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum contained an estimate of at least 220,000, possibly as many as 500,000.[332] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000.[333]

Contemporary issues

Distribution of the Roma in Europe (2007 Council of Europe "average estimates", totalling 9.8 million)[334]
Antiziganist protests in Sofia, Bulgaria, 2011

In Europe, Roma are associated with poverty, high crime rates, and behavior that is considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population.[335] Partly for this reason, discrimination against the Roma has continued to be practiced to the present day,[336][337] although efforts are being made to address it.[338]

Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination during the late 20th century, particularly in Romania, Serbia,[339] Slovakia,[340] Hungary,[341] Slovenia,[342] and Kosovo.[343] The European Union has recognized that discrimination against Roma must be addressed, and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the Roma in the European Union.[344]

*projections for Serbia also include up to 97.000 Roma IDPs in Serbia[346]

In eastern Europe, Romani children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Romani children; these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non-Romani children, putting the Romani children at an educational disadvantage.[347]: 83 

The Roma of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been annihilated.[348]

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973.[264] The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989.[349] A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators.[350]

In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment,[351] the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad emergency).[352] Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.[353]

The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Romani children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and Roma. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine observed:

On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the treatment of the Roma is a litmus test for democracy": and democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.[354]

The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands[355] 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma.[356] The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians, 66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians, 51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma.[357] IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a negative opinion about them.[358]

As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe.[359] Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo,[360] Romania,[361] Slovakia,[362] Bulgaria,[363][364] and the Czech Republic,[365][366] against which the European Court of Human Rights has ruled in Romani advocates' favor on the subject of discriminatory and segregationist education and housing practices.[367] Romani communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks.[368][369]

Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in Europe, including in Poland,[370] the Czech Republic,[371] and Moldova.[372]

Concerning employment, a 2019 report by the FRA revealed that, across the European states that were surveyed, on average 34% of Romani men and 16% of Romani women were in paid work.[373]

Forced repatriation

In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 Roma camps and began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin.[374] This followed tensions between the French state and Romani communities, which had been heightened after a traveller drove through a French police checkpoint, hit an officer, attempted to hit two more officers, and was then shot and killed by the police. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars.[375][376] The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda.[377] EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". A leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the Interior Ministry to regional police chiefs, included the instruction: "Three hundred camps or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps are a priority."[378]

Organizations and projects

Artistic representations

Many depictions of the Roma in literature and art present romanticized narratives of the mystical powers of fortune telling or as people who have an irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of freedom and a habit of criminality. The Roma were a popular subject in Venetian painting from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century. The inclusion of such a figure adds an exotic oriental flavor to scenes. A Venetian Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone (c. 1530, Strasbourg) of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth a Romani fortune-teller; the scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape.[380]

See also

General

Lists

Other

Notes

  1. ^ 5,400 per 2000 census.
  2. ^ This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a Bulgarian government report on the census, the ethnic results are identified as a "gross manipulation".[20]
  3. ^ This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes Roma of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Roma declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.
  4. ^ Approximate estimate.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i This is a census figure.
  6. ^ This is a census figure. Some 368,136 (5.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  7. ^ This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  8. ^ This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  9. ^ This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians.
  10. ^ This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  11. ^ Also spelled Romany or Rromani.
  12. ^ "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million."
  13. ^ The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter k.
  14. ^ "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million."
  15. ^ Muslim Romas were excluded from the Deportation of Muslims from Greece's new conquered territory following the First Balkan War and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population.

References

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  2. ^ "EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty". BBC News. 5 April 2011.
  3. ^ "The Roma". Nationalia. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  4. ^ "Rom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2010. ... estimates of the total world Roma population range from two million to five million.
  5. ^ Smith, J. (2008). The marginalization of shadow minorities (Roma) and its impact on opportunities (Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University).
  6. ^ Kayla Webley (13 October 2010). "Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low Profile". Time. Retrieved 3 October 2015. Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million.
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Sources

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