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Аргентина

Аргентина , [a] официально Аргентинская Республика , [b] — страна в южной половине Южной Америки . Аргентина занимает площадь 2 780 400 км 2 (1 073 500 кв. миль), [B] что делает её второй по величине страной в Южной Америке после Бразилии , четвёртой по величине страной в Америке и восьмой по величине страной в мире. Она делит большую часть Южного конуса с Чили на западе, а также граничит с Боливией и Парагваем на севере, Бразилией на северо-востоке, Уругваем и южной частью Атлантического океана на востоке и проливом Дрейка на юге. Аргентина — федеративное государство, разделённое на двадцать три провинции и один автономный город , который является федеральной столицей и крупнейшим городом страны, Буэнос-Айресом . Провинции и столица имеют свои собственные конституции, но существуют в рамках федеральной системы . Аргентина претендует на суверенитет над Фолклендскими островами , Южной Георгией и Южными Сандвичевыми островами , Южным Патагонским ледяным полем и частью Антарктиды .

Самое раннее зафиксированное присутствие человека на территории современной Аргентины относится к периоду палеолита . [13] Империя инков расширилась на северо-запад страны в доколумбовые времена. Страна берет свои корни в испанской колонизации региона в 16 веке. [14] Аргентина выросла как государство-преемник вице-королевства Рио-де-ла-Плата , [15] испанского заморского вице-королевства, основанного в 1776 году. За провозглашением и борьбой за независимость (1810–1818) последовала продолжительная гражданская война , которая продолжалась до 1861 года, завершившаяся реорганизацией страны в федерацию . После этого страна наслаждалась относительным миром и стабильностью, с несколькими волнами европейской иммиграции , в основном итальянцев и испанцев , повлиявшими на ее культуру и демографию . [16] [17] [18] [19]

После смерти президента Хуана Перона в 1974 году его вдова и вице-президент Изабель Перон заняла пост президента, прежде чем была свергнута в 1976 году . Последующая военная хунта , которую поддерживали Соединенные Штаты, преследовала и убивала тысячи политических критиков, активистов и левых в Грязной войне , периоде государственного терроризма и гражданских беспорядков, который продолжался до избрания Рауля Альфонсина президентом в 1983 году .

Аргентина является региональной державой и сохраняет свой исторический статус средней державы в международных делах. [20] [21] [22] Крупный союзник США, не входящий в НАТО , [23] Аргентина является развивающейся страной со вторым по величине ИЧР (индексом развития человеческого потенциала) в Латинской Америке после Чили . [24] Она сохраняет вторую по величине экономику в Южной Америке и является членом G-15 и G20 . Аргентина также является одним из основателей Организации Объединенных Наций , Всемирного банка , Всемирной торговой организации , МЕРКОСУР , Сообщества государств Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна и Организации иберо-американских государств .

Этимология

Описание региона словом Аргентина было найдено на венецианской карте 1536 года. [25]

В английском языке название Argentina происходит от испанского языка ; однако само название не испанское, а итальянское . Argentina ( мужской род argentino ) на итальянском означает '(сделанный) из серебра, серебристого цвета', происходит от латинского argentum для серебра. В итальянском языке прилагательное или собственное существительное часто используется автономно как существительное и заменяет его, и говорят l'Argentina .

Название Аргентина, вероятно, впервые было дано венецианскими и генуэзскими мореплавателями, такими как Джованни Кабото . В испанском и португальском языках слова для «серебра» — соответственно plata и prata , а «(сделанный) из серебра» — plateado и prateado , хотя в испанском языке существуют argento для «серебра» и argentado для «покрытого серебром». Аргентина впервые была связана с легендой о серебряных горах , широко распространенной среди первых европейских исследователей бассейна Ла-Платы . [26]

Первое письменное использование этого названия на испанском языке можно проследить до La Argentina , [C] стихотворения 1602 года Мартина дель Барко Сентенеры, описывающего регион. [27] Хотя слово «Аргентина» уже было общеупотребительным к XVIII веку, официально страна была названа «Вице- королевством Рио-де-ла-Плата » Испанской империей , а после обретения независимости — « Соединенными провинциями Рио-де-ла-Плата ».

Конституция 1826 года впервые использовала название «Аргентинская Республика» в юридических документах. [28] Название «Аргентинская Конфедерация» также широко использовалось и было официально закреплено в Конституции Аргентины 1853 года . [29] В 1860 году президентский указ закрепил название страны как «Аргентинская Республика», [30] а поправка к конституции того же года признала все названия с 1810 года юридически действительными. [31] [D]

В английском языке страна традиционно называлась «The Argentine», подражая типичному испанскому использованию la Argentina [32] и, возможно, являясь результатом ошибочного сокращения полного названия «Аргентинская Республика». «The Argentine» вышло из моды в середине-конце 20-го века, и теперь страну называют «Аргентина».

История

Доколумбова эпоха

Пещера рук в провинции Санта-Крус

Самые ранние следы человеческой жизни на территории, ныне известной как Аргентина, датируются периодом палеолита , а дальнейшие следы — мезолитом и неолитом . [13] До периода европейской колонизации Аргентина была относительно малонаселенной и населена большим количеством разнообразных культур с различными социальными организациями, [33] которые можно разделить на три основные группы. [34]

Первая группа — это простые охотники и собиратели пищи без развития керамики , такие как селькнамы и яганы на крайнем юге. Вторая группа — это продвинутые охотники и собиратели пищи, которые включают пуэльче , керанди и серранос в центре и на востоке; и теуэльче на юге — все они были завоеваны мапуче , распространившимися из Чили [35] — и ком и вичи на севере. Последняя группа — это земледельцы с керамикой, такие как чарруа , минуане и гуарани на северо-востоке, с подсечно-огневым полуоседлым существованием; [33] продвинутая оседлая торговая культура диагита на северо-западе, которая была завоевана империей инков около 1480 года; Токоноте , Хениа и Камиаре в центре страны, а также Уарпе в центрально-западной части страны, культура, которая занималась разведением крупного рогатого скота лам и находилась под сильным влиянием инков. [33]

Колониальная эпоха

Картина, изображающая капитуляцию во время британского вторжения в Рио-де-ла-Плата.
Сдача Бересфорда Сантьяго де Линьерсу во время британского вторжения в Рио-де-ла-Плата.

Европейцы впервые прибыли в регион с плаванием Америго Веспуччи в 1502 году . Испанские мореплаватели Хуан Диас де Солис и Себастьян Кабот посетили территорию, которая сейчас является Аргентиной, в 1516 и 1526 годах соответственно. [14] В 1536 году Педро де Мендоса основал небольшое поселение Буэнос-Айрес , которое было заброшено в 1541 году. [36]

Дальнейшие усилия по колонизации исходили из Парагвая, создавшего провинцию Рио-де-ла-Плата , Перу и Чили. [37] Франсиско де Агирре основал Сантьяго-дель-Эстеро в 1553 году. Лондон был основан в 1558 году; Мендоса , в 1561 году; Сан-Хуан , в 1562 году; Сан-Мигель-де-Тукуман , в 1565 году. [38] Хуан де Гарай основал Санта-Фе в 1573 году, и в том же году Херонимо Луис де Кабрера основал Кордову . [39] Гарай отправился дальше на юг, чтобы вновь основать Буэнос-Айрес в 1580 году. [40] Сан-Луис был основан в 1596 году. [38]

Испанская империя подчинила экономический потенциал аргентинской территории непосредственному богатству серебряных и золотых рудников в Боливии и Перу, и как таковая она стала частью вице-королевства Перу до создания вице-королевства Рио-де-ла-Плата в 1776 году со столицей в Буэнос-Айресе. [41]

Буэнос-Айрес отразил два злополучных британских вторжения в 1806 и 1807 годах. [42] Идеи эпохи Просвещения и пример первых атлантических революций породили критику абсолютистской монархии , правившей страной. Как и в остальной части Испанской Америки, свержение Фердинанда VII во время Пиренейской войны вызвало большую обеспокоенность. [43]

Независимость и гражданские войны

Картина Сан-Мартина, держащего аргентинский флаг.
Портрет генерала Хосе де Сан Мартина , « Освободителя Аргентины, Чили и Перу » [44]

Начиная процесс, в результате которого Аргентина должна была стать государством-преемником вице-королевства, [15] Майская революция 1810 года заменила вице-короля Бальтасара Идальго де Сиснероса Первой хунтой , новым правительством в Буэнос-Айресе , сформированным из местных жителей. [43] В первых столкновениях Войны за независимость хунта подавила роялистскую контрреволюцию в Кордове , [45] но не смогла преодолеть контрреволюцию в Банда Ориенталь , Верхнем Перу и Парагвае , которые позже стали независимыми государствами. [46] Затем франко-аргентинец Ипполит Бушар повел свой флот на войну против Испании за рубежом и напал на испанскую Калифорнию , испанское Перу и испанские Филиппины . Он обеспечил лояльность беглых филиппинцев в Сан-Бласе, которые дезертировали из испанцев, чтобы присоединиться к аргентинскому флоту из-за общих аргентинских и филиппинских обид на испанскую колонизацию. [47] [48] Брат Хосе де Сан Мартина, Хуан Фермин де Сан Мартин , уже находился на Филиппинах и разжигал революционный пыл до этого. [49] Позднее аргентинский знак инкского происхождения, Солнце мая , был принят в качестве символа филиппинцами во время Филиппинской революции против Испании. Он также добился дипломатического признания Аргентины от короля Камеамеа I из Королевства Гавайи . Историк Пачо О'Доннелл утверждает, что Гавайи были первым государством, признавшим независимость Аргентины. [50] В конце концов он был арестован в 1819 году чилийскими патриотами.

Революционеры разделились на две антагонистические группы: централистов и федералистов — шаг, который определил первые десятилетия независимости Аргентины. [51] Ассамблея XIII года назначила Хервасио Антонио де Посадаса первым Верховным директором Аргентины . [51]

9 июля 1816 года Конгресс Тукумана официально утвердил Декларацию независимости , [52] которая теперь отмечается как День независимости, национальный праздник. [53] Год спустя генерал Мартин Мигель де Гуэмес остановил роялистов на севере, а генерал Хосе де Сан Мартин присоединился к Бернардо О'Хиггинсу , и они повели объединенную армию через Анды и обеспечили независимость Чили; затем она была отправлена ​​по приказу О'Хиггинса в испанскую крепость Лиму и провозгласила независимость Перу . [54] [E] В 1819 году Буэнос-Айрес принял централистскую конституцию , которая вскоре была отменена федералистами. [56]

Некоторые из наиболее важных деятелей аргентинской независимости выступили с предложением, известным как план инков 1816 года, в котором предлагалось, чтобы Соединенные провинции Рио-де-ла-Плата (нынешняя Аргентина) стали монархией во главе с потомком Инки . Хуан Баутиста Тупак Амару (единокровный брат Тупака Амару II ) был предложен в качестве монарха. [57] Некоторые примеры тех, кто поддержал это предложение, были Мануэль Бельграно , Хосе де Сан Мартин и Мартин Мигель де Гуэмес . Конгресс Тукумана в конечном итоге решил отклонить план инков, создав вместо этого республиканское централистское государство. [58] [59]

Битва при Сепеде 1820 года , в которой участвовали централисты и федералисты, привела к концу правления Верховного директора . В 1826 году Буэнос-Айрес принял еще одну централистскую конституцию , а Бернардино Ривадавия был назначен первым президентом страны. Однако вскоре против него восстали внутренние провинции, вынудили его уйти в отставку и отменили конституцию. [60] Централисты и федералисты возобновили гражданскую войну; последние одержали победу и в 1831 году образовали Аргентинскую конфедерацию во главе с Хуаном Мануэлем де Росасом . [61] Во время своего режима он столкнулся с французской блокадой (1838–1840), войной Конфедерации (1836–1839) и англо-французской блокадой (1845–1850), но остался непобежденным и предотвратил дальнейшую потерю национальной территории. [62] Однако его политика ограничения торговли возмутила внутренние провинции, и в 1852 году Хусто Хосе де Уркиса , другой могущественный каудильо , лишил его власти . Став новым президентом Конфедерации, Уркиса принял либеральную и федеральную Конституцию 1853 года. Буэнос-Айрес отделился, но был вынужден вернуться в Конфедерацию после поражения в битве при Сепеде 1859 года . [63]

Расцвет современной нации

Люди собрались перед зданием Кабильдо в Буэнос-Айресе во время Майской революции
Иммигранты из Италии прибывают в Буэнос-Айрес во время большой волны европейской иммиграции в Аргентину

Одолев Уркису в битве при Павоне 1861 года , Бартоломе Митре обеспечил господство Буэнос-Айреса и был избран первым президентом воссоединенной страны. За ним последовали Доминго Фаустино Сармьенто и Николас Авельянеда ; эти три президентства заложили основу современного аргентинского государства. [64]

Начиная с Хулио Аргентино Рока в 1880 году, десять последовательных федеральных правительств подчеркивали либеральную экономическую политику . Массовая волна европейской иммиграции, которую они продвигали — вторая после Соединенных Штатов — привела к почти полному переосмыслению аргентинского общества и экономики, что к 1908 году вывело страну на седьмое место среди самых богатых [65] развитых стран [66] в мире. Благодаря этой волне иммиграции и снижению смертности население Аргентины выросло в пять раз, а экономика — в 15 раз: [67] с 1870 по 1910 год экспорт пшеницы из Аргентины вырос со 100 000 до 2 500 000 т (со 110 000 до 2 760 000 коротких тонн) в год, в то время как экспорт замороженной говядины увеличился с 25 000 до 365 000 т (со 28 000 до 402 000 коротких тонн) в год, [68] что вывело Аргентину в пятерку крупнейших экспортеров мира. [69] Протяженность железнодорожных путей увеличилась с 503 до 31 104 км (с 313 до 19 327 миль). [70] Благодаря новой государственной, обязательной, бесплатной и светской системе образования уровень грамотности быстро вырос с 22% до 65%, что выше, чем уровень большинства стран Латинской Америки , который будет достигнут даже пятьдесят лет спустя. [69] Более того, реальный ВВП рос так быстро, что, несмотря на огромный приток иммигрантов, доход на душу населения между 1862 и 1920 годами вырос с 67% от уровня развитых стран до 100%: [70] В 1865 году Аргентина уже была одной из 25 стран с наибольшим доходом на душу населения. К 1908 году она обогнала Данию, Канаду и Нидерланды, заняв 7-е место — после Швейцарии, Новой Зеландии, Австралии, США, Великобритании и Бельгии. Доход на душу населения в Аргентине был на 70% выше, чем в Италии, на 90% выше, чем в Испании, на 180% выше, чем в Японии и на 400% выше, чем в Бразилии . [65] Несмотря на эти уникальные достижения, страна медленно достигала своих первоначальных целей индустриализации: [71] после стремительного развития капиталоемких местных отраслей промышленности в 1920-х годах, значительная часть производственного сектора оставалась трудоемкой в ​​1930-х годах. [72]

«Завоевание пустыни » Хуана Мануэля Бланеса (фрагмент с изображением Хулио Аргентино Роки на переднем плане, важной фигуры поколения 80-х ) [73]

Между 1878 и 1884 годами произошло так называемое Завоевание пустыни , целью которого было утроить территорию Аргентины посредством постоянных столкновений между туземцами и криольос на границе [74] и присвоения коренных территорий. Первое завоевание состояло из серии военных вторжений на территории Пампы и Патагонии, населенные коренными народами [75], которые распределялись между членами Общества сельских жителей Аргентины , финансирующими экспедиции. [76] Завоевание Чако продолжалось до конца века [77], поскольку его полное владение национальной экономической системой произошло только тогда, когда простая добыча древесины и танина была заменена производством хлопка [78] . Правительство Аргентины считало коренных жителей низшими существами, не имеющими тех же прав, что и криольос и европейцы. [79]

В 1912 году президент Роке Саенс Пенья ввел всеобщее и тайное избирательное право для мужчин , что позволило Иполито Иригойену , лидеру Радикального гражданского союза (или UCR), победить на выборах 1916 года . Он провел социальные и экономические реформы и оказал помощь мелким фермам и предприятиям. Аргентина сохраняла нейтралитет во время Первой мировой войны . Вторая администрация Иригойена столкнулась с экономическим кризисом, вызванным Великой депрессией . [80]

Толпы у здания Национального конгресса Аргентины во время государственного переворота в Аргентине в 1930 году, ознаменовавшего начало Позорного десятилетия.

В 1930 году Иригойен был отстранен от власти военными во главе с Хосе Феликсом Урибуру . Хотя Аргентина оставалась среди пятнадцати самых богатых стран до середины века, [65] этот государственный переворот знаменует начало устойчивого экономического и социального спада, который отбросил страну обратно в неразвитость. [81]

Урибуру правил в течение двух лет; затем на мошеннических выборах был избран Агустин Педро Хусто и подписал спорный договор с Соединенным Королевством . Аргентина сохраняла нейтралитет во время Второй мировой войны , решение, которое имело полную поддержку Великобритании, но было отвергнуто Соединенными Штатами после нападения на Перл-Харбор . В 1943 году военный переворот во главе с генералом Артуро Росоном сверг демократически избранное правительство Рамона Кастильо . Под давлением Соединенных Штатов Аргентина позже объявила войну державам оси (27 марта 1945 года, примерно за месяц до окончания Второй мировой войны в Европе ).

Во время диктатуры Роусона главой Департамента труда был назначен относительно неизвестный военный полковник по имени Хуан Перон . Перон быстро сумел подняться по политической лестнице, став министром обороны к 1944 году. Будучи воспринятым как политическая угроза соперниками в военном и консервативном лагере, он был вынужден уйти в отставку в 1945 году и был арестован несколько дней спустя. В конце концов, его освободили под растущим давлением как со стороны его базы, так и нескольких союзных профсоюзов. [82] Позже он стал президентом после убедительной победы над UCR на всеобщих выборах 1946 года в качестве кандидата от партии Laborioust . [83]

Перонистские годы

Хуан Доминго Перон и его жена Ева Перон, 1947 год.
Хуан Перон и его жена Ева Перон , 1947 год.

Лейбористская партия (позже переименованная в Хустисиалистскую партию ), самая мощная и влиятельная партия в истории Аргентины, пришла к власти с приходом Хуана Перона к власти в 1946 году. Он национализировал стратегические отрасли промышленности и сферы услуг, повысил заработную плату и условия труда, полностью погасил внешний долг и заявил, что добился почти полной занятости . Он подтолкнул Конгресс к принятию избирательного права для женщин в 1947 году [84] и разработал систему социальной помощи для наиболее уязвимых слоев общества. [85] Экономика начала приходить в упадок в 1950 году, отчасти из-за государственных расходов и протекционистской экономической политики. [86]

Он также участвовал в кампании политического подавления. Любой, кто считался политическим диссидентом или потенциальным соперником, подвергался угрозам, физическому насилию и преследованиям. Аргентинская интеллигенция , средний класс, студенты университетов и преподаватели считались особенно проблемными. Перон уволил более 2000 университетских профессоров и преподавателей из всех основных государственных учебных заведений. [87]

Перон пытался подчинить себе большинство профсоюзов и профсоюзов, регулярно прибегая к насилию, когда это было необходимо. Например, лидер профсоюза мясоупаковщиков Сиприано Рейес организовал забастовки в знак протеста против правительства после того, как избранные должностные лица рабочего движения были насильственно заменены марионетками Перонистов из Перонистской партии . Рейес вскоре был арестован по обвинению в терроризме, хотя обвинения так и не были подтверждены. Рейес, которому официально не было предъявлено обвинений, подвергался пыткам в тюрьме в течение пяти лет и был освобожден только после падения режима в 1955 году. [88]

Перону удалось переизбраться в 1951 году . Его жена Эва Перон , сыгравшая решающую роль в партии, умерла от рака в 1952 году. Поскольку экономика продолжала рушиться, Перон начал терять народную поддержку и стал рассматриваться как угроза национальному процессу. Военно-морской флот воспользовался угасанием политической власти Перона и разбомбил Пласа-де-Майо в 1955 году. Перон пережил нападение, но несколько месяцев спустя, во время переворота Освободительной революции , он был свергнут и отправился в изгнание в Испанию. [89]

Освободительная революция

Жертвы среди гражданского населения после авианалета и резни на Пласа-де-Майо , июнь 1955 г.

Новый глава государства Педро Эухенио Арамбуру запретил перонизм и запретил партии участвовать в любых будущих выборах. Артуро Фрондиси из UCR победил на всеобщих выборах 1958 года . [90] Он поощрял инвестиции для достижения энергетической и промышленной самодостаточности, устранил хронический торговый дефицит и снял запрет на перонизм; однако его усилия сохранить хорошие отношения как с перонистами, так и с военными привели к тому, что оба они отвергли его, и новый переворот вынудил его уйти. [91] Среди политических потрясений лидер Сената Хосе Мария Гвидо быстро отреагировал и применил антивластное законодательство , сам поднявшись на пост президента; выборы были отменены, а перонизм снова запрещен. Артуро Илья был избран в 1963 году и возглавил рост благосостояния по всем направлениям; Однако в 1966 году он был свергнут в результате другого военного переворота под руководством генерала Хуана Карлоса Онгании в ходе самопровозглашенной Аргентинской революции , в результате чего было создано новое военное правительство, которое стремилось править неограниченно долго. [92]

Возвращение и смерть Перона

Хуан Перон и его жена Изабель Перон , 1973 год.

После нескольких лет военного правления Алехандро Агустин Лануссе был назначен президентом военной хунтой в 1971 году. Под растущим политическим давлением, требующим возвращения демократии, Лануссе призвал к выборам в 1973 году. Перону запретили баллотироваться, но перонистской партии разрешили участвовать. Президентские выборы выиграл заместитель Перона, Гектор Кампора , левый перонист, который вступил в должность 25 мая 1973 года. Месяц спустя, в июне, Перон вернулся из Испании. Одним из первых президентских действий Кампоры было предоставление амнистии членам организаций, которые совершили политические убийства и террористические атаки, а также тем, кто был осужден и приговорен судьями к тюремному заключению. Многомесячное пребывание Кампоры в правительстве было омрачено политическими и социальными беспорядками. Более 600 социальных конфликтов, забастовок и захватов фабрик произошли в течение одного месяца. [93] Несмотря на то, что крайне левые террористические организации приостановили свою вооруженную борьбу, их присоединение к процессу демократии участия было истолковано как прямая угроза со стороны перонистской правой фракции. [94]

В условиях политических, социальных и экономических потрясений Кампора и вице-президент Висенте Солано Лима ушли в отставку в июле 1973 года, призвав к новым выборам, но на этот раз с Пероном в качестве кандидата от партии Хустисиалистов. Перон победил на выборах со своей женой Изабель Перон в качестве вице-президента. Третий срок Перона был отмечен эскалацией конфликта между левыми и правыми фракциями внутри партии Перонистов, а также возвращением вооруженных террористических партизанских группировок, таких как геваристская ERP , левые перонистские Montoneros и поддерживаемая государством крайне правая Triple A. После серии сердечных приступов и признаков пневмонии в 1974 году здоровье Перона быстро ухудшилось. Он перенес последний сердечный приступ в понедельник, 1 июля 1974 года, и умер в 13:15. Ему было 78 лет. После его смерти, Исабель Перон , его жена и вице-президент, сменила его на посту. Во время ее президентства военная хунта вместе с крайне правой фашистской фракцией перонистов снова стала фактическим главой государства . Исабель Перон была президентом Аргентины с 1974 по 1976 год, когда ее свергли военные. Ее короткое президентство было отмечено крахом аргентинской политической и социальной систем, что привело к конституционному кризису, который проложил путь десятилетию нестабильности, леворадикальным террористическим партизанским атакам и государственному терроризму. [86] [95] [96]

Процесс национальной реорганизации

« Первая военная хунта » — адмирал Эмилио Массера , генерал-лейтенант Хорхе Видела и бригадный генерал Орландо Агости (слева направо) — наблюдают за военным парадом в честь Дня независимости на Авенида дель Либертадор , 9 июля 1978 года.

«Грязная война» (исп. Guerra Sucia ) была частью операции «Кондор» , в которой участвовали другие правые диктатуры Южного конуса . «Грязная война» включала государственный терроризм в Аргентине и других странах Южного конуса против политических диссидентов, при этом военные и силы безопасности применяли городское и сельское насилие против левых партизан, политических диссидентов и всех, кто, как считалось, был связан с социализмом или каким-либо образом противоречил неолиберальной экономической политике режима. [97] [98] [99] Жертвами насилия только в Аргентине стали , по оценкам, от 15 000 до 30 000 левых активистов и боевиков, включая профсоюзных деятелей, студентов, журналистов, марксистов , перонистских партизан [100] и предполагаемых сочувствующих. Большинство жертв стали жертвами государственного терроризма . Жертвами противоборствующих партизан стали около 500–540 военных и полицейских [101] и до 230 гражданских лиц. [102] Аргентина получала техническую поддержку и военную помощь от правительства Соединенных Штатов во время администраций Джонсона , Никсона , Форда , Картера и Рейгана .

Точная хронология репрессий все еще обсуждается, однако корни долгой политической войны, возможно, начались в 1969 году, когда профсоюзные деятели стали объектами убийств со стороны перонистских и марксистских военизированных формирований. Отдельные случаи государственного терроризма против перонизма и левых можно проследить еще дальше, до бомбардировки Пласа-де-Майо в 1955 году. Резня в Трелью в 1972 году, действия Аргентинского антикоммунистического альянса, начавшиеся в 1973 году, и «указы об уничтожении» Изабель Перон против левых партизан во время операции Operativo Independencia (Операция «Независимость») в 1975 году также являются возможными событиями, свидетельствующими о начале Грязной войны. [F]

Онгания закрыл Конгресс, запретил все политические партии и распустил студенческие и рабочие профсоюзы. В 1969 году народное недовольство привело к двум массовым протестам: Cordobazo и Rosariazo . Террористическая партизанская организация Montoneros похитила и казнила Арамбуру. [106] Недавно избранный глава правительства Алехандро Агустин Лануссе , стремясь ослабить растущее политическое давление, позволил Эктору Хосе Кампоре стать кандидатом от Перонистов вместо Перона. Кампора победил на выборах в марте 1973 года , помиловал осужденных членов партизан, а затем добился возвращения Перона из изгнания в Испании. [107]

Аргентинские солдаты во время Фолклендской войны , 1982 г.

В день возвращения Перона в Аргентину столкновение между внутренними фракциями перонистов — правыми лидерами профсоюзов и левой молодежью из Montoneros — привело к резне в Эсейсе . Подавленный политическим насилием, Кампора ушел в отставку, и Перон победил на следующих выборах в сентябре 1973 года со своей третьей женой Изабель в качестве вице-президента. Он исключил Montoneros из партии [108] , и они снова стали подпольной организацией. Хосе Лопес Рега организовал Аргентинский антикоммунистический альянс (ААА) для борьбы против них и Народно-революционной армии (ERP). [109] [110]

Перон умер в июле 1974 года, и его сменила его жена, которая подписала секретный указ, уполномочивающий военных и полицию «уничтожить» левую подрывную деятельность, [111] остановив попытку ERP начать сельское восстание в провинции Тукуман. [112] Исабель Перон была свергнута годом позже хунтой объединенных вооруженных сил во главе с генералом армии Хорхе Рафаэлем Виделой . Они инициировали Национальный процесс реорганизации , часто сокращаемый до Proceso . [113]

Proceso закрыл Конгресс, снял судей Верховного суда, запретил политические партии и профсоюзы и прибег к использованию насильственного исчезновения подозреваемых членов партизан, включая лиц, подозреваемых в связях с левым крылом. К концу 1976 года Montoneros потеряли около 2000 членов, а к 1977 году ERP была полностью подавлена. Тем не менее, сильно ослабленные Montoneros начали контратаку в 1979 году, которая была быстро подавлена, что фактически положило конец партизанской угрозе и обеспечило положение хунты у власти. [ необходима цитата ]

В марте 1982 года аргентинские войска взяли под контроль британскую территорию Южной Георгии , а 2 апреля Аргентина вторглась на Фолклендские острова . Соединенное Королевство направило оперативную группу, чтобы вернуть себе владение. Аргентина сдалась 14 июня, и ее войска были отведены домой. Уличные беспорядки в Буэнос-Айресе последовали за унизительным поражением, и военное руководство отступило. [114] [115] Рейнальдо Биньоне сменил Гальтиери и начал организовывать переход к демократическому управлению. [116]

Возвращение к демократии

Карлос Менем с новым президентом Фернандо де ла Руа , 10 декабря 1999 г.

Рауль Альфонсин победил на выборах 1983 года , выступая за судебное преследование лиц, ответственных за нарушения прав человека во время Proceso : суд Хунт и другие военные суды вынесли приговоры всем лидерам переворота, но под давлением военных он также принял законы «Полная остановка» и «Должное повиновение» , [117] [118], которые остановили судебное преследование ниже по цепочке командования . Ухудшение экономического кризиса и гиперинфляция снизили его народную поддержку, и перонист Карлос Менем победил на выборах 1989 года . Вскоре после этого беспорядки вынудили Альфонсина досрочно уйти в отставку . [119]

Менем принял и принял неолиберальную политику: [120] фиксированный обменный курс , дерегулирование бизнеса , приватизация и демонтаж протекционистских барьеров нормализовали экономику в краткосрочной перспективе. Он помиловал офицеров, осужденных во время правления Альфонсина. Конституционная поправка 1994 года позволила Менему избираться на второй срок . С началом спада экономики в 1995 году и ростом безработицы и рецессии [121] UCR во главе с Фернандо де ла Руа вернулся на пост президента на выборах 1999 года . [122]

Протесты в городе Буэнос-Айрес во время беспорядков в Аргентине в декабре 2001 года

Де ла Руа оставил экономический план Менема в силе, несмотря на усугубляющийся кризис, что привело к росту социального недовольства. [121] Массовый отток капитала из страны был отреагирован на заморозку банковских счетов , что вызвало дальнейшие потрясения. Беспорядки декабря 2001 года вынудили его уйти в отставку. [123] Конгресс назначил Эдуардо Дуальде исполняющим обязанности президента, который отменил фиксированный обменный курс, установленный Менемом, [124] в результате чего многие аргентинцы из рабочего и среднего класса потеряли значительную часть своих сбережений. К концу 2002 года экономический кризис начал отступать, но убийство полицией двух пикетерос вызвало политические волнения, побудив Дуальде перенести выборы на более ранний срок. [125] Нестор Киршнер был избран новым президентом . 26 мая 2003 года он был приведен к присяге. [126] [127]

Нестор Киршнер и его жена и политический преемник Кристина Киршнер

Усиливая неокейнсианскую экономическую политику [125], заложенную Дуальде, Киршнер положил конец экономическому кризису, достигнув значительного фискального и торгового профицита и быстрого роста ВВП . [128] При его администрации Аргентина реструктурировала свой просроченный долг с беспрецедентной скидкой около 70% по большинству облигаций, погасила долги Международному валютному фонду , [129] очистила армию от офицеров с сомнительными записями о правах человека, [130] аннулировала и отменила законы «Полная остановка» и «Должное повиновение», [131] [G] признала их неконституционными и возобновила судебное преследование преступлений хунты. Он не баллотировался на переизбрание, вместо этого продвигая кандидатуру своей жены, сенатора Кристины Фернандес де Киршнер , которая была избрана в 2007 году [133] и переизбрана в 2011 году . Администрация Фернандеса де Киршнера установила позитивные внешние отношения с такими странами, как Венесуэла, Иран и Куба, в то время как в то же время отношения с Соединенными Штатами и Соединенным Королевством становились все более напряженными. К 2015 году ВВП Аргентины вырос на 2,7% [134] , а реальные доходы выросли более чем на 50% с эпохи после Менема. [135] Несмотря на эти экономические достижения и увеличение производства возобновляемой энергии и субсидий, общая экономика была вялой с 2011 года. [136]

22 ноября 2015 года, после ничьей в первом туре президентских выборов 25 октября , кандидат от правоцентристской коалиции Маурисио Макри выиграл первый тур выборов в истории Аргентины, обойдя кандидата от Фронта за победу Даниэля Сциоли и став избранным президентом. [137] Макри был первым демократически избранным президентом- неперонистом с 1916 года, которому удалось завершить свой срок полномочий, не будучи свергнутым. [138] Он вступил в должность 10 декабря 2015 года и унаследовал экономику с высоким уровнем инфляции и в плохом состоянии. [139] В апреле 2016 года правительство Макри ввело неолиберальные меры жесткой экономии, направленные на борьбу с инфляцией и раздутым государственным дефицитом. [140] При администрации Макри восстановление экономики оставалось труднодостижимым: ВВП сократился на 3,4%, инфляция составила 240%, миллиарды долларов США были выпущены в виде суверенного долга, а массовая бедность увеличилась к концу его срока. [141] [142] Он баллотировался на переизбрание в 2019 году, но проиграл почти восемь процентных пунктов Альберто Фернандесу , кандидату от Партии справедливости. [143]

Президент Альберто Фернандес и вице-президент Кристина Фернандес де Киршнер вступили в должность в декабре 2019 года [144] , всего за несколько месяцев до того, как пандемия COVID-19 поразила Аргентину , и среди обвинений в коррупции , взяточничестве и нецелевом использовании государственных средств во время президентства Нестора и Кристины Фернандес де Киршнер . [145] [146] 14 ноября 2021 года левоцентристская коалиция правящей перонистской партии Аргентины Frente de Todos (Фронт для всех) впервые за почти 40 лет потеряла большинство в Конгрессе на промежуточных выборах в законодательные органы . Победа на выборах правоцентристской коалиции Juntos por el Cambio (Вместе за перемены) ограничила власть президента Альберто Фернандеса в течение его последних двух лет пребывания у власти. Потеря контроля над Сенатом затруднила для него проведение ключевых назначений, в том числе в судебную систему. Это также заставило его согласовывать с оппозицией каждую инициативу, которую он направлял в законодательный орган. [147] [148]

In April 2023, President Alberto Fernandez announced that he will not seek re-election in the next presidential election.[149] The 19 November 2023 election run-off vote ended in a win for libertarian outsider Javier Milei with close to 56% of the vote against 44% of the ruling coalition candidate Sergio Massa.[150] On 10 December 2023, Javier Milei was sworn in as the new president of Argentina.[151]

Geography

Topographical map of Argentina

With a mainland surface area of 2,780,400 km2 (1,073,518 sq mi),[B] Argentina is located in southern South America, sharing land borders with Chile across the Andes to the west;[152] Bolivia and Paraguay to the north; Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east;[153] and the Drake Passage to the south;[154] for an overall land border length of 9,376 km (5,826 mi). Its coastal border over the Río de la Plata and South Atlantic Ocean is 5,117 km (3,180 mi) long.[153]

Argentina's highest point is Aconcagua in the Mendoza province (6,959 m (22,831 ft) above sea level),[155] also the highest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres.[156] The lowest point is Laguna del Carbón in the San Julián Great Depression Santa Cruz province (−105 m (−344 ft) below sea level,[155] also the lowest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the seventh lowest point on Earth).[157]

The northernmost point is at the confluence of the Grande de San Juan and Mojinete rivers in Jujuy province; the southernmost is Cape San Pío in Tierra del Fuego province; the easternmost is northeast of Bernardo de Irigoyen, Misiones and the westernmost is within Los Glaciares National Park in Santa Cruz province.[153] The maximum north–south distance is 3,694 km (2,295 mi), while the maximum east–west one is 1,423 km (884 mi).[153]

Some of the major rivers are the Paraná, Uruguay—which join to form the Río de la Plata, Paraguay, Salado, Negro, Santa Cruz, Pilcomayo, Bermejo and Colorado.[158] These rivers are discharged into the Argentine Sea, the shallow area of the Atlantic Ocean over the Argentine Shelf, an unusually wide continental platform.[159] Its waters are influenced by two major ocean currents: the warm Brazil Current and the cold Falklands Current.[160]

Biodiversity

Вершины гор с облаками.
Aconcagua is the highest mountain outside of Asia, at 6,960.8 metres (22,837 ft), and the highest point in the Southern Hemisphere.[161]
Los Cardones National Park

Argentina is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world[162] hosting one of the greatest ecosystem varieties in the world: 15 continental zones, 2 marine zones, and the Antarctic region are all represented in its territory.[162] This huge ecosystem variety has led to a biological diversity that is among the world's largest:[162][163] 9,372 cataloged vascular plant species (ranked 24th);[H] 1,038 cataloged bird species (ranked 14th);[I] 375 cataloged mammal species (ranked 12th);[J] 338 cataloged reptilian species (ranked 16th); and 162 cataloged amphibian species (ranked 19th).

In Argentina forest cover is around 10% of the total land area, equivalent to 28,573,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 35,204,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 27,137,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 1,436,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 7% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 0% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 4% private ownership and 96% with ownership listed as other or unknown.[164][165]

The original pampa had virtually no trees; some imported species such as the American sycamore or eucalyptus are present along roads or in towns and country estates (estancias). The only tree-like plant native to the pampa is the evergreen Ombú. The surface soils of the pampa are a deep black color, primarily mollisols, known commonly as humus. This makes the region one of the most agriculturally productive on Earth; however, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial agriculture.[166] The western pampas receive less rainfall, this dry pampa is a plain of short grasses or steppe.[167][168]

The National Parks of Argentina make up a network of 35 national parks in Argentina. The parks cover a very varied set of terrains and biotopes, from Baritú National Park on the northern border with Bolivia to Tierra del Fuego National Park in the far south of the continent. The Administración de Parques Nacionales (National Parks Administration) is the agency that preserves and manages these national parks along with Natural monuments and National Reserves within the country.[169] Argentina had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.21/10, ranking it 47th globally out of 172 countries.[170]

Climate

Köppen climate classification in Argentina
Argentina features geographical locations such as this glacier, known as the Perito Moreno Glacier.[171]

In general, Argentina has four main climate types: warm humid subtropical, moderate humid subtropical, arid and cold. all determined by the expanse across latitude, range in altitude, and relief features.[172][173] Although the most populated areas are generally temperate, Argentina has an exceptional amount of climate diversity,[174] ranging from subtropical in the north to polar in the far south.[175] Consequently, there is a wide variety of biomes in the country, including Subtropical rainforests, semi-arid and arid regions, temperate plains in the Pampas, and cold subantarctic in the south.[176] The average annual precipitation ranges from 150 millimetres (6 in) in the driest parts of Patagonia to over 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in the westernmost parts of Patagonia and the northeastern parts of the country.[174] Mean annual temperatures range from 5 °C (41 °F) in the far south to 25 °C (77 °F) in the north.[174]

Major wind currents include the cool Pampero Winds blowing on the flat plains of Patagonia and the Pampas; following the cold front, warm currents blow from the north in middle and late winter, creating mild conditions.[177]The Sudestada usually moderates cold temperatures but brings very heavy rains, rough seas and coastal flooding. It is most common in late autumn and winter along the central coast and in the Río de la Plata estuary.[177]The Zonda, a hot dry wind, affects Cuyo and the central Pampas. Squeezed of all moisture during the 6,000 m (19,685 ft) descent from the Andes, Zonda winds can blow for hours with gusts up to 120 km/h (75 mph), fueling wildfires and causing damage; between June and November, when the Zonda blows, snowstorms and blizzard (viento blanco) conditions usually affect higher elevations.[178]

Climate change in Argentina is predicted to have significant effects on the living conditions in Argentina.[179]: 30  The climate of Argentina is changing with regards to precipitation patterns and temperatures. The highest increases in precipitation (from the period 1960–2010) have occurred in the eastern parts of the country. The increase in precipitation has led to more variability in precipitation from year to year in the northern parts of the country, with a higher risk of prolonged droughts, disfavoring agriculture in these regions.

Politics

In the 20th century, Argentina experienced significant political turmoil and democratic reversals.[180][181] Between 1930 and 1976, the armed forces overthrew six governments in Argentina;[181] and the country alternated periods of democracy (1912–1930, 1946–1955, and 1973–1976) with periods of restricted democracy and military rule.[180] Following a transition that began in 1983,[182] full-scale democracy in Argentina was reestablished.[180][181] Argentina's democracy endured through the 2001–02 crisis and to the present day; it is regarded as more robust than both its pre-1983 predecessors and other democracies in Latin America.[181] According to the V-Dem Democracy indices, Argentina in 2023 was the second most electoral democratic country in Latin America.[183]

Government

Casa Rosada, workplace of the President
The National Congress composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies[184]

Argentina is a federal constitutional republic and representative democracy.[185] The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the Constitution of Argentina, the country's supreme legal document. The seat of government is the city of Buenos Aires, as designated by Congress.[186] Suffrage is universal, equal, secret and mandatory.[187][K]

The federal government is composed of three branches. The Legislative branch consists of the bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties and has the power of the purse and of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.[189] The Chamber of Deputies represents the people and has 257 voting members elected to a four-year term. Seats are apportioned among the provinces by population every tenth year.[190] As of 2014 ten provinces have just five deputies while the Buenos Aires Province, being the most populous one, has 70. The Chamber of Senators represents the provinces, and has 72 members elected at-large to six-year terms, with each province having three seats; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every other year.[191] At least one-third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.

In the Executive branch, the President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law—subject to Congressional override—and appoints the members of the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[192] The President is elected directly by the vote of the people, serves a four-year term and may be elected to office no more than twice in a row.[193]

The Judicial branch includes the Supreme Court and lower federal courts interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.[194] The Judicial is independent of the Executive and the Legislative. The Supreme Court has seven members appointed by the President—subject to Senate approval—who serve for life. The lower courts' judges are proposed by the Council of Magistracy (a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, researchers, the Executive and the Legislative), and appointed by the president on Senate approval.[195]

Provinces

Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands ProvinceSanta CruzChubutRío NegroNeuquénLa PampaBuenos Aires ProvinceBuenos Aires CitySanta FeCórdobaSan LuisMendozaSan JuanLa RiojaCatamarcaSaltaJujuyTucumánSantiago del EsteroChacoFormosaCorrientesMisionesEntre RíosMalvinas IslandsArgentine Antarctica
Provinces of Argentina. Click to explore.

Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, which is divided into partidos. The City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes.

Provinces hold all the power that they chose not to delegate to the federal government;[196] they must be representative republics and must not contradict the Constitution.[197] Beyond this they are fully autonomous: they enact their own constitutions,[198] freely organize their local governments,[199] and own and manage their natural and financial resources.[200] Some provinces have bicameral legislatures, while others have unicameral ones.[L]

La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951. Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province in 1990.[202] It has three components, although two are nominal because they are not under Argentine sovereignty. The first is the Argentine part of Tierra del Fuego; the second is an area of Antarctica claimed by Argentina that overlaps with similar areas claimed by the UK and Chile; the third comprises the two disputed British Overseas Territories of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.[203]

Foreign relations

Cristina Kirchner alongside the members of BRICS and Union of South American Nations in 2014

Foreign policy is handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, which answers to the President. The country is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies of the world, and a founding member of the UN, WBG, WTO and OAS. In 2012 Argentina was elected again to a two-year non-permanent position on the United Nations Security Council and is participating in major peacekeeping operations in Haiti, Cyprus, Western Sahara and the Middle East.[204] Argentina is described as a middle power.[20][205]

A prominent Latin American[21] and Southern Cone[22] regional power, Argentina co-founded OEI and CELAC. It is also a founding member of the Mercosur block, having Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela as partners. Since 2002 the country has emphasized its key role in Latin American integration, and the block—which has some supranational legislative functions—is its first international priority.[206]

Argentina claims 965,597 km2 (372,819 sq mi) in Antarctica, where it has the world's oldest continuous state presence, since 1904.[207] This overlaps claims by Chile and the United Kingdom, though all such claims fall under the provisions of the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, of which Argentina is a founding signatory and permanent consulting member, with the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat being based in Buenos Aires.[208]

Argentina disputes sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas), and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands,[209] which are administered by the United Kingdom as Overseas Territories. Argentina is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[210] Argentina is a Major non-NATO ally since 1998[23] and an OECD candidate country since January 2022.[211]

Armed forces

Lockheed Martin A-4AR Fightinghawk operated by the Argentine Air Force
Argentine destroyer ARA Sarandí (D-13)

The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the Argentine Armed Forces, as part of a legal framework that imposes a strict separation between national defense and internal security systems:[212][213] The National Defense System, an exclusive responsibility of the federal government,[214] coordinated by the Ministry of Defense, and comprising the Army, the Navy and the Air Force.[215] Ruled and monitored by Congress[216] through the Houses' Defense Committees,[217] it is organized on the essential principle of legitimate self-defense: the repelling of any external military aggression in order to guarantee freedom of the people, national sovereignty, and territorial integrity.[217] Its secondary missions include committing to multinational operations within the framework of the United Nations, participating in internal support missions, assisting friendly countries, and establishing a sub-regional defense system.[217]

Military service is voluntary, with enlistment age between 18 and 24 years old and no conscription.[218] Argentina's defense has historically been one of the best equipped in the region, even managing its own weapon research facilities, shipyards, ordnance, tank and plane factories.[219] However, real military expenditures declined steadily after the defeat in the Falklands/Malvinas War and the defense budget in 2011 was only about 0.74% of GDP, a historical minimum,[220] below the Latin American average. Within the defence budget itself, funding for training and even basic maintenance has been significantly cut, a factor contributing to the accidental loss of the Argentine submarine San Juan in 2017. The result has been a steady erosion of Argentine military capabilities, with some arguing that Argentina had, by the end of the 2010s, ceased to be a capable military power.[221]

The Interior Security System is jointly administered by the federal and subscribing provincial governments.[213] At the federal level it is coordinated by the Interior, Security and Justice ministries, and monitored by Congress.[213] It is enforced by the Federal Police; the Prefecture, which fulfills coast guard duties; the Gendarmerie, which serves border guard tasks; and the Airport Security Police.[222] At the provincial level it is coordinated by the respective internal security ministries and enforced by local police agencies.[213]

Argentina was the only South American country to send warships and cargo planes in 1991 to the Gulf War under UN mandate and has remained involved in peacekeeping efforts in multiple locations such as UNPROFOR in Croatia/Bosnia, Gulf of Fonseca, UNFICYP in Cyprus (where among Army and Marines troops the Air Force provided the UN Air contingent since 1994) and MINUSTAH in Haiti. Argentina is the only Latin American country to maintain troops in Kosovo during SFOR (and later EUFOR) operations where combat engineers of the Argentine Armed Forces are embedded in an Italian brigade.

In 2007, an Argentine contingent including helicopters, boats and water purification plants was sent to help Bolivia against their worst floods in decades.[223] In 2010 the Armed Forces were also involved in Haiti and Chile humanitarian responses after their respective earthquakes.

Economy

Puerto Madero business complex in Buenos Aires CBD

Benefiting from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, a diversified industrial base, and an export-oriented agricultural sector, the economy of Argentina is Latin America's third-largest,[224] and the second-largest in South America.[225] Argentina was one of the richest countries in the world, on the 20th century in 1913 it was one of the wealthiest countries in the world by GDP per capita[226] It has a "very high" rating on the Human Development Index[12] and ranks 66th by nominal GDP per capita,[227] with a considerable internal market size and a growing share of the high-tech sector. As a middle emerging economy and one of the world's top developing nations, it is a member of the G-20 major economies.[228][M]

Vineyard in Mendoza. Argentina is the sixth-largest producer of wine.[229]

Argentina is the largest producer in the world of yerba mate (due to the large domestic consumption of mate), one of the five largest producers in the world of soybeans, maize, sunflower seed, lemon and pear, one of the ten largest producers in the world of barley, grape, artichoke, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit. It is the largest producer in South America of wheat, sunflower seed, barley, lemon and pear.[230][231] In wine, Argentina is usually among the ten largest producers in the world.[232] Argentina is also a traditional meat exporter, having been, in 2019, the 4th world producer of beef, with a production of 3 million tons (only behind US, Brazil and China), the 4th world producer of honey, and the 10th world producer of wool, in addition to other relevant productions.[233][234]

Veladero mine is a gold mine located in the San Juan Province.
Fiat factory in Córdoba, Argentina

The mining industry of Argentina is not as relevant as that of other countries. It stands out for being the fourth-largest producer of lithium,[235] 9th of silver[236] and 17th of gold[237] worldwide (based on 2019 data). The country stands out in the production of natural gas, being the largest producer in South America and the 18th-largest in the world, and has an average annual production close to 500 thousand barrels/day of petroleum, even with the under-utilization of the Vaca Muerta field, due to the country's technical and financial inability to extract these resources.[238][239]

In 2012, manufacturing accounted for 20.3% of GDP—the largest sector in the nation's economy.[240] Well-integrated into Argentine agriculture, half of the industrial exports have rural origin.[240] With a 6.5% production growth rate in 2011,[241] the diversified manufacturing sector rests on a steadily growing network of industrial parks (314 as of 2013)[242][243] In 2012 the leading sectors by volume were: food processing, beverages and tobacco products; motor vehicles and auto parts; textiles and leather; refinery products and biodiesel; chemicals and pharmaceuticals; steel, aluminum and iron; industrial and farm machinery; home appliances and furniture; plastics and tires; glass and cement; and recording and print media.[240] In addition, Argentina has since long been one of the top five wine-producing countries in the world.[240]

High inflation—a weakness of the Argentine economy for decades—has become a trouble once again,[244] with an annual rate of 24.8% in 2017.[245] In 2023 the inflation reached 102.5% among the highest inflation rates in the world.[246] Approximately 43% of the Argentina's population lives below the poverty line as of 2023.[247] To deter it and support the peso, the government imposed foreign currency control.[248] Income distribution, having improved since 2002, is classified as "medium", although it is still considerably unequal.[11] In January 2024, Argentina's poverty rate reached 57.4%, the highest poverty rate in the country since 2004.[249]

Argentina ranks 85th out of 180 countries in the Transparency International's 2017 Corruption Perceptions Index,[250] an improvement of 22 positions over its 2014 rankings.[251] Argentina settled its long-standing debt default crisis in 2016 with the so-called vulture funds after the election of Mauricio Macri, allowing Argentina to enter capital markets for the first time in a decade.[252] The government of Argentina defaulted on 22 May 2020 by failing to pay a $500 million bill by its due date to its creditors. Negotiations for the restructuring of $66 billion of its debt continue.[253]

Poverty in Argentina was 41.7 percent at the end of the second half of 2023.[254]

Tourism

The country had 5.57 million visitors in 2013, ranking in terms of international tourist arrivals as the top destination in South America, and second in Latin America after Mexico.[255] Revenues from international tourists reached US$4.41 billion in 2013, down from US$4.89 billion in 2012.[255] The country's capital city, Buenos Aires, is the most visited city in South America.[256] There are 30 National Parks of Argentina including many World Heritage Sites.

Panorama of the Nahuel Huapi National Park and the Nahuel Huapi Lake from Cerro Campanario, Bariloche

Transport

Stretch of National Route 9 between Rosario and Córdoba
A Trenes Argentinos CNR CKD8G at Mar del Plata railway station

By 2004 Buenos Aires, all provincial capitals except Ushuaia, and all medium-sized towns were interconnected by 69,412 km (43,131 mi) of paved roads, out of a total road network of 231,374 km (143,769 mi).[257] In 2021, the country had about 2,800 km (1,740 mi) of duplicated highways, most leaving the capital Buenos Aires, linking it with cities such as Rosario and Córdoba, Santa Fe, Mar del Plata and Paso de los Libres (in border with Brazil), there are also duplicated highways leaving from Mendoza towards the capital, and between Córdoba and Santa Fé, among other locations.[258] Nevertheless, this road infrastructure is still inadequate and cannot handle the sharply growing demand caused by deterioration of the railway system.[259]

Argentina has the largest railway system in Latin America, with 36,966 km (22,970 mi) of operating lines in 2008, out of a full network of almost 48,000 km (29,826 mi).[260] This system links all 23 provinces plus Buenos Aires City, and connects with all neighbouring countries.[259] There are four incompatible gauges in use; this forces virtually all interregional freight traffic to pass through Buenos Aires.[259] The system has been in decline since the 1940s: regularly running up large budgetary deficits, by 1991 it was transporting 1,400 times less goods than it did in 1973.[259] However, in recent years the system has experienced a greater degree of investment from the state, in both commuter rail lines and long-distance lines, renewing rolling stock and infrastructure.[261][262] In April 2015, by overwhelming majority the Argentine Senate passed a law which re-created Ferrocarriles Argentinos (2015), effectively re-nationalising the country's railways, a move which saw support from all major political parties on both sides of the political spectrum.[263][264][265]

In 2012 there were about 11,000 km (6,835 mi) of waterways,[266] mostly comprising the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers, with Buenos Aires, Zárate, Campana, Rosario, San Lorenzo, Santa Fe, Barranqueras and San Nicolas de los Arroyos as the main fluvial ports. Some of the largest sea ports are La PlataEnsenada, Bahía Blanca, Mar del Plata, QuequénNecochea, Comodoro Rivadavia, Puerto Deseado, Puerto Madryn, Ushuaia and San Antonio Oeste. Buenos Aires has historically been the most important port; however since the 1990s the Up-River port region has become dominant: stretching along 67 km (42 mi) of the Paraná river shore in Santa Fe province, it includes 17 ports and in 2013 accounted for 50% of all exports.

In 2013 there were 161 airports with paved runways[267] out of more than a thousand.[259] The Ezeiza International Airport, about 35 km (22 mi) from downtown Buenos Aires,[268] is the largest in the country, followed by Cataratas del Iguazú in Misiones, and El Plumerillo in Mendoza.[259] Aeroparque, in the city of Buenos Aires, is the most important domestic airport.[269]

Energy

Atucha Nuclear Power Plant was the first nuclear power plant in Latin America.[270]

In 2020, more than 60% of Argentina's electricity came from non-renewable sources such as natural gas, oil and coal. 27% came from hydropower, 7.3% from wind and solar energy and 4.4% from nuclear energy.[271] At the end of 2021 Argentina was the 21st country in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW), the 26th country in the world in terms of installed wind energy (3.2 GW) and the 43rd country in the world in terms of installed solar energy (1.0 GW).[272]

The wind potential of the Patagonia region is considered gigantic, with estimates that the area could provide enough electricity to sustain the consumption of a country like Brazil alone. However, Argentina has infrastructural deficiencies to carry out the transmission of electricity from uninhabited areas with a lot of wind to the great centers of the country.[273]

In 1974 it was the first country in Latin America to put in-line a commercial nuclear power plant, Atucha I. Although the Argentine-built parts for that station amounted to 10% of the total, the nuclear fuel it uses are since entirely built in the country. Later nuclear power stations employed a higher percentage of Argentine-built components; Embalse, finished in 1983, a 30% and the 2011 Atucha II reactor a 40%.[274]

Science and technology

Luis Federico Leloir (left) and his staff toast his 1970 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Argentines have received three Nobel Prizes in the Sciences. Bernardo Houssay, the first Latin American recipient, discovered the role of pituitary hormones in regulating glucose in animals, and shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947. Luis Leloir discovered how organisms store energy converting glucose into glycogen and the compounds which are fundamental in metabolizing carbohydrates, receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1970. César Milstein did extensive research in antibodies, sharing the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984. Argentine research has led to treatments for heart diseases and several forms of cancer. Domingo Liotta designed and developed the first artificial heart that was successfully implanted in a human being in 1969. René Favaloro developed the techniques and performed the world's first coronary bypass surgery.

Argentina's nuclear programme has been highly successful. In 1957 Argentina was the first country in Latin America to design and build a research reactor with homegrown technology, the RA-1 Enrico Fermi. This reliance on the development of its own nuclear-related technologies, instead of buying them abroad, was a constant of Argentina's nuclear programme conducted by the civilian National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA). Nuclear facilities with Argentine technology have been built in Peru, Algeria, Australia and Egypt. In 1983, the country admitted having the capability of producing weapon-grade uranium, a major step needed to assemble nuclear weapons; since then, however, Argentina has pledged to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.[275] As a member of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Argentina has been a strong voice in support of nuclear non-proliferation efforts[276] and is highly committed to global nuclear security.[277]

SAOCOM 1A inside the facilities of CEATSA

Despite its modest budget and numerous setbacks, academics and the sciences in Argentina have enjoyed international respect since the turn of the 1900s, when Luis Agote devised the first safe and effective means of blood transfusion as well as René Favaloro, who was a pioneer in the improvement of the coronary artery bypass surgery. Argentine scientists are still on the cutting edge in fields such as nanotechnology, physics, computer sciences, molecular biology, oncology, ecology and cardiology. Juan Maldacena, an Argentine-American scientist, is a leading figure in string theory.

Space research has also become increasingly active in Argentina. Argentine-built satellites include LUSAT-1 (1990), Víctor-1 (1996), PEHUENSAT-1 (2007),[278] and those developed by CONAE, the Argentine space agency, of the SAC series.[279] Argentina has its own satellite programme, nuclear power station designs (4th generation) and public nuclear energy company INVAP, which provides several countries with nuclear reactors.[280] Established in 1991, the CONAE has since launched two satellites successfully and,[281] in June 2009, secured an agreement with the European Space Agency for the installation of a 35-m diameter antenna and other mission support facilities at the Pierre Auger Observatory, the world's foremost cosmic ray observatory.[282] The facility will contribute to numerous ESA space probes, as well as CONAE's own, domestic research projects. Chosen from 20 potential sites and one of only three such ESA installations in the world, the new antenna will create a triangulation which will allow the ESA to ensure mission coverage around the clock[283] Argentina was ranked 73rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[284][285]

Demographics

Population density map of Argentina (2000)

The 2010 census counted 40,117,096 inhabitants, up from 36,260,130 in 2001.[286][287] Argentina ranks third in South America in total population, fourth in Latin America and 33rd globally. Its population density of 15 persons per square kilometer of land area is well below the world average of 50 persons. The population growth rate in 2010 was an estimated 1.03% annually, with a birth rate of 17.7 live births per 1,000 inhabitants and a mortality rate of 7.4 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. Since 2010, the crude net migration rate has ranged from below zero to up to four immigrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.[288]

Argentina is in the midst of a demographic transition to an older and slower-growing population. The proportion of people under 15 is 25.6%, a little below the world average of 28%, and the proportion of people 65 and older is relatively high at 10.8%. In Latin America, this is second only to Uruguay and well above the world average, which is currently 7%. Argentina has a comparatively low infant mortality rate. Its birth rate of 2.3 children per woman is considerably below the high of 7.0 children born per woman in 1895,[289] though still nearly twice as high as in Spain or Italy, which are culturally and demographically similar.[290][291] The median age is 31.9 years and life expectancy at birth is 77.14 years.[292]

Attitudes towards LGBT people are generally positive within Argentina.[293] In 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America, the second in the Americas, and the tenth worldwide to legalize same-sex marriage.[294][295]

Ethnography

The cacique Qom Félix Díaz meets with then president Mauricio Macri.

Argentina is considered a country of immigrants.[296][297][298] Argentines usually refer to the country as a crisol de razas (crucible of races, or melting pot). A 2010 study conducted on 218 individuals by the Argentine geneticist Daniel Corach established that the average genetic ancestry of Argentines is 79% European (mainly Italian and Spanish), 18% indigenous and 4.3% African; 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor who was Indigenous.[299][300] The majority of Argentines descend from multiple European ethnic groups, primarily of Italian and Spanish descent, with over 25 million Argentines (almost 60% of the population) having some partial Italian origins.[301]

Argentina is also home to a notable Asian population, the majority of whom are descended from either West Asians (namely Lebanese and Syrians)[302] or East Asians (such as the Chinese,[303] Koreans, and the Japanese).[304] The latter of whom number around 180,000 individuals. The total number of Arab Argentines (most of whom are of Lebanese or Syrian origin) is estimated to be 1.3 to 3.5 million. Many immigrated from various Asian countries to Argentina during the 19th century (especially during the latter half of the century) and the first half of the 20th century.[305][306] Most Arab Argentines belong to the Catholic Church (including both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches) or the Eastern Orthodox Church. A minority are Muslims.

From the 1970s, immigration has mostly been coming from Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru, with smaller numbers from the Dominican Republic, Ecuador and Romania.[307] The Argentine government estimates that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a program[308] to encourage illegal immigrants to declare their status in return for two-year residence visas—so far over 670,000 applications have been processed under the program.[309] As of July 2023, more than 18,500 Russians have come to Argentina after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[310]

Languages

Dialectal variants of the Spanish language in Argentina

The de facto[N] official language is Spanish, spoken by almost all Argentines.[311]The country is the largest Spanish-speaking society that universally employs voseo, the use of the pronoun vos instead of ("you"), which imposes the use of alternative verb forms as well. Owing to the extensive Argentine geography, Spanish has a strong variation among regions, although the prevalent dialect is Rioplatense, primarily spoken in the Pampean and Patagonian regions and accented similarly to the Neapolitan language.[312] Italian and other European immigrants influenced Lunfardo—the regional slang—permeating the vernacular vocabulary of other Latin American countries as well.

There are several second-languages in widespread use among the Argentine population: English (by 2.8 million people);[313] Italian (by 1.5 million people);[311][O] Arabic (specially its Northern Levantine dialect, by one million people);[311] Standard German (by 200,000 people);[311][P] Guaraní (by 200,000 people,[311] mostly in Corrientes and Misiones);[3] Catalan (by 174,000 people);[311] Quechua (by 65,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);[311] Wichí (by 53,700 people, mainly in Chaco[311] where, along with Kom and Moqoit, it is official de jure);[5] Vlax Romani (by 52,000 people);[311] Albanian (by 40,000 people);[314] Japanese (by 32,000 people);[311] Aymara (by 30,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);[311] and Ukrainian (by 27,000 people).[311]

Religion

Francis, the first pope from the Americas, was born and raised in Argentina.

Christianity is the largest religion in Argentina. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion.[315] Although it enforces neither an official nor a state faith,[316] it gives Roman Catholicism a preferential status.[317][Q]

According to a 2008 CONICET poll, Argentines were 76.5% Catholic, 11.3% Agnostics and Atheists, 9% Evangelical Protestants, 1.2% Jehovah's Witnesses, and 0.9% Mormons, while 1.2% followed other religions, including Islam, Judaism and Buddhism.[319] These figures appear to have changed quite significantly in recent years: data recorded in 2017 indicated that Catholics made up 66% of the population, indicating a drop of 10.5% in nine years, and the nonreligious in the country standing at 21% of the population, indicating an almost doubling over the same period.[320]

The country is home to both one of the largest Muslim[318] and largest Jewish communities in Latin America, the latter being the seventh most populous in the world.[321] Argentina is a member of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance.[318]

Argentines show high individualization and de-institutionalization of religious beliefs;[322] 23.8% claim to always attend religious services; 49.1% seldom do and 26.8% never do.[323]

On 13 March 2013, Argentine Jorge Mario Bergoglio, the Cardinal Archbishop of Buenos Aires, was elected Bishop of Rome and Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church. He took the name "Francis", and he became the first Pope from either the Americas or from the Southern Hemisphere; he is the first Pope born outside of Europe since the election of Pope Gregory III (who was Syrian) in 741.[324]

Health

Clemente Álvarez Emergency Hospital in Rosario

Health care is provided through a combination of employer and labour union-sponsored plans (Obras Sociales), government insurance plans, public hospitals and clinics and through private health insurance plans. Health care cooperatives number over 300 (of which 200 are related to labour unions) and provide health care for half the population; the national INSSJP (popularly known as PAMI) covers nearly all of the five million senior citizens.[325]

There are more than 153,000 hospital beds, 121,000 physicians and 37,000 dentists (ratios comparable to developed nations).[326][327] The relatively high access to medical care has historically resulted in mortality patterns and trends similar to developed nations': from 1953 to 2005, deaths from cardiovascular disease increased from 20% to 23% of the total, those from tumors from 14% to 20%, respiratory problems from 7% to 14%, digestive maladies (non-infectious) from 7% to 11%, strokes a steady 7%, injuries, 6%, and infectious diseases, 4%. Causes related to senility led to many of the rest. Infant deaths have fallen from 19% of all deaths in 1953 to 3% in 2005.[326][328]

The availability of health care has also reduced infant mortality from 70 per 1000 live births in 1948[329] to 12.1 in 2009[326] and raised life expectancy at birth from 60 years to 76.[329] Though these figures compare favorably with global averages, they fall short of levels in developed nations and in 2006, Argentina ranked fourth in Latin America.[327]

Education

Faculty of Law of the University of Buenos Aires

The Argentine education system consists of four levels.[330] An initial level for children between 45 days to 5 years old, with the last two years[331] being compulsory. An elementary or lower school mandatory level lasting 6 or 7 years.[R] In 2010 the literacy rate was 98.07%.[332] A secondary or high school mandatory level lasting 5 or 6 years.[R] In 2010 38.5% of people over age 20 had completed secondary school.[333] A higher level, divided in tertiary, university and post-graduate sub-levels. in 2013 there were 47 national public universities across the country, as well as 46 private ones.[334]

In 2010 7.1% of people over age 20 had graduated from university.[333] The public universities of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, La Plata, Rosario, and the National Technological University are some of the most important. The Argentine state guarantees universal, secular and free-of-charge public education for all levels.[S] Responsibility for educational supervision is organized at the federal and individual provincial states. In the last decades the role of the private sector has grown across all educational stages.

Urbanization

Argentina is highly urbanized, with 92% of its population living in cities:[335] the ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population. About 3 million people live in the city of Buenos Aires, and including the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area it totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world.[336] The metropolitan areas of Córdoba and Rosario have around 1.3 million inhabitants each.[336] Mendoza, San Miguel de Tucumán, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Salta and Santa Fe have at least half a million people each.[336]

The population is unequally distributed: about 60% live in the Pampas region (21% of the total area), including 15 million people in Buenos Aires province. The provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fe, and the city of Buenos Aires have 3 million each. Seven other provinces have over one million people each: Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. With 64.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (167/sq mi), Tucumán is the only Argentine province more densely populated than the world average; by contrast, the southern province of Santa Cruz has around 1.1/km2 (2.8/sq mi).[337]

Culture

Sun of May on the first Argentine coin, 1813

Argentina is a multicultural country with significant European influences. Modern Argentine culture has been largely influenced by Italian, Spanish and other European immigration from France, Russia, United Kingdom, among others. Its cities are largely characterized by both the prevalence of people of European descent, and of conscious imitation of American and European styles in fashion, architecture and design.[339] Museums, cinemas, and galleries are abundant in all the large urban centres, as well as traditional establishments such as literary bars, or bars offering live music of a variety of genres although there are lesser elements of Amerindian and African influences, particularly in the fields of music and art.[340] The other big influence is the gauchos and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance.[341] Finally, indigenous American traditions have been absorbed into the general cultural milieu. Argentine writer Ernesto Sabato has reflected on the nature of the culture of Argentina as follows:

With the primitive Hispanic American reality fractured in La Plata Basin due to immigration, its inhabitants have come to be somewhat dual with all the dangers but also with all the advantages of that condition: because of our European roots, we deeply link the nation with the enduring values of the Old World; because of our condition of Americans we link ourselves to the rest of the continent, through the folklore of the interior and the old Castilian that unifies us, feeling somehow the vocation of the Patria Grande San Martín and Bolívar once imagined.

— Ernesto Sabato, La cultura en la encrucijada nacional (1976)[342]

Literature

Mosaic image showing the four photographs
Four of the most influential Argentine writers. Top-left to bottom-right: Julio Cortázar, Victoria Ocampo, Jorge Luis Borges, and Adolfo Bioy Casares.

Although Argentina's rich literary history began around 1550,[343] it reached full independence with Esteban Echeverría's El Matadero, a romantic landmark that played a significant role in the development of 19th century's Argentine narrative,[344] split by the ideological divide between the popular, federalist epic of José Hernández' Martín Fierro and the elitist and cultured discourse of Sarmiento's masterpiece, Facundo.[345]

The Modernist movement advanced into the 20th century including exponents such as Leopoldo Lugones and poet Alfonsina Storni;[346] it was followed by Vanguardism, with Ricardo Güiraldes's Don Segundo Sombra as an important reference.[347]

Jorge Luis Borges, Argentina's most acclaimed writer and one of the foremost figures in the history of literature,[348] found new ways of looking at the modern world in metaphor and philosophical debate and his influence has extended to authors all over the globe. Short stories such as Ficciones and The Aleph are among his most famous works. He was a friend and collaborator of Adolfo Bioy Casares, who wrote one of the most praised science fiction novels, The Invention of Morel.[349] Julio Cortázar, one of the leading members of the Latin American Boom and a major name in 20th century literature,[350] influenced an entire generation of writers in the Americas and Europe.[351]

A remarkable episode in Argentine literary history is the social and literarial dialectica between the so-called Florida Group, named this way because its members used to meet together at the Richmond Cafeteria at Florida street and published in the Martin Fierro magazine, such as Jorge Luis Borges, Leopoldo Marechal, Antonio Berni (artist), among others; versus the Boedo Group of Roberto Arlt, Cesar Tiempo, Homero Manzi (tango composer), that used to meet at the Japanese Cafe and published their works with the Editorial Claridad, with both the cafe and the publisher located at Boedo Avenue.

Other highly regarded Argentine writers, poets and essayists include Estanislao del Campo, Eugenio Cambaceres, Pedro Bonifacio Palacios, Hugo Wast, Benito Lynch, Enrique Banchs, Oliverio Girondo, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Victoria Ocampo, Leopoldo Marechal, Silvina Ocampo, Roberto Arlt, Eduardo Mallea, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Ernesto Sábato, Silvina Bullrich, Rodolfo Walsh, María Elena Walsh, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Manuel Puig, Alejandra Pizarnik, and Osvaldo Soriano.[352]

Music

Photograph of Mercedes Sosa by Annemarie Heinrich

Tango, a Rioplatense musical genre with European and African influences,[353] is one of Argentina's international cultural symbols.[354]The golden age of tango (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored that of jazz and swing in the United States, featuring large orchestras such as those of Osvaldo Pugliese, Aníbal Troilo, Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro and Juan d'Arienzo.[355]After 1955, virtuoso Astor Piazzolla popularized Nuevo tango, a subtler and more intellectual trend for the genre.[355]Tango enjoys worldwide popularity nowadays with groups such as Gotan Project, Bajofondo and Tanghetto.

Argentina developed strong classical music and dance scenes that gave rise to renowned artists such as Alberto Ginastera, composer; Alberto Lysy, violinist; Martha Argerich and Eduardo Delgado, pianists; Daniel Barenboim, pianist and symphonic orchestra director; José Cura and Marcelo Álvarez, tenors; and to ballet dancers Jorge Donn, José Neglia, Norma Fontenla, Maximiliano Guerra, Paloma Herrera, Marianela Núñez, Iñaki Urlezaga and Julio Bocca.[355]

A national Argentine folk style emerged in the 1930s from dozens of regional musical genres and went on to influence the entirety of Latin American music. Some of its interpreters, such as Atahualpa Yupanqui and Mercedes Sosa, achieved worldwide acclaim. The romantic ballad genre included singers of international fame such as Sandro de América. Tenor saxophonist Leandro "Gato" Barbieri and composer and big band conductor Lalo Schifrin are among the most internationally successful Argentine jazz musicians.

Argentine rock developed as a distinct musical style in the mid-1960s, when Buenos Aires and Rosario became cradles of aspiring musicians. Founding bands such as Los Gatos, Sui Generis, Almendra and Manal were followed by Seru Giran, Los Abuelos de la Nada, Soda Stereo and Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota, with prominent artists including Gustavo Cerati, Litto Nebbia, Andrés Calamaro, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Charly García, Fito Páez and León Gieco.[355]

A dance and a musical genre popular at present is Cachengue, a subgenre of Argentine cumbia and reggaeton spreading in popularity in nearby countries such as Uruguay, Chile, Paraguay, and Bolivia.[356]

Theatre and cinema

Andy Muschietti, director of It, the highest-grossing horror film of all-time[357][358]

Buenos Aires is one of the great theatre capitals of the world,[359] with a scene of international caliber centered on Corrientes Avenue, "the street that never sleeps", sometimes referred to as an intellectual Broadway in Buenos Aires.[360] Teatro Colón is a global landmark for opera and classical performances; its acoustics are considered among the world's top five.[361][T]

The Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in Latin American cinema, along with those produced in Mexico and Brazil.[362][363] Started in 1896; by the early 1930s it had already become Latin America's leading film producer, a place it kept until the early 1950s.[364] The world's first animated feature films were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist Quirino Cristiani, in 1917 and 1918.[365]

Argentine films have achieved worldwide recognition: the country has won two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, for The Official Story (1985) and The Secret in Their Eyes (2009). In addition, Argentine composers Luis Enrique Bacalov and Gustavo Santaolalla have been honored with Academy Awards for Best Original Score, and Armando Bó and Nicolás Giacobone shared in the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for 2014. Also, the Argentine French actress Bérénice Bejo received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2011 and won the César Award for Best Actress and won the Best Actress award in the Cannes Film Festival for her role in the film The Past.[366] Argentina also has won seventeen Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film, being by far the most awarded country in Latin America with twenty-four nominations. Many other Argentine films also have been acclaimed by international critique. In 2013 about 100 full-length motion pictures were being created annually.[367]

Visual arts and architecture

Las Nereidas Font by Lola Mora

Some of the best-known Argentine painters are Cándido López and Florencio Molina Campos (Naïve style); Ernesto de la Cárcova and Eduardo Sívori (Realism); Fernando Fader (Impressionism); Pío Collivadino, Atilio Malinverno and Cesáreo Bernaldo de Quirós (Postimpressionism); Emilio Pettoruti (Cubism); Julio Barragán (Concretism and Cubism) Antonio Berni (Neofigurativism); Roberto Aizenberg and Xul Solar (Surrealism); Gyula Košice (Constructivism); Eduardo Mac Entyre (Generative art); Luis Seoane, Carlos Torrallardona, Luis Aquino, Alfredo Gramajo Gutiérrez (Modernism); Lucio Fontana (Spatialism); Tomás Maldonado, Guillermo Kuitca (Abstract art); León Ferrari, Marta Minujín (Conceptual art); Gustavo Cabral (Fantasy art), and Fabián Pérez (Neoemotionalism).[vague]

In 1946 Gyula Košice and others created The Madí Movement in Argentina, which then spread to Europe and the United States, where it had a significant impact.[368] Tomás Maldonado was one of the main theorists of the Ulm Model of design education, still highly influential globally. Other Argentine artists of worldwide fame include Adolfo Bellocq, whose lithographs have been influential since the 1920s, and Benito Quinquela Martín, the quintessential port painter, inspired by the immigrant-bound La Boca neighbourhood. Internationally laureate sculptors Erminio Blotta, Lola Mora and Rogelio Yrurtia authored many of the classical evocative monuments of the Argentine cityscape.[citation needed]

The colonization brought the Spanish Baroque architecture, which can still be appreciated in its simpler Rioplatense style in the reduction of San Ignacio Miní, the Cathedral of Córdoba, and the Cabildo of Luján. Italian and French influences increased at the beginning of the 19th century with strong eclectic overtones that gave the local architecture a unique feeling.[369]

Mass media

Headquarters of the Channel 7, the first television station in the country

The print media industry is highly developed in Argentina, with more than two hundred newspapers. The major national ones include Clarín (centrist, Latin America's best-seller and the second most widely circulated in the Spanish-speaking world), La Nación (centre-right, published since 1870), Página/12 (leftist, founded in 1987), La Voz del Interior (centre, founded in 1904),[370] and the Argentinisches Tageblatt (German weekly, liberal, published since 1878).[371]

Argentina began the world's first regular radio broadcasting on 27 August 1920, when Richard Wagner's Parsifal was aired by a team of medical students led by Enrique Telémaco Susini in Buenos Aires' Teatro Coliseo.[372] By 2002 there were 260 AM and 1150 FM registered radio stations in the country.[373]

The Argentine television industry is large, diverse and popular across Latin America, with many productions and TV formats having been exported abroad. Since 1999 Argentines enjoy the highest availability of cable and satellite television in Latin America,[374] as of 2014 totaling 87.4% of the country's households, a rate similar to those in the United States, Canada and Europe.[375]

By 2011 Argentina also had the highest coverage of networked telecommunications among Latin American powers: about 67% of its population had internet access and the ratio of mobile phone subscriptions to population was 137.2%.[376][better source needed]

Cuisine

Table with a cut of Argentine beef, wine, sauces and spices
Argentine beef as asado

Besides many of the pasta, sausage and dessert dishes common to continental Europe, Argentines enjoy a wide variety of Indigenous and Criollo creations, including empanadas (a small stuffed pastry), locro (a mixture of corn, beans, meat, bacon, onion, and gourd), humita and mate.[377] In various localities of Argentina, this dish is consumed as a beefmelt.

The country has the highest consumption of red meat in the world,[378] traditionally prepared as asado, the Argentine barbecue. It is made with various types of meats, often including chorizo, sweetbread, chitterlings, and blood sausage.[379]

Common desserts include facturas (Viennese-style pastry), cakes and pancakes filled with dulce de leche (a sort of milk caramel jam), alfajores (shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate, dulce de leche or a fruit paste), and tortas fritas (fried cakes)[380]

Argentine wine, one of the world's finest,[381] is an integral part of the local menu. Malbec, Torrontés, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Chardonnay are some of the most sought-after varieties.[382]

Sport

Footballer Lionel Messi, eight-time Ballon d'Or winner, is the current captain of the Argentina national football team.

Pato is the national sport,[383] an ancient horseback game locally originated in the early 1600s and predecessor of horseball.[384][385]

The most popular sport is football. Along with Brazil, Germany and France, the men's national team is the only one to have won each of the World Cup (in 1978, 1986 and 2022), Confederations Cup, and the Olympic gold. They have also won 16 Copas América, 7 Pan American Gold Medals and many other trophies.[386] Alfredo Di Stéfano, Diego Maradona and Lionel Messi are widely considered to be among the best players in the game's history.[387]

The country's women's field hockey team Las Leonas, is one of the world's most successful with four Olympic medals, two World Cups, a World League and seven Champions Trophy.[388] Luciana Aymar is recognized as the best female player in the history of the sport,[389] being the only player to have received the FIH Player of the Year Award eight times.[390]

Basketball is a very popular sport. The men's national team is the only one in the FIBA Americas zone that has won the quintuplet crown: World Championship, Olympic Gold Medal, Diamond Ball, Americas Championship, and Pan American Gold Medal. It has also conquered 13 South American Championships, and many other tournaments.[391] Emanuel Ginóbili, Luis Scola, Andrés Nocioni, Fabricio Oberto, Pablo Prigioni, Carlos Delfino and Juan Ignacio Sánchez are a few of the country's most acclaimed players, all of them part of the NBA.[388] Argentina hosted the Basketball World Cup in 1950 and 1990.

Rugby is another popular sport in Argentina. As of 2017, the men's national team, known as 'Los Pumas' has competed at the Rugby World Cup each time it has been held, achieving their highest-ever result in 2007 when they came third. Since 2012, the Los Pumas have competed against Australia, New Zealand & South Africa in The Rugby Championship, the premier international Rugby competition in the Southern Hemisphere. Since 2009 the secondary men's national team known as the 'Jaguares' has competed against the US, Canada, and Uruguay first teams in the Americas Rugby Championship, which Los Jaguares have won six out of eight times it has taken place.

Argentine Polo Open Championship

Argentina has produced some of the most formidable champions for boxing, including Carlos Monzón, the best middleweight in history;[392] Pascual Pérez, one of the most decorated flyweight boxers of all times; Horacio Accavallo, the former WBA and WBC world flyweight champion; Víctor Galíndez, as of 2009, record holder for consecutive world light heavyweight title defenses and Nicolino Locche, nicknamed "The Untouchable" for his masterful defense; they are all inductees into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.[393]

Tennis has been quite popular among people of all ages. Guillermo Vilas is the greatest Latin American player of the Open Era,[394] while Gabriela Sabatini is the most accomplished Argentine female player of all time—having reached number 3 in the WTA ranking,[395] are both inductees into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.[396] Argentina has won the World Team Cup four times, in 1980, 2002, 2007 and 2010 and has reached the semifinals of the Davis Cup 7 times in the last 10 years, losing the finals against Russia in 2006 and Spain in 2008 and 2011; the Argentine team also played the final in 1981, where they lost against the United States. The national squad won the 2016 Davis Cup.

Argentina reigns undisputed in polo, having won more international championships than any other country and been seldom beaten since the 1930s.[397] The Argentine Polo Championship is the sport's most important international team trophy. The country is home to most of the world's top players, among them Adolfo Cambiaso, the best in Polo history.[398]

Historically, Argentina has had a strong showing within auto racing. Juan Manuel Fangio was a five-time Formula One world champion under four different teams, winning 102 of his 184 international races, and is widely ranked as the greatest driver of all time.[399] Other distinguished racers were Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Juan Gálvez, José Froilán González and Carlos Reutemann.[400]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Spanish pronunciation: [aɾxenˈtina]
  2. ^ [A] Spanish: República Argentina
  1. ^ a b Article 35 of the Argentine Constitution gives equal recognition to the names "United Provinces of the Río de la Plata", "Argentine Republic" and "Argentine Confederation" and using "Argentine Nation" in the making and enactment of laws.[1]
  2. ^ a b c Area does not include territorial claims in Antarctica (965,597 km2, including the South Orkney Islands), the Falkland Islands (11,410 km2), the South Georgia (3,560 km2) and the South Sandwich Islands (307 km2).[8]
  3. ^ The poem's full name is La Argentina y conquista del Río de la Plata, con otros acaecimientos de los reinos del Perú, Tucumán y estado del Brasil.
  4. ^ Also stated in article 35 of all subsequent amendments: 1866, 1898, 1949, 1957, 1972 and 1994 (current)
  5. ^ San Martín's military campaigns, together with those of Simón Bolívar in Gran Colombia, are collectively known as the Spanish American wars of independence.[55]
  6. ^ Citations discussing this include:[86][103][104][105]
  7. ^ The Full Stop and Due Obedience laws had been abrogated by Congress in 1998.[132]
  8. ^ Includes higher plants only: ferns and fern allies, conifers and cycads, and flowering plants.[163]
  9. ^ Includes only birds that breed in Argentina, not those that migrate or winter there.[163]
  10. ^ Excludes marine mammals.[163]
  11. ^ Since 2012 suffrage is optional for ages 16 and 17.[188]
  12. ^ Although not a province, the City of Buenos Aires is a federally autonomous city, and as such its local organization has similarities with provinces: it has its own constitution, an elected mayor and representatives to the Senate and Deputy chambers.[201] As federal capital of the nation it holds the status of federal district.
  13. ^ The other top developing nations being Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey.[228]
  14. ^ Though not declared official de jure, the Spanish language is the only one used in the wording of laws, decrees, resolutions, official documents and public acts.
  15. ^ Many elder people also speak a macaronic language of Italian and Spanish called cocoliche, which was originated by the Italian immigrants in the late 19th century.
  16. ^ It gave origin to a mixture of Spanish and German called Belgranodeutsch.
  17. ^ In practice this privileged status amounts to tax-exempt school subsidies and licensing preferences for radio broadcasting frequencies.[318]
  18. ^ a b Level duration depends on jurisdiction.
  19. ^ The post-graduate sub-level of higher education is usually paid.
  20. ^ The other top venues being Berlin's Konzerthaus, Vienna's Musikverein, Amsterdam's Concertgebouw and Boston's Symphony Hall.[361]

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