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Сексуальное домогательство

Воссоздание сцены, где мужчина совершает нежелательные сексуальные домогательства по отношению к женщине, кладя руку ей на бедро.

Сексуальные домогательства — это тип домогательств, включающий использование явного или неявного сексуального подтекста, включая нежелательные и неуместные обещания вознаграждений в обмен на сексуальные услуги. Сексуальные домогательства могут быть физическими и/или требовать или просить сексуальные услуги , делать сексуально окрашенные замечания, показывать порнографию и любое другое нежелательное физическое, вербальное или невербальное поведение сексуального характера. [1] Сексуальные домогательства включают в себя ряд действий от словесных проступков до сексуального насилия или нападения . [2] Домогательства могут происходить во многих различных социальных условиях, таких как рабочее место, дом, школа или религиозные учреждения. Домогатели или жертвы могут быть любого пола . [3]

В современных правовых контекстах сексуальные домогательства являются незаконными. Законы, касающиеся сексуальных домогательств, обычно не запрещают простые поддразнивания, небрежные комментарии или незначительные отдельные инциденты — это связано с тем, что они не навязывают «общий кодекс вежливости». [4] На рабочем месте домогательства могут считаться незаконными, если они часты или серьезны, тем самым создавая враждебную или оскорбительную рабочую среду, или когда они приводят к неблагоприятному решению о трудоустройстве (например, понижение в должности, увольнение или уход жертвы). Однако юридическое и социальное понимание сексуальных домогательств различается в зависимости от культуры.

Сексуальные домогательства со стороны работодателя являются формой незаконной дискриминации при трудоустройстве . Для многих предприятий или организаций предотвращение сексуальных домогательств и защита сотрудников от обвинений в сексуальных домогательствах стали ключевыми целями принятия юридических решений.

Этимология и история

Современное юридическое понимание сексуального домогательства впервые было разработано в 1970-х годах, хотя схожие концепции существовали во многих культурах.

Термин «сексуальные домогательства»

Активистке по правовым вопросам Кэтрин МакКиннон обычно приписывают создание законов, касающихся сексуальных домогательств в Соединенных Штатах, в ее книге 1979 года под названием « Сексуальные домогательства в отношении работающих женщин » . [5] Она использовала термин, который появился в отчете 1973 года о дискриминации под названием «Кольца Сатурна» Мэри Роу, доктора философии . [6] В то время Роу была специальным помощником президента и канцлером по делам женщин и труда в Массачусетском технологическом институте (MIT). [7] Благодаря ее усилиям в MIT университет стал одной из первых крупных организаций в США, разработавших конкретную политику и процедуры, направленные на прекращение сексуальных домогательств.

Роу говорит, что домогательства в отношении женщин на рабочем месте обсуждались в женских группах в Массачусетсе в начале 1970-х годов. В Корнеллском университете преподаватель Лин Фарли обнаружила, что женщины в дискуссионной группе неоднократно описывали увольнения или уход с работы из-за преследований и запугиваний со стороны мужчин. [8] Она и ее коллеги использовали термин «сексуальные домогательства», чтобы описать проблему и вызвать интерес к «Выскажитесь» в мае 1975 года. Позже она подробно описала сексуальные домогательства в 1975 году в показаниях перед Комиссией по правам человека города Нью-Йорка. [9] [10] В книге « В наше время: мемуары революции » (1999) журналистка Сьюзан Браунмиллер говорит, что женщины в Корнелле стали общественными активистками после того, как к ним обратилась за помощью Кармита Дикерсон Вуд , 44-летняя мать-одиночка, которая подвергалась преследованиям со стороны преподавателя кафедры ядерной физики Корнеллского университета. [11] [12] [13] Фарли написала книгу « Сексуальное вымогательство: сексуальные домогательства женщин на работе» , опубликованную издательством McGraw-Hill в 1978 году и в мягкой обложке издательством Warner Books в 1980 году. [8]

Эти активистки, Лин Фарли, Сьюзан Мейер и Карен Совин, впоследствии основали Working Women United , которая вместе с Alliance Against Sexual Coercion (основанным в 1976 году Фридой Кляйн , Линн Верли и Элизабет Кон-Стунц) была среди первых организаций, которые привлекли внимание общественности к проблеме сексуальных домогательств в конце 1970-х годов. Одна из первых юридических формулировок концепции сексуальных домогательств как соответствующих дискриминации по признаку пола и, следовательно, запрещенных в соответствии с разделом VII Закона о гражданских правах 1964 года появилась в основополагающей книге Кэтрин Маккиннон [5] 1979 года под названием «Сексуальные домогательства в отношении работающих женщин». [14]

Ключевые случаи

Сексуальные домогательства впервые были кодифицированы в законодательстве США в результате серии дел о сексуальных домогательствах в 1970-х и 1980-х годах. Многие из первых женщин, которые вели эти дела, были афроамериканками, часто бывшими активистками за гражданские права, которые применяли принципы гражданских прав к дискриминации по признаку пола. [15]

Williams v. Saxbe (1976) и Paulette L. Barnes, Appellant, v. Douglas M. Costle, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (1977) определили, что увольнение человека за отказ от авансов руководителя является дискриминацией по признаку пола. [15] [16] Примерно в то же время дело Bundy v. Jackson (1981) стало первым делом федерального апелляционного суда, постановившим, что сексуальные домогательства на рабочем месте являются дискриминацией при приеме на работу. [17] Пять лет спустя Верховный суд согласился с этим решением в деле Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson . Еще одним новаторским судебным делом было дело Alexander v. Yale (1980), в котором было установлено, что сексуальные домогательства в отношении студенток могут считаться дискриминацией по признаку пола в соответствии с Разделом IX и, таким образом, являются незаконными. Первый коллективный иск, Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite Co. , был подан в 1988 году (завершился девять лет спустя).

Ситуации

Сексуальные домогательства могут происходить при различных обстоятельствах и в самых разных местах, таких как фабрики, школы, колледжи, театры и музыкальные заведения. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Часто преступник имеет или собирается иметь власть или авторитет над жертвой (из-за различий в социальных, политических, образовательных или трудовых отношениях, а также в возрасте). Отношения домогательства определяются многими способами:

С появлением Интернета социальное взаимодействие, включая сексуальные домогательства, все чаще происходит в сети, например, в видеоиграх или в чатах.

Согласно статистике исследования PEW за 2014 год по онлайн-преследованиям, 25% женщин и 13% мужчин в возрасте от 18 до 24 лет подвергались сексуальным домогательствам в Интернете. [26]

На рабочем месте в Соединенных Штатах

Комиссия по равным возможностям трудоустройства США (EEOC) определяет сексуальное домогательство на рабочем месте как «нежелательные сексуальные домогательства, просьбы о сексуальных услугах и другое словесное или физическое поведение сексуального характера... когда это поведение явно или неявно влияет на занятость человека, необоснованно мешает производительности труда человека или создает запугивающую, враждебную или оскорбительную рабочую среду». [27] «Оспариваемое поведение должно быть нежелательным в том смысле, что сотрудник не подстрекал и не провоцировал его, и в том смысле, что сотрудник считал такое поведение нежелательным или оскорбительным». [28] «В частности, когда у предполагаемого домогателя могут быть какие-то основания (например, предыдущие отношения по обоюдному согласию) полагать, что домогательства будут приветствоваться, жертве важно сообщить, что такое поведение нежелательно». [28]

На рабочих местах в США 79% жертв сексуальных домогательств составляют женщины, а 21% — мужчины. Из этого числа 51% подверглись домогательствам со стороны руководителя. [ требуется ссылка ] Согласно данным EEOC, в период с 2005 по 2015 год наибольшее количество сообщений о сексуальных домогательствах поступило в ресторанный и гостиничный бизнес, здравоохранение, академические учреждения и армию. [29] Двенадцать процентов жертв получили угрозы увольнения, если не выполнят просьбу своих хищников. [ требуется ссылка ]

Значок «Я верю Аните Хилл» в поддержку показаний Аниты Хилл в 1991 году в Судебном комитете Сената , где она обвинила кандидата в Верховный суд США Кларенса Томаса в сексуальных домогательствах.

В 1991 году Анита Хилл была свидетелем и дала показания в Сенатском судебном комитете против кандидата в Верховный суд США Кларенса Томаса , сославшись на сексуальные домогательства. [30] 11 октября 1991 года на телевизионных слушаниях Хилл заявила, что Томас сексуально домогался ее, когда был ее руководителем в Департаменте образования и EEOC . [31] По словам Хилл, Томас много раз приглашал ее на свидание в течение двух лет ее работы в качестве его помощницы, [32] и после того, как она отклонила его просьбы, он использовал рабочие ситуации для обсуждения сексуальных тем и продвижения авансов. [33] [32] С тех пор, как Хилл дал показания в 1991 году, термин «сексуальные домогательства» стал известен за пределами академических и юридических кругов, и число случаев, зарегистрированных в Соединенных Штатах и ​​Канаде, заметно возросло, неуклонно увеличиваясь с тех пор. [30] Сексуальные домогательства много обсуждаются в современном обществе. Люди все больше и больше беспокоятся о законах о сексуальных домогательствах в этой стране. Многие школьные группы фокусируются на этом вопросе. [34]

В 1994 году Пола Джонс, госслужащая и бывшая госслужащая Арканзаса, подала в суд на президента Билла Клинтона за сексуальные домогательства. В первоначальном иске Джонс обвинила Клинтона в сексуальных домогательствах в отеле в 1991 году. После серии гражданских исков и апелляций дело было урегулировано в 1998 году. Президент Клинтон достиг внесудебного урегулирования с Джонс, согласившись выплатить ей 850 000 долларов, но не признав никаких правонарушений. [35]

Сексуальный подкуп

Сексуальная взятка — это подстрекательство к сексу, любой сексуальной активности или иному поведению, связанному с сексом, за обещание повышения статуса на работе или оплаты. Это происходит в условиях занятости, когда сексуальные отношения с работодателем или начальником являются явным или подразумеваемым условием для получения/сохранения работы или ее преимуществ. Сексуальная взятка может быть как явной, так и скрытой, но подпадает под тип сексуального домогательства quid pro quo . [36] [37]

Девушка смотрит

Наблюдение за девушками считается игрой среди мужчин, в которой они сексуально оценивают женщин. Эта игра является формой сексуального домогательства, которая очень распространена на рабочем месте. [38] Эта игра, как и другие формы сексуального домогательства, не является действиями человека вне нормы, а скорее тех, кто в ней находится. [39] Анализ опросов о сексуальных домогательствах, проведенный Айлисом, показал, что когда вопрос о сексуальных домогательствах был сформулирован как «подвергались ли женщины когда-либо сексуальным домогательствам», то частота ответов женщин составляла 24%, тогда как если женщин спрашивали «подвергались ли они сексуальному домогательству», то частота составляла 58%. [40]

Бет Куинн (2002), автор книги «Сексуальные домогательства и мужественность: сила и значение «наблюдения за девушками » », изначально не занималась исследованием наблюдения за девушками, когда наткнулась на игру, однако Куинн (2002) заявила, что ее работа была скорее исследовательской, чем подтверждающей, объясняя, почему она продолжила изучать идею наблюдения за девушками. [38] Сначала Куинн исследовала разницу между тем, что женщины и мужчины считают сексуальным домогательством. Именно в ходе интервью (43), которые она провела, она заметила возникновение игры в своих интервью с мужчинами. Помимо интервью Куинн (2002) наблюдала за участниками своих интервью и собрала больше информации об игре с помощью указанных наблюдений. Она узнала, что мужчины, обычно находясь в группе, будут наблюдать за женщинами вокруг себя и делать замечания в их адрес. [38]

Куинн (2002) обнаружил, что мужчины не видят в этом никаких проблем и просто думают об этом как об игре, которая не причиняет вреда женщинам. По словам Куинна, мужчины способны оправдать сексуальные домогательства, если они не воспринимаются ими как таковые; мужчины видят в этом «игру» или «игру». [41] [42] Мужчины также используют юмор, чтобы сексуально домогаться женщин. С помощью юмора мужчины могут делать грубые замечания, и если их поймают, они могут заявить, что это была всего лишь шутка и что женщинам нужно расслабиться. Это приводит к продолжению сексуальных домогательств в отношении женщин. [43] Благодаря таким примерам мужчины сексуально домогаются женщин или поощряются их ухаживания, что в свою очередь заставляет женщин вежливо отвергать мужчин, что приводит только к большему количеству сексуальных ухаживаний со стороны мужчин. [44] [42] Попросив мужчин представить себя женщинами, Куинн (2002) непреднамеренно раскрыли вред, который это наносит женщинам. Мужчины начали утверждать, что они будут одеваться соответствующим образом и таким образом, чтобы не привлекать внимание других мужчин, чтобы не стать мишенью. Именно эта информация раскрыла вред, который Girl Watching наносит женщинам. [45] Куинн продолжала узнавать больше о чувствах мужчин к игре и ее влиянии на женщин из своих интервью. Куинн узнала, что это было весело для мужчин, пока их не поймали. Если женщина смотрела в сторону группы, которая наблюдала за ней во время их высказываний, или говорила им что-то, это делало ситуацию неловкой и больше не было веселой игрой, в которую они играли. Это потому, что мужчины смотрели на женщин как на объекты, и как только женщины замечали их или их ловили, они становились субъектом возражений, разрушая их игру, потому что она больше не была объектом для их удовольствия. [45] Женщины рассматриваются как объекты, без чувств или мыслей, а не как субъекты. [46]

Это сексуальное домогательство происходит не только из-за влечения мужчин к женщинам, но скорее как способ власти. Подобно большинству случаев сексуальных домогательств, мужчины склонны преследовать как способ удержать власть. [47] Когда мужчины чувствуют угрозу, они прибегают к сексуальным домогательствам как способ сохранить свою власть. Мужчины также прибегают к домогательствам как способ сохранить свою мужественность, особенно когда они чувствуют, что ей что-то угрожает. [44] [48] Когда некоторые мужчины чувствуют, что их мужественность или их гендер находятся под угрозой, они могут прибегать к сексуальным домогательствам как к средству укрепления своего доминирования и подтверждения своей идентичности. Наряду с этим, когда мужчины чувствуют угрозу, вероятность их участия в сексуальном домогательстве увеличивается. [47] Существует неравный баланс сил между мужчинами и женщинами, и это является результатом сексуальных домогательств. Этот неравный баланс сил частично коренится в сексуальных домогательствах мужчин к женщинам с целью увековечения власти последних. [39]

В армии

Исследования сексуальных домогательств показали, что они значительно более распространены в армии, чем в гражданской обстановке. [49] [ нужна страница ] [50] В 2018 году, по оценкам, 20 500 человек в вооруженных силах США (около 13 000 женщин и 7 500 мужчин) подверглись нападению, по сравнению с 14 900 в 2016 году. [51] Канадское исследование показало, что основными факторами риска, связанными с военной обстановкой, являются типично молодой возраст личного состава, «изолированный и интегрированный» характер размещения, статус меньшинства женщин и непропорционально большое количество мужчин на руководящих должностях. [52] Традиционно мужские ценности и поведение, которые вознаграждаются и укрепляются в военной обстановке, а также их акцент на конформизме и послушании, также, как полагают, играют свою роль. [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] Канадские исследования также показали, что риск увеличивается во время развертывания в военных операциях . [58]

Хотя некоторые военнослужащие-мужчины подвергаются сексуальным домогательствам, женщины гораздо чаще подвергаются этому. [49] [58] [59] [60] Женщины, которые моложе и вступили в армию в более молодом возрасте, подвергаются большему риску, согласно американским, британским и французским исследованиям. [61] [62] [63]

Дети-новобранцы (до 18 лет) и дети в кадетских войсках также подвергаются повышенному риску. Например, в Великобритании с 2012 года были зарегистрированы сотни жалоб на сексуальное насилие над кадетами. [64] [65] [66] В Канаде каждая десятая жалоба на сексуальное насилие в военных условиях поступает от детей-кадетов или их родителей. [64] [65] [66] [67] [68]

Лица, задержанные военными, также уязвимы для сексуальных домогательств. Во время войны в Ираке , например, персонал армии США и Центрального разведывательного управления США совершил ряд нарушений прав человека в отношении задержанных в тюрьме Абу-Грейб , [69] включая изнасилование , содомию и другие формы сексуального насилия. [70] [71] [72]

Хотя риск сексуального насилия в вооруженных силах широко признан, военнослужащие часто неохотно сообщают об инцидентах, как правило, из-за страха репрессий, согласно исследованиям, проведенным в Австралии, Канаде, Франции, Великобритании и США. [49] [57] [59] [62] [63] [73] [74]

Женщины, подвергшиеся сексуальным домогательствам, чаще других женщин впоследствии страдают от психических заболеваний , связанных со стрессом . [52] Исследования, проведенные в США, показали, что когда сексуальное насилие над женщинами-военнослужащими является психически травмирующим , вероятность страдать от посттравматического стрессового расстройства (ПТСР) после развертывания на операциях увеличивается в девять раз. [50]

Измерение

Несмотря на распространенность сексуальных домогательств как глобальной проблемы, в исследованиях по их измерению сохраняется большой пробел. Потребность в надежном и надежном методе измерения для изучения и выражения частоты сексуальных домогательств выше, чем когда-либо. Важно иметь обоснованные результаты опросов и других методов, чтобы узнать, как обучать, лечить и предотвращать возникновение сексуальных домогательств. Предоставление эмпирических данных о сексуальных домогательствах подтверждает их статус как широко распространенной проблемы, а не проблемы отдельного человека. [ editorializing ]

Дизайн исследования

Методы отбора проб

Методы выборки важны для всех типов исследований. Выборка имеет значение, поскольку она влияет на обобщаемость результатов и на то, как их можно использовать для лучшего понимания сексуальных домогательств. [ editorializing ] Два метода выборки включают вероятностную выборку и невероятностную выборку, которые оба обеспечивают разные сильные и слабые стороны исследования. [75]

Вероятностная выборка подразумевает взятие выборки из подмножества населения с использованием случайного отбора. Случайный отбор, используемый в вероятностной выборке, является ключом к тому, чтобы сделать результаты обобщаемыми для изучаемой популяции, что делает его более используемым, чем другие неслучайные методы. [75] Хотя использование вероятностной выборки имеет свои преимущества, данные могут быть нерепрезентативными или обобщаемыми, поскольку исследование ограничено определенными контекстами/средами. Выборка только людей в определенной среде делает результаты применимыми только к этой среде. Например, результаты исследования сексуальных домогательств, проведенного в офисном помещении в Китае, не могут применяться к случаям сексуальных домогательств в американском университете. [75] Аналогично, если используемая выборка слишком мала, ее нельзя применять и обобщать для большей популяции.

Несмотря на потенциальную предвзятость, детерминированная выборка может использоваться в случаях, когда исследование не имеет финансирования или количество участников, доступных для выборки, невелико. [75] Отбор участников при детерминированной выборке не является случайным и часто является наиболее удобным. Многие из ранних исследований сексуальных домогательств, такие как опрос Working Women's Institute (1975) и Redbook Survey, опирались на выборку по согласию/детерминированности для проведения своих исследований. [75] Выборка часто проводилась на съездах, встречах или рассылалась в письмах или журналах. [ необходима ссылка ]

Важность формулировки

В каждом исследовании, используемом для измерения сексуальных домогательств, формулировка вопросов, вступлений, определений и других частей опроса или интервью может повлиять на ответы. Язык может использоваться многими способами, чтобы получить определенные ответы от участников. [ необходима цитата ]

Работа, проделанная психологом Мэри Косс, описывает проблему в формулировках, используемых для вопросов участникам о сексуальном насилии, и как это может повлиять на результаты и предположение о распространенности. [42] Косс объяснила, что проблема с другими методами оценки заключается в том, что распространенность сексуального насилия была искажена, поскольку убеждения опрашиваемых людей заключались в том, что несогласованный гетеросексуальный секс был нормативным. [42] Многие социологи считают, что гетеросексуальные отношения часто включают несогласованный секс, который был нормализован из-за ролей, которые мужчины и женщины играют в обществе. Мужчины доминируют и агрессивны, а женщины подчиняются их домогательствам. Эта нормальность вокруг несогласованного гетеросексуального секса приводит к распространению мифов об изнасиловании и искажению распространенности изнасилования в обществе. [42] Чтобы бороться с этой предвзятостью, Косс создала новый инструмент, использовавший нейтральные формулировки в своих вопросах, чтобы глубже изучить их опыт несогласованного секса. [42] Она сосредоточилась на студентках колледжа и обнаружила, что распространенность изнасилования была намного выше, чем сообщалось. Работа Косс продемонстрировала важность формулировок в опросах, и ее работа привлекла много внимания, как положительного, так и отрицательного. [42]

История

Методы измерения прошлого опирались на простые контрольные списки того, что считалось сексуальным домогательством, но им не хватало надежности и обоснованности, что делало результаты недействительными и не подлежащими обобщению. [76] Эти методы прошлого оставляли без ответа много вопросов о том, как лучше всего измерить сексуальные домогательства. [ необходима цитата ]

Первая попытка создания способа классификации и измерения сексуальных домогательств была предпринята в 1980 году. До того, как появилась правовая база, которой нужно было следовать, Тилл (1980) создал систему, основанную на выборке студенток колледжа, которая классифицировала различные виды сексуального домогательства по пяти категориям: гендерное домогательство, соблазнительное поведение, сексуальный подкуп, сексуальное принуждение, сексуальное навязывание или нападение. [76]

Позже в 1992 году Грубер создал еще одну систему классификации, которая включала 11 конкретных типов домогательств, организованных в три категории в порядке убывания серьезности. Эти три категории: словесные просьбы, словесные замечания, невербальные проявления. [76]

Ранние исследования

В этих ранних исследованиях отсутствовали научные методы выборки, но они ясно продемонстрировали распространенность сексуальных домогательств и были приведены для доказательства важности сексуальных домогательств как социальной проблемы. [77]

Профсоюз трудящихся женщин (WWU)

Working Women's United (WWU) провела одно из первых исследований по измерению сексуальных домогательств. Опрос проводился во время публичного мероприятия, призванного спросить женщин об их опыте сексуальных домогательств. 155 женщин ответили на опрос, и 7 из 10 подверглись сексуальным домогательствам. Профессии респондентов варьировались от учителей до рабочих на фабриках. Это помогло им сделать вывод, что сексуальные домогательства происходят на всех рабочих местах. Хотя этот опрос не был научным, он был первым в своем роде и вдохновил многие другие организации и исследователей провести собственные исследования. [77]

Рабочие офисные работники (WOW)

В 1975 году организация Women Office Workers (WOW) провела опрос среди 15 000 женщин, в ходе которого они выясняли свой опыт и чувства на рабочем месте, включая распространенность сексуальных домогательств. 1/3 респондентов сообщили, что подвергались «прямым сексуальным домогательствам». [77]

Обзор Redbook

В 1975 году был создан опрос Redbook, который использовался для опроса женщин на военно-морской базе об их опыте сексуальных домогательств. Опрос был включен в выпуск журнала Redbook, в котором были собраны данные 9000 респондентов. 81% респондентов сообщили, что подвергались сексуальным домогательствам. Затем этот опрос снова использовался в других условиях для проверки распространенности сексуальных домогательств, что доказало его высокую внешнюю валидность. [77]

Совет по защите системы заслуг США (USMSPB)

С 1981 по 1987 год Совет по защите системы заслуг США (USMSPB) создал еще одну систему классификации и метод сбора данных. [76] Управление по обзору и исследованиям систем заслуг (MSPBs) создало этот научный опрос для измерения сексуальных домогательств на федеральном рабочем месте в ответ на многочисленные вопросы, которые люди задавали по поводу сексуальных домогательств на рабочем месте. Опрос был создан после обзора прошлых исследований, случаев сексуальных домогательств и работы с членами сообщества, академическими исследователями и федеральными чиновниками. [78] После доработок и тестирования был создан окончательный опрос. Они протестировали опрос на стратифицированной случайной выборке из сотрудников исполнительной власти разных полов, меньшинств, зарплат и организаций. [78] Опрос проводился с мая 1978 года по май 1980 года. В этой модели семь видов домогательства были классифицированы по трем уровням тяжести: менее тяжкий, умеренно тяжкий и наиболее тяжкий. [76] Примерами этих уровней были: менее суровые: нежелательные сексуальные замечания, двусмысленные взгляды и жесты, а также преднамеренные прикосновения, умеренно суровые: давление с целью свиданий, давление с целью получения сексуальных услуг и нежелательные письма и телефонные звонки, и наиболее суровые: фактическое или предпринятое изнасилование или сексуальное насилие. [78] Этот метод сбора данных требует от участников указать, испытывали ли они описанное поведение. Они обнаружили, что 42% женщин и 15% мужчин подвергались и сообщали о сексуальных домогательствах на рабочем месте. [78] Они также получили более подробную информацию о том, кто с большей вероятностью сообщал/подвергался сексуальным домогательствам и какие типы домогательств имели место. Они также наблюдали последствия домогательств, которые в основном сообщались как уход жертв с работы. В целом, пришел к выводу, что домогательства широко распространены, имеют негативные последствия и влияют на самых разных жертв. Этот метод подвергся критике, поскольку он игнорирует необходимость надежности и обоснованности своих мер. [78]

Единый отчет о преступлениях (UCR)

Единый отчет о преступлениях (UCR) послужил основой для получения статистики о распространенности изнасилований в отношении женщин в 1980-х годах. [79] Хотя этот опрос был полезен, его часто критиковали за недооценку истинной распространенности изнасилований. Критики утверждали, что одной из главных проблем UCR было то, что он полагался на зарегистрированные преступления для своих отчетов о распространенности, но многие изнасилования не регистрируются или обрабатываются неправильно, что искажает данные. [79]

Опросник сексуального опыта (SEQ)

Разработанный Фицджеральдом и соавторами в 1988 году опросник по сексуальному опыту (SEQ) был первой попыткой изучить распространенность сексуальных домогательств научным способом. [76] В опроснике SEQ использовалась самоотчетность, и участникам требовалось дать ответ, который, по их мнению, лучше всего описывал их опыт. Они выбирали из трех вариантов по шкале измерения: никогда, один раз и более одного раза. [76] Сценарии были перечислены только в терминах поведения, и они не использовали слово «сексуальное домогательство» до самого конца, чтобы избежать смешивающих переменных самомаркировки. В результате опроса были получены частоты и проценты, используемые в статистическом анализе. Тест был повторно протестирован несколько раз и дал надежные и достоверные результаты. SEQ очень широко используется в различных средах и культурах. SEQ часто упоминается как лучший доступный инструмент измерения. Вот примеры вопросов: Вы когда-нибудь оказывались в ситуации, когда руководитель или коллега по работе постоянно рассказывали непристойные истории или оскорбительные шутки?. [76] Несмотря на высокую оценку SEQ, есть также несколько критических замечаний по поводу его дизайна. Например, формулировка вопросов приводит к искаженным ответам, а метод подсчета баллов может производить только частотные распределения. [76]

SEQ-W (1995)

Фицджеральд и др. (1995) создали и протестировали SEQ-W, обновленную версию SEQ, учитывая критику. Их структура состоит из трех измерений: сексуальное принуждение, нежелательное сексуальное внимание и гендерные домогательства. [76] Они определили гендерные домогательства как поведение, как вербальное, так и невербальное, которое проецирует/выражает жестокие и оскорбительные чувства по отношению к женщинам. Примерами этого являются жесты, насмешки, издевательства, угрозы, сексуальные оскорбления и т. д. Гендерные домогательства являются наиболее распространенной формой домогательств, но обычно игнорируются, поскольку не рассматриваются как такая большая проблема, как другие формы сексуальных домогательств. Сексуальное принуждение включает обмен сексуальными актами/услугами на связанные с работой преимущества (quid pro quo). Эта модель была протестирована на разных выборках женщин из разных профессий, уровней образования и культур. После тестирования было обнаружено, что модель структурно действительна в разных условиях и культурах. Модель была признана надежной, эффективной, валидной и практичной. [76]

Исследование сексуального опыта (SES)

В попытке выйти за рамки прошлых методов и создать более точное представление о случаях изнасилования и других сексуальных виктимизаций, Косс и коллеги разработали новый инструмент измерения, названный Исследованием сексуального опыта (SES). [79] SES включал юридическое определение изнасилования, учитывал другие случаи сексуального домогательства/нападения и использовал графический язык и «поведенчески специфичные» вопросы, чтобы побудить жертв вспомнить. [79]

SES и его первое тестирование вызвали значительное увеличение исследований, проведенных по изнасилованию. Несмотря на свои сильные стороны, SES критиковали за использование широких и «плохо сформулированных» определений и вопросов. [79] Они утверждали, что используемый язык заставил женщин сообщать, что они подверглись форме сексуальных домогательств, но не были изнасилованы. Эти критики пришли к выводу, что SES переоценивает изнасилование. [79]

В 1992 году SES претерпела изменения и получила новое название. Теперь называемое Национальным исследованием жертв преступлений (NCVS) было основано на критике прошлого исследования и создало совершенно новый методологический инструмент. [79]

Общенациональное исследование жертв преступлений (NCVS)

Национальное исследование жертв преступлений (NCVS) ежегодно проводит исследования и сообщает информацию о различных типах уголовных преступлений, таких как грабежи, кражи, квартирные кражи и сексуальные преступления [80]. NCVS проводится с 1973 года и использует те же методы, что и при его создании, что делает его единственным источником для сравнения распространенности сексуальных домогательств с течением времени. [80]

Чтобы расследовать это утверждение о недооценке изнасилований, Национальный исследовательский совет созвал комиссию для рассмотрения и выявления ошибок в NCVS. [80] Вывод этой комиссии состоял в том, что в NCVS было несколько методологических проблем, которые привели к этой недооценке изнасилований и сексуальных нападений. [80]

Одной из главных проблем NCVS было использование языка, который фокусировался на преступности и виктимизации, что заставляло респондентов отвечать по-разному. Независимо от того, хотели ли респонденты называть свой опыт изнасилованием или боялись, что их преступник будет наказан, использование языка приводило к неточным результатам. [80] Кроме того, NCVS не защищает конфиденциальность своих участников. Интервьюер должен задать один из вопросов всем в возрасте 12 лет и старше в определенном доме. Это приводит к тому, что все опрошенные в этой области знают об участии других и о том, какие вопросы всем задаются. [80] Этот риск отсутствия конфиденциальности может привести к тому, что респонденты не будут отвечать честно или отвечать социально желательным образом. Наконец, NCVS имеет ограниченные определения изнасилования, что приводит к путанице и двусмысленности. [80]

Опросы о сексуальных домогательствах в колледжах

Национальный опрос колледжей о сексуальной виктимизации женщин (NCVS) и Национальный опрос о насилии в отношении женщин (NVAW)

Два широко используемых опроса, NCVS и NVAW, можно сравнить, чтобы изучить сильные и слабые стороны каждого и то, как это влияет на их результаты. Выборка, использованная для Национального опроса о сексуальной виктимизации женщин в колледжах, была составлена ​​из 233 высших учебных заведений (194 четырехгодичных и 39 двухгодичных) в Соединенных Штатах с 1000 студентов или более. [79] Использованный метод выборки был методом стратифицированной выборки для выбора учреждений, а затем была сделана случайная выборка студентов. Размер выборки, принявшей участие в опросе, составил 4446 студентов. Национальный опрос о насилии в отношении женщин использовал тот же метод выборки, но имел немного иные числа выборок. Название опросов и описание опроса были разными. [79] NCVS назвал свой опрос «Масштаб и характер сексуальной виктимизации женщин в колледжах», а NVAW назвал его «Виктимизация среди женщин в колледжах». [79]

Методы, которые использовались, также были похожи, например, оба опроса проводились профессионально подготовленными женщинами-интервьюерами. Интервью проводились с использованием компьютерной системы телефонного интервьюирования (CATI). [79] Среднее время интервью было больше для NCVS, чем для NVAW (25,9 минут против 12,7 минут). [79] У них обоих были схожие показатели отклика, но у NVAW был более высокий показатель отклика - 91,6% по сравнению с показателем NCVS - 85,6%. [79]

В опросах давали одинаковое введение к интервью с одинаковой формулировкой:

«Как вы помните, цель исследования — лучше понять масштабы и характер преступной виктимизации среди студенток колледжей. Независимо от того, подвергались ли вы когда-либо лично виктимизации, ваши ответы помогут нам понять и решить проблему виктимизации в вашем кампусе и на национальном уровне. [79] »

В двух исследованиях использовались разные определения завершенного изнасилования, попытки изнасилования и угрозы изнасилования. NCVS использовал более широкое определение завершенного изнасилования, которое включало другие случаи, помимо пенильного вагинального проникновения, тогда как NVAW использовал более объективное и узкое определение. [79] Попытка изнасилования и угроза изнасилования были определены NVAW более широко и включали элемент психологического принуждения как элемент силы. [79]

В ходе двух опросов женщины сначала отвечали на вопросы анкеты, чтобы определить, подвергались ли они насилию, а затем, если подвергались, заполняли отчет об инциденте, чтобы определить характер насилий. [79]

Оценки изнасилований были статистически ниже в исследовании NVAW, чем оценки NSCVS. [79] Разница в оценках обусловлена ​​использованием широкого определения и поведенчески-специфических вопросов, используемых в NSCVS. [ необходима цитата ]

Различия в этих методах демонстрируют важные последствия методов измерения, такие как важность формулировки вопросов и языка, используемого при знакомстве или интервью, поскольку это может повлиять на ответы. [ необходима ссылка ]

Национальный опрос о сексуальной виктимизации женщин в колледжах (NCWSV)

В ходе эксперимента Бонни Фишер и коллеги (1996) создали NCWSV, чтобы сравнить формулировки вопросов и увидеть, как результаты NCVS будут сравниваться с NCWSV. Вопросы NCWSV включали вопросы, связанные с поведением, а не вопросы, сосредоточенные на запутанной терминологии, которая не была четко определена. В частности, NCVS не спрашивает об изнасиловании, произошедшем в состоянии недееспособности (из-за наркотиков или алкоголя). Результаты этого исследования были шокирующими, поскольку они обнаружили, что формулировки, используемые в NCVS, охватывали менее 10% случаев изнасилования, которые охватывал NCWSV. Эти результаты приводят к предположениям о том, что NCVS необходимо переработать или создать новый опрос для точного измерения сексуального насилия. [ необходима цитата ]

Онлайн-опрос о социальной жизни колледжа (OCSLS)

Онлайн-опрос о социальной жизни колледжей, который использовался с 2005 по 2011 год, задавал вопросы о недееспособности и попытках изнасилования. Респондентам было предложено ответить на следующие вопросы: «С тех пор, как вы поступили в колледж, кто-то пытался физически принудить вас к половому акту, но вы вышли из ситуации, не вступив в половую связь?» и «С тех пор, как вы поступили в колледж, кто-то вступал с вами в половую связь, которую вы не хотели, когда вы были пьяны, без сознания, спали, находились под действием наркотиков или иным образом были недееспособны?». [80] Этот опрос привел к небольшим оценкам изнасилований. Причина этой недооценки заключается в том, что они не задавали вопросов, которые включали бы нежелательные прикосновения/захваты или психологическое принуждение. [80] Другие опросы колледжей, такие как опрос о сексуальном насилии в кампусе (CSA), созданный в 2007 году, имели ограниченные выборки, охватывая только несколько университетов, что делает данные неприменимыми к большинству женского населения колледжей. [80]

Самомаркировка, кластер латентного класса (LCC) и поведенческий опыт

A study done by Nielsen et al. (2010), tested three different estimation/measurement methods to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of different methods of measurement.[81] Current research methods are often criticized for having faulty research design that impacts the validity of the results. The results are often biased due to variations in the operational definitions and the lack of representative samples. The article expresses the importance of accurate measurement methods because the conclusions taken from these studies are used to make judgements for prevention and treatment of sexual harassment. The three methods of surveying tested were Self labeling, Latent Class Cluster (LCC) modeling and behavioral experiences.[81]

Bergen Sexual Harassment Scale (BSHS)

The Bergen Sexual Harassment Scale (BSHS) consists of two parts. The first part measures exposure to sexual harassment by asking participants to respond to 11 items categorized into different types of sexual harassment: unwanted verbal sexual attention, unwanted physical sexual behaviors, and sexual pressure.[81] The second part asks participants to indicate if they believe they had been exposed to sexual harassment at work in the time. They answered it with (no, yes to a certain extent, or yes to a large extent). They were not given a definition of sexual harassment when doing part two.[81]

Computer Based Interaction Model

A new measure created by Maass and colleagues using a computer-based model that measures gender harassment through behavior. Male participants are told they are interacting with a female partner through the computer.[82] They want to see if the participants will send harassing content/messages to the partner (computer). They found that men were more likely to harass their partner if the partner threatened the males standing in gender hierarchy/masculinity (example: partner identifies as feminist). This article presents an alternative measure than other studies.[82] This article forces the male participants to imagine themselves in scenarios and answer on what behavior they would most likely do. They were attempting to determine if men were more likely to harass a female coworker if that coworker was threatening their masculinity.[82]

Varied behaviors

One of the difficulties in understanding sexual harassment is that it involves a range of behaviors. In most cases (although not in all cases) it is difficult for the victim to describe what they experienced. This can be related to difficulty classifying the situation or could be related to stress and humiliation experienced by the recipient. Moreover, behavior and motives vary between individual cases.[83]

Author Martha Langelan describes four different classes of harassers.[84]

Prevention

Poster created by the U.S. Army's Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention (SHARP)

Sexual harassment and assault may be prevented by secondary school,[86] college,[87][88] and workplace education programs.[89] At least one program for fraternity men produced "sustained behavioral change".[87][90]

Many sororities and fraternities in the United States take preventive measures against hazing and hazing activities during the participants' pledging processes (which may often include sexual harassment). Many Greek organizations and universities nationwide have anti-hazing policies that explicitly recognize various acts and examples of hazing, and offer preventive measures for such situations.[91][full citation needed]

Anti-sexual harassment training programs have little evidence of effectiveness and "Some studies suggest that training may in fact backfire, reinforcing gendered stereotypes that place women at a disadvantage".[92]

The use of audio and video recording can help in preventing sexual harassment in the workplace.[93] Audio recording apps are available for use on smartphones, and can for instance be used during job interviews.

Impact

The impact of sexual harassment can vary. In research carried out by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency, 17,335 female victims of sexual assault were asked to name the feelings that resulted from the most serious incident of sexual assault that they had encountered since the age of 15. 'Anger, annoyance, and embarrassment were the most common emotional responses, with 45% of women feeling anger, 41% annoyance, and 36% embarrassment. Furthermore, close to one in three women (29%) who has experienced sexual harassment have said that they felt fearful as a result of the most serious incident, while one in five (20%) victims say that the most serious incident made themselves feel ashamed of what had taken place.[94] In other situations, harassment may lead to temporary or prolonged stress or depression depending on the recipient's psychological abilities to cope and the type of harassment and the social support or lack thereof for the recipient. Harnois and Bastos (2018) show an association between women's perceptions of workplace sexual harassment and self-reported physical health.[95] In addition, a study conducted in 2010 indicated that workplace sexual harassment is linked to greater mental health issues and lower job satisfaction, regardless of assessment technique or gender.[81] Psychologists and social workers report that severe or chronic sexual harassment can have the same psychological effects as rape or sexual assault.[96] For example, in 1995, Judith Coflin committed suicide after chronic sexual harassment by her bosses and coworkers. (Her family was later awarded six million dollars in punitive and compensatory damages.)[citation needed] Victims who do not submit to harassment may also experience various forms of retaliation, including isolation and bullying.

As an overall social and economic effect every year, sexual harassment deprives women from active social and economic participation and costs hundreds of millions of dollars in lost educational and professional opportunities for mostly girls and women.[97] However, the quantity of men implied in these conflicts is significant.

Coping

Sexual harassment, by definition, is unwanted and not to be tolerated. There are ways, however, for offended and injured people to overcome the resultant psychological effects, remain in or return to society, regain healthy feelings within personal relationships when they were affected by the outside relationship trauma, regain social approval, and recover the ability to concentrate and be productive in educational and work environments. These include stress management and therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy,[98] friends and family support, and advocacy.[99][100]

Immediate psychological and legal counseling are recommended since self-treatment may not release stress or remove trauma, and simply reporting to authorities may not have the desired effect, may be ignored, or may further injure the victim at its response.

A 1991 study done by K.R. Yount found three dominant strategies developed by a sample of women coal miners to manage sexual harassment on the job: the "lady", the "flirt", and the "tomboy". The "ladies" were typically the older women workers who tended to disengage from the men, kept their distance, avoided using profanity, avoided engaging in any behavior that might be interpreted as suggestive. They also tended to emphasize by their appearance and manners that they were ladies. The consequences for the "ladies" were that they were the targets of the least amount of come-ons, teasing and sexual harassment, but they also accepted the least prestigious and lowest-paid jobs.[101]

The "flirts" were most often the younger single women. As a defense mechanism, they pretended to be flattered when they were the targets of sexual comments. Consequently, they became perceived as the "embodiment of the female stereotype,... as particularly lacking in potential and were given the fewest opportunities to develop job skills and to establish social and self-identities as miners."[102][page needed]

The "tomboys" were generally single women, but were older than the "flirts". They attempted to separate themselves from the female stereotype and focused on their status as coal miners and tried to develop a "thick skin". They responded to harassment with humor, comebacks, sexual talk of their own, or reciprocation. As a result, they were often viewed as sluts or sexually promiscuous and as women who violated the sexual double standard. Consequently, they were subjected to intensified and increased harassment by some men. It was not clear whether the tomboy strategy resulted in better or worse job assignments.[101]

The findings of this study may be applicable to other work settings, including factories, restaurants, offices, and universities. The study concludes that individual strategies for coping with sexual harassment are not likely to be effective and may have unexpected negative consequences for the workplace and may even lead to increased sexual harassment. Women who try to deal with sexual harassment on their own, regardless of what they do, seem to be in a no-win situation.[101] For example, after an anti-groping device allowing victims to mark their assailants with an invisible ink stamp has been released in Japan, some experts claimed it is wrong to put the onus on the victim.[103]

Common effects on the victims

Common psychological, academic, professional, financial, and social effects of sexual harassment and retaliation:

Some of the psychological and health effects that can occur in someone who has been sexually harassed as a result of stress and humiliation:depression; anxiety; panic attacks; sleeplessness; nightmares; shame; guilt; difficulty concentrating; headaches; fatigue; loss of motivation; stomach problems; eating disorders (such as weight loss or gain); alcoholism; feeling betrayed, violated, angry, violent towards the perpetrator, powerless or out of control; increased blood pressure; loss of confidence or self-esteem; withdrawal; isolation; overall loss of trust in people; traumatic stress; post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); complex post-traumatic stress disorder; suicidal thoughts or attempts, and suicide.[104][105][106][107][108]

Post-complaint retaliation and backlash

Retaliation and backlash against a victim are very common, particularly a complainant. Victims who speak out against sexual harassment are often labeled troublemakers who are on their own "power trips", or who are looking for attention. Similar to cases of rape or sexual assault, the victim often becomes the accused, with their appearance, private life, and character likely to fall under intrusive scrutiny and attack.[109] Excuses for victim blaming include clothing and behavior.[110][111] They risk hostility and isolation from colleagues, supervisors, teachers, fellow students, and even friends. They may become the targets of mobbing or relational aggression.[104]

Women are not necessarily sympathetic to other women complainants who have been sexually harassed. If the harasser was male, internalized sexism (or jealousy over the sexual attention towards the victim) may encourage some women to react with as much hostility towards the complainant as some male colleagues.[112] Fear of being targeted for harassment or retaliation themselves may also cause some women to respond with hostility.[113] For example, when Lois Jenson filed her lawsuit against Eveleth Taconite Co., the women shunned her both at work and in the community—many of these women later joined her suit.[114] Women may even project hostility onto the victim in order to bond with their male coworkers and build trust.[113]

Retaliation has occurred when a sexual harassment victim suffers a negative action as a result of the harassment. For example, a complainant be given poor evaluations or low grades, have their projects sabotaged, be denied work or academic opportunities, have their work hours cut back, and other actions against them which undermine their productivity, or their ability to advance at work or school, being fired after reporting sexual harassment or leading to unemployment as they may be suspended, asked to resign, or be fired from their jobs altogether. Retaliation can even involve further sexual harassment, and also stalking and cyberstalking of the victim.[112][113] Moreover, a school professor or employer accused of sexual harassment, or who is the colleague of a perpetrator, can use their power to see that a victim is never hired again (blacklisting), or never accepted to another school.

Of the women who have approached her to share their own experiences of being sexually harassed by their teachers, feminist writer Naomi Wolf wrote in 2004:[115]

I am ashamed of what I tell them: that they should indeed worry about making an accusation because what they fear is likely to come true. Not one of the women I have heard from had an outcome that was not worse for her than silence. One, I recall, was drummed out of the school by peer pressure. Many faced bureaucratic stonewalling. Some women said they lost their academic status as golden girls overnight; grants dried up, letters of recommendation were no longer forthcoming. No one was met with a coherent process that was not weighted against them. Usually, the key decision-makers in the college or university—especially if it was a private university—joined forces to, in effect, collude with the faculty member accused; to protect not him necessarily but the reputation of the university, and to keep information from surfacing in a way that could protect other women. The goal seemed to be not to provide a balanced forum, but damage control.

Another woman who was interviewed by sociologist Helen Watson said, "Facing up to the crime and having to deal with it in public is probably worse than suffering in silence. I found it to be a lot worse than the harassment itself."[116]

Backlash stress

Backlash stress is stress resulting from an uncertainty regarding changing norms for interacting with women in the workplace.[117] Backlash stress now deters many male workers from befriending female colleagues, or providing them with any assistance, such as holding doors open. As a result, women are being handicapped by a lack of the necessary networking and mentorship.[118][119]

Women of color

The sexual harassment women of color face are often ignored when discussions about sexual harassment women face occur.[120] Harassment of women of color tends to stem from racial discrimination.[120] Poor African American women are more likely to experience sexual harassment but less likely to be seen as a victim.[121][122] It is conditions like these that make it difficult for women of color to report sexual harassment, allowing the cycle to continue.[123] Earlier studies revealed that there was no difference between the sexual harassment rates of white women and women of color.[124][125] However, there is evidence that reveals women of color deal with sexual harassment, this sexual harassment is on more severe lines.[126][127]

Race and gender influence most of the sexual harassment that women of color face. Women of color are less likely to report sexual harassment if the perpetrator is the same race. This is known as the code of silence. This is influenced by the race of the harasser, and predominately affects women of color.[128] Black women do not usually see things that a white woman would claim to be sexual harassment because they are accustomed to it, it is normal to them and so there is not much of a problem.[120]

Something that is unique to the sexual harassment of women of color is the common bond factor. The common bond factor is when a man of color sees someone of their own race or culture, and they feel as if it is okay to sexually harass them. They think that they can act and talk without regard to the law because they feel as if it is not being broken.[128]

The perception of sexual harassment from women of color includes racism and sexism whereas white women's perception only includes sexism. There is this interlocking of relations, commonly known as intersectionality, within the sexual harassment women of color face, between racism and sexism. White women, when speaking about sexual harassment, speak from the role of a victim whereas women of color speak from the role of a harasser. Women of color, as well, have stereotypes taken into consideration when it comes to harassment. These stereotypes make it difficult for women of color to come forward about sexual harassment, as they will likely not be believed.[128] For instance, there is the stereotype that Latin women are super emotional and tend to overreact. This stereotype may be conveyed when a Latin woman comes forward about sexual harassment, resulting in her claim not being taken seriously. Speaking up results in stereotypes being put on the person coming forward, making them uncomfortable with doing so.[128] Similarly, it is difficult for women of color to be supported when speaking out, as their experiences are different from those of white women, as is the case of Anita Hill.[129] Particularly, the feminist movement is geared towards helping white women rather than women of color due to women of color's experiences being foreign. In turn, women of color do not join feminist movements or groups because they do not see their experiences reflected.[129]

There is a relationship between legal status and sexual harassment; there is an intersectionality between them. Citizen status can influence women experiencing or reporting sexual harassment. Being undocumented can make it difficult to come forward for fear of being deported.[120] White women with citizenship say that sexual harassment is unwanted behavior, women of color without citizenship found it difficult to explain what they thought sexual harassment was, but that it did include race.[120] This however makes it difficult for Black women to differentiate sexual harassment in the workplace from sexual harassment in society.[120]

Organizational policies and procedures

Most companies have policies against sexual harassment; however, these policies are not designed and should not attempt to "regulate romance" which goes against human urges.[130]

Act upon a report of harassment inside the organization should be:

The investigation should be designed to obtain a prompt and thorough collection of the facts, an appropriate responsive action, and an expeditious report to the complainant that the investigation has been concluded, and, to the full extent appropriate, the action taken.

— Mark I. Schickman, Sexual Harassment. The employer's role in prevention. American Bar Association[130]

When organizations do not take the respective satisfactory measures for properly investigating, stress and psychological counseling and guidance, and just deciding of the problem this could lead to:

Studies show that organizational climate (an organization's tolerance, policy, procedure etc.) and workplace environment are essential for understanding the conditions in which sexual harassment is likely to occur, and the way its victims will be affected (yet, research on specific policy and procedure, and awareness strategies is lacking).[135] Another element which increases the risk for sexual harassment is the job's gender context (having few women in the close working environment or practicing in a field which is perceived as atypical for women).[136]

Although research on occupational sexual assault is still in its infancy, the European Union reports that 40–50% of women report having encountered inappropriate sexual conduct or sexual harassment at work (World Health Organization, 2012). According to Burn (2018), In order to reduce sexual harassment, organisational climates and circumstances that support sexual harassment must change. Changes to the normative environments that sustain sexual harassment include the adoption of explicit anti-harassment rules and practices. Sexual harassment rules have the potential to deter sexual harassment and provide victims with channels for redress. According to Medeiros (2019),[137] the current endeavor puts out a framework for creating workplace sexual harassment prevention programmes and is based on research on training and development, college sexual assault, and workplace sexual harassment. The suggestions for preventing sexual harassment are mostly based on the research on sexual assault on college campuses. The persistent curiosity in and study of educational institutions for sexual assault preventative measures, despite this approach's shortcomings, has produced a database of researched interventions that fills in the gaps left by the dearth of empirical studies on sexual assault preventive interventions. Additionally, sexual harassment and assault have been characterized as a continuum where less severe behaviors have the potential to escalate into more violent acts over time if left unchecked (Department of Defence, 2014; Fitzgerald,1993). Hence, even if sexual harassment and assault are distinct behavior's, their increasing prevalence indicates that interventions ought to address the entire range of behaviors', particularly considering the restricted time and financial resources allocated to educational programs.[138]

According to Dr. Orit Kamir, the most effective way to avoid sexual harassment in the workplace, and also influence the public's state of mind, is for the employer to adopt a clear policy prohibiting sexual harassment and to make it very clear to their employees. Many women prefer to make a complaint and to have the matter resolved within the workplace rather than to "air out the dirty laundry" with a public complaint and be seen as a traitor by colleagues, superiors and employers, adds Kamir.[139][140][141]

Most prefer a pragmatic solution that would stop the harassment and prevent future contact with the harasser rather than turning to the police. More about the difficulty in turning an offense into a legal act can be found in Felstiner & Sarat's (1981) study,[142] which describes three steps a victim (of any dispute) must go through before turning to the justice system: naming—giving the assault a definition, blaming—understanding who is responsible for the violation of rights and facing them, and finally, claiming—turning to the authorities.

Evolution of law in different jurisdictions

It may include a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual abuse or sexual assault.[2] Sexual harassment is a form of illegal employment discrimination in many countries, and is a form of abuse (sexual and psychological abuses) and bullying.

The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women classifies violence against women into three categories: that occurring in the family, that occurring within the general community, and that perpetrated or condoned by the State. The term sexual harassment is used in defining violence occurring in the general community, which is defined as: "Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution."[143]

Sexual harassment is subject to a directive in the European Union.[144] The United States' Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) states, "It is unlawful to harass a person (an applicant or employee) because of that person's sex."

In India, the case of Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan in 1997 has been credited with establishing sexual harassment as illegal.[145] In Israel, the 1988 Equal Employment Opportunity Law made it a crime for an employer to retaliate against an employee who had rejected sexual advances, but it was not until 1998 that the Israeli Sexual Harassment Law made such behavior illegal.[146]

In May 2002, the European Union Council and Parliament amended a 1976 Council Directive on the equal treatment of men and women in employment to prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace, naming it a form of sex discrimination and violation of dignity. This Directive required all Member States of the European Union to adopt laws on sexual harassment, or amend existing laws to comply with the Directive by October 2005.[147]

In 2005, China added new provisions to the Law on Women's Right Protection to include sexual harassment.[148] In 2006, "The Shanghai Supplement" was drafted to help further define sexual harassment in China.[149]

Sexual harassment was specifically criminalized for the first time in modern Egyptian history in June 2014.[150]

As of 2016, sexual harassment remains legal in Kuwait[151] and Djibouti.[152]

Varied legal guidelines and definitions

The United Nations General Recommendation 19 to the convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women defines sexual harassment of women to include:

such unwelcome sexually determined behavior as physical contact and advances, sexually colored remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety problem; it is discriminatory when the woman has reasonable ground to believe that her objection would disadvantage her in connection with her employment, including recruitment or promotion, or when it creates a hostile working environment.

While such conduct can be harassment of women by men, many laws around the world which prohibit sexual harassment recognize that both men and women may be harassers or victims of sexual harassment. However, most claims of sexual harassment are made by women.[153]

There are many similarities, and also important differences in laws and definitions used around the world.

Africa

Egypt

Sexual harassment is rife in Egypt. A 2013 study from the United Nations showed that 99.3 percent of Egyptian women have suffered some form of sexual harassment. Authorities punish women when they do speak out.[154][155][156]

Morocco

In 2016, a stricter law proscribing sexual harassment was proposed in Morocco specifying fines and a possible jail sentence of up to 6 months.[157] The existing law against harassment was reported to not be upheld, as harassment was not reported to police by victims and even when reported, was not investigated by police or prosecuted by the courts.[157][158]On June 1, 2023, a Moroccan court sentenced a 32-year-old man to two years in prison for sexually harassing and forcibly kissing a woman inside a church.[159]

Australia

The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 defines sexual harassment as "... a person sexually harasses another person (the person harassed ) if: (a) the person makes an unwelcome sexual advance, or an unwelcome request for sexual favours, to the person harassed; or (b) engages in other unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature in relation to the person harassed; in circumstances in which a reasonable person, having regard to all the circumstances, would have anticipated the possibility that the person harassed would be offended, humiliated or intimidated."[160]

Europe

In the European Union, there is a directive on sexual harassment. The Directive 2002/73/EC – equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions states:[144]

For the purposes of this Directive, the following definitions shall apply: (...)

Harassment and sexual harassment within the meaning of this Directive shall be deemed to be discrimination on the grounds of sex and therefore prohibited.

The Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence also addresses the issue of sexual harassment (Article 40), using a similar definition.[161]

Denmark

Sexual harassment is defined as when any verbal, non-verbal or physical action is used to change a victim's sexual status against the will of the victim and resulting in the victim feeling inferior or hurting the victim's dignity. Men and women are looked upon as equal, and any action trying to change the balance in status with the differences in sex as a tool, is also sexual harassment. In the workplace, jokes, remarks, etc., are only deemed discriminatory if the employer has stated so in their written policy. Law number 1385 of December 21, 2005 regulates this area.[162][163]

France

In France, both the Criminal Code and the Labor Code are relevant to the issue of sexual harassment. Until May 4, 2012, article 222-33 of the French Criminal Code described sexual harassment as "The fact of harassing anyone in order to obtain favors of a sexual nature".[164] Since 2002, it recognized the possibility of sexual harassment between co-workers and not only by supervisors. On May 4, 2012, the Supreme Court of France quashed the definition of the criminal code as being too vague.[165] The 2012 decision resulted from a law on priority preliminary rulings on the issue of constitutionality. As a consequence of this decision, all pending procedures before criminal courts were cancelled. Several feminist NGOs, such as AFVT, criticized this decision. President François Hollande, the Minister of Justice (Christiane Taubira) and the Minister of Equality (Najat Belkacem) asked that a new law be voted rapidly. As a result, LOI n°2012-954 du 6 août 2012 was voted in, providing a new definition.[166][167] In addition to criminal provisions, the French Labor code also prohibits sexual harassment.[168] The legislator voted a law in 2008[169] that copied the 2002/73/EC Directive[170][171] definition without modifying the French Labour Code.

According to Abigail C. Saguy in her book What is Sexual Harassment: From Capitol Hill to the Sorbonne, "According to French penal law, sexual harassment is also different from rape and sexual assault in that it does not involve physical contact. Rather, with sexual harassment, economic dependence and official authority alone are used to pressure a person into having sexual relations(pg.24)."

Germany

At the Tavern, by Johann Michael Neder, 1833, Germanisches Nationalmuseum

In June 2016, the governing coalition decided about the key points of a tightening of the law governing sexual offenses (Sexualstrafrecht, literally: law on the punishment of sexual delicts). On July 7, 2016, the Bundestag passed the resolution[172] and by fall of that year, the draft bill will be presented to the second chamber, the Bundesrat.[173] By this change, sexual harassment shall become punishable under the Sexualstrafrecht.[174]

Now sexual harassment is punishable by law according to § 184i of the law governing sexual offenses. The law only states unwanted physical contact as sexual haressment but has been extended in 2020 to include "cybergrooming" as well.[175]

Greece

In response to the EU Directive 2002/73/EC, Greece enacted Law 3488/2006 (O.G.A.'.191).[176] The law specifies that sexual harassment is a form of gender-based discrimination in the workplace. Victims also have the right to compensation.[177] Prior to this law, the policy on sexual harassment in Greece was very weak. Sexual harassment was not defined by any law, and victims could only use general laws, which were very poor in addressing the issue.[178][179]

Russia

As of 2023, there is no formal law in Russia that prohibits or criminalizes repeated sexual harassment or any sexual advancements that result in women or men losing their jobs or some other adverse effects that can be proven in a court of law. Per articles 132-133 of the Criminal Code of Russian Federation (CC RF) only criminal sexual conduct is outlawed, including all non-consensual sex between individuals: rape, sex with underage etc. Per article 133 (previously, Article 118 of CC RF 1990) various kinds of extortion and coercion are also criminalized.[180]

According to the Moscow Center for Gender Studies study published in 1997, practically in all cases authorities did not investigate or enforce these articles.[180]

In 2008, The Daily Telegraph quoted a survey in which "100 percent of female professionals [in Russia] said they had been subjected to sexual harassment by their bosses, 32 per cent said they had had intercourse with them at least once and another seven per cent claimed to have been raped."[181][better source needed]

Switzerland

A ban on discrimination was included in the Federal Constitution (Article 4, Paragraph 2 of the old Federal Constitution) in 1981 and adopted in Article 8, paragraph 2 of the revised Constitution. The ban on sexual harassment in the workplace forms part of the Federal Act on Gender Equality (GEA) of 24 March 1995, where it is one of several provisions which prohibit discrimination in employment and which are intended to promote equality. Article 4 of the GEA defines the circumstances, Article 5 legal rights and Article 10 protection against dismissal during the complaints procedure.[182] Article 328, paragraph 1 of the Code of Obligations (OR), Article 198 (2) of the Penal Code (StGB) and Article 6, paragraph 1 of the Employment Act (ArG) contain further statutory provisions on the ban on sexual harassment. The ban on sexual harassment is intended exclusively for employers, within the scope of their responsibility for protection of legal personality, mental and physical well-being and health.[citation needed]

Article 4 of the GEA of 1995 discusses the topic of sexual harassment in the workplace: "Any harassing behaviour of a sexual nature or other behaviour related to the person's sex that adversely affects the dignity of women or men in the workplace is discriminatory. Such behaviour includes in particular threats, the promise of advantages, the use of coercion and the exertion of pressure in order to obtain favours of a sexual nature."[182]

United Kingdom

The Discrimination Act of 1975 was modified to establish sexual harassment as a form of discrimination in 1986.[183] It states that harassment occurs where there is unwanted conduct on the ground of a person's sex or unwanted conduct of a sexual nature and that conduct has the purpose or effect of violating a person's dignity, or of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for them. If an employer treats someone less favourably because they have rejected, or submitted to, either form of harassment described above, this is also harassment.[184] In March 2021, a study by UN Women UK found out that 97% of young women 18-24 have experienced some sort of sexual harassment.[185]

Sexual harassment is also now considered discrimination under the Equality Act 2010. The Equality Act 2010 merged over 116 separate pieces of legislation under one act that protects the rights of citizens and promotes equality for all people.[186] The new law strengthened the protection of individuals from discrimination in a number of areas. It is designed to protect individuals from discrimination on the basis of age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation. It covers a wide range of areas, including employment, education, housing, public accommodations, and the provision of goods and services. Under the Equality Act 2010, it is unlawful to discriminate against someone on the basis of any of these protected characteristics. This includes direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment, and victimization. The Act also places a duty on public authorities, such as local councils and government departments, to consider the impact of their policies and decisions on people who have protected characteristics, and to take steps to promote equality of opportunity and to eliminate discrimination.[187]

Although the 2010 Equality Act is in place, many are pushing the UK government to put even more policies in place to stop sexual harassment in the workplace. One group in particular, "This is Not Working", acts because according to recent surveys done by the Women and Equalities Committee, workplace sexual harassment is still very prevalent, even with the current legislation. The movement pushes for even more employers to take responsibility and proactively prevent sexual harassment.[188]

Asia

China

In China, the 2005 Law for the Protection of Women's Rights and Interests of the People's Republic of China states "sexual harassment against women is prohibited"[189] although the law does not explicitly define what sexual harassment is.[190]

Sexual harassment is still pervasive within Chinese culture. A 2018 survey of female journalists revealed that 80% had experienced unwanted behavior,[191] and an online survey of college students from all 34 provinces the same year revealed that 75% of female students and 35% of male students had experienced sexual harassment.[192]

Lebanon

As of 2020, it is estimated that one in four women in Lebanon have been subjected to some form of unsolicited sexual advance, ranging from verbal to physical.[193] On 21 December 2020, the Lebanese Parliament passed a law criminalizing sexual harassment.[193] There was no national legislation to directly criminalize sexual harassment prior, with draft laws being proposed several times without effect.[193]

India

Sexual harassment in India is termed "Eve teasing" and is described as: unwelcome sexual gesture or behaviour whether directly or indirectly as sexually colored remarks; physical contact and advances; showing pornography; a demand or request for sexual favours; any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct being sexual in nature or passing sexually offensive and unacceptable remarks. The critical factor is the unwelcomeness of the behaviour, thereby making the impact of such actions on the recipient more relevant rather than intent of the perpetrator.[145] According to the Indian constitution, sexual harassment infringes the fundamental right of a woman to gender equality under Article 14 and her right to life and live with dignity under Article 21.[194]

In 1997, the Supreme Court of India in a Public Interest Litigation defined sexual harassment at workplace, preventive measures and redress mechanism. The judgment is popularly known as Vishaka Judgment.[195] In April 2013, India enacted its own law on sexual harassment in the workplace—The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. Almost 16 years after the Supreme Court's landmark guidelines on prevention of sexual harassment in the workplace (known as the "Vishaka Guidelines"), the Act has endorsed many of the guidelines, and is a step towards codifying gender equality. The Act is intended to include all women employees in its ambit, including those employed in the unorganized sector, as well as domestic workers. The Indian law does not permit the victim or complainant to take assistance of a legal professional in the inquiry, however, in Arti Devi Vs Jawaharlal Nehru University,[196] the High Court of Delhi permitted the complainant to avail the services of a counsel as her defence assistant.

The Act has identified sexual harassment as a violation of the fundamental rights of a woman to equality under articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India and her right to life and to live with dignity under article 21 of the Constitution; as well as the right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business which includes a right to a safe environment free from sexual harassment. The Act also states that the protection against sexual harassment and the right to work with dignity are universally recognized human rights by international conventions and instruments such as Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, which has been ratified on the 25th June, 1993 by the Government of India.[197][circular reference]

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 introduced changes to the Indian Penal Code, making sexual harassment an expressed offense under Section 354 A, which is punishable up to three years of imprisonment and or with fine. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalking and sexual acts by person in authority an offense.

Israel

The 1998 Israeli Sexual Harassment Law interprets sexual harassment broadly, and prohibits the behavior as a discriminatory practice, a restriction of liberty, an offense to human dignity, a violation of every person's right to elementary respect, and an infringement of the right to privacy. Additionally, the law prohibits intimidation or retaliation thus related to sexual harassment are defined by the law as "prejudicial treatment".[146]

Japan

SexPublic sign in Chiba, Japan, warning of chikan

The Department of Labor received 11,289 consultations regarding sexual harassment (approximately 60% from female workers, 5% from male workers, and 35% from others) in 2014.[198] However, given the generally low rate of reported sexual offenders (about 10%), the dark figure of sexual harassers is believed to be substantial, with 34.7% of full-time employees experiencing sexual harassment, according to the Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training.[199]

It appeared most dramatically in Japanese discourse in 1989, when a court case in Fukuoka ruled in favor of a woman who had been subjected to the spreading of sexual rumors by a co-worker. When the case was first reported, it spawned a flurry of public interest: 10 books were published, including English-language feminist guidebooks to 'how not to harass women' texts for men.[200] Sekuhara was named 1989's 'Word of the Year'. The case was resolved in the victim's favor in 1992, awarding her about $13,000 in damages, the first sexual harassment lawsuit in Japanese history.[201] Laws then established two forms of sexual harassment: taika-gata, in which rewards or penalties are explicitly linked to sexual acts, and kankyo-gata, in which the environment is made unpleasant through sexual talk or jokes, touching, or hanging sexually explicit posters.[202] This applies to everyone in an office, including customers.[200]

Malaysia

In Malaysia, sexual harassment as defined by the Employment Act 1955 Archived 2020-11-11 at the Wayback Machine, is "any unwanted conduct of a sexual nature, whether verbal, non-verbal, visual, gestural or physical, directed at a person which is offensive, humiliating or a threat to their well-being". The Act does not distinguish between male and female or employer and employee. As such, sexual harassment can be committed by a female against a male, or an employee against an employer.

Sexual harassment is common, and since 2010 trains on the Malaysian Railway have included pink-colored women-only cars as a means of cutting down on it.[203] There are also women-only buses in Kuala Lumpur since 2010.[203] In 2011, the government launched a women-only taxi service in the greater Kuala Lumpur area.[204] The taxis have women drivers, and operate on an on-call basis.[204]

New Zealand

In 2018, Statistics New Zealand published the Survey of Working Life findings, which queried employed individuals about their work schedules, employment circumstances, and level of job satisfaction and work-life balance. 9% of males and 14% of women reported having dealt with bullying, harassment, or discrimination at work in the preceding year.[205] Any invitation for sexual activity, whether direct or indirect, is considered sexual harassment according to the Employment Relations Act of 2000.  The individual harassing the victim may be a boss, an employee, a volunteer, a coworker, an employer's representative, or even a customer, contractor, or supplier who is not an employee.[206]

Health and Safety at Work Act 2015, the duties of PCBU (person undertaking a business or undertaking) responsibility according to the act 36, subpart 2, Duties of PCBU is

·       “The provision and maintenance of a work environment that is without risks to health and safety”; and

·       “The provision and maintenance of safe plant and structures”; and

·       “The provision and maintenance of safe systems of work”; and

·       “The safe use, handling, and storage of plants, substances, and structures”.[207]

As per the Employment Relations Act 2000, it is possible for you to file a personal grievance. A worker may file a personal grievance against their employer. You have 12 months from the date when the assault happened or became aware of your knowledge, whichever comes first.[208]

Employment Relations (Extended Time for Personal Grievance for Sexual Harassment) Amendment Act 2023 and, section 54 amended states, an explanation in simple terms of the resources that are available for resolving issues with relationships at work, in relation to the 12-month period that must pass before filing a personal grievance under section 114(1) if the grievance relates to sexual harassment under section 103(1)(d).[209]

Human Rights Act 1993 under 62 sexual harassment states that, in the course of engaging in any of the activities covered by the provisions of subsection (3), it is illegal for anyone to ask another person for sexual relations, sexual contact, or any other type of sexual activity when doing so contains an implicit or overt guarantee of favorable treatment. During one's engagement in each of the areas where subsection (3) applies, it is forbidden for an individual to subject another individual to the conduct of the actions that follow:

(a) a conduct that is unwanted or offensive to that individual (regardless of whether that is communicated to the first-mentioned individual); and

(b) an act that is either repeated or of a significant nature as to negatively impact that individual in relation to any of the regions where subsection (3) applies.[210]

Pakistan

Pakistan introduced the Protection Against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act in 2010. This law defines the act of harassment as. "[A]ny unwelcome sexual advance, request for sexual favors or other verbal or written communication or physical conduct of a sexual nature or sexually demeaning attitude, causing interference with work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment, or the attempt to punish the complainant for refusal to such a request or is made a condition for employment." Pakistan adopted a Code of Conduct for Gender Justice in the Workplace that will deal with cases of sexual harassment. The Alliance Against Sexual Harassment (AASHA) announced they would be working with the committee[clarification needed] to establish guidelines for the proceedings. AASHA defines sexual harassment similarly to the United States.[211][full citation needed]

Philippines

The Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 was enacted:[212]

primarily to protect and respect the dignity of workers, employees, and applicants for employment as well as students in educational institutions or training centers. This law, consisting of ten sections, provides for a clear definition of work, education or training-related sexual harassment and specifies the acts constituting sexual harassment. It likewise provides for the duties and liabilities of the employer in cases of sexual harassment, and sets penalties for violations of its provisions. A victim of sexual harassment is not barred from filing a separate and independent action for damages and other relief aside from filing the charge for sexual harassment.

Assistant Solicitor General Derek Puertollano was dismissed from service over 3 administrative charges for violations of RA 7877 "The Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995" filed by a complaint from his legal interns. He was convicted of the grave offense of sexual harassment through unwanted touching of private part of the body, and the less grave offenses of sexual harassment through unwanted touching or brushing against a victim's body, and through surreptitiously looking at a person's private part. "These harrowing incidents left complainants traumatized, scarring them both for life,” said Lucas Bersamin in his decision dated February 20, 2024. Menardo Guevarra appointed an OIC to the vacated legal division.[213]

United States

Evolution of sexual harassment law

Workplace

In the United States, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination based on race, sex, color, national origin or religion. 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2 was initially intended to only combat sexual harassment of women, but the prohibition of sex discrimination covers both men and women. This discrimination occurs when the sex of the worker is made as a condition of employment (i.e. all female waitpersons or male carpenters) or where this is a job requirement that does not mention sex but ends up preventing many more persons of one sex than the other from the job (such as height and weight limits). This act only applies to employers with 15 or more employees.[27]

Barnes v. Train (1974) is commonly viewed as the first sexual harassment case in America, even though the term "sexual harassment" was not used.[214] In 1976, Williams v. Saxbe established sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination when sexual advances by a male supervisor towards a female employee, if proven, would be deemed an artificial barrier to employment placed before one gender and not another. In 1980 the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) issued regulations defining sexual harassment and stating it was a form of sex discrimination prohibited by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the 1986 case of Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the Supreme Court first recognized "sexual harassment" as a violation of Title VII, established the standards for analyzing whether the conduct was welcome and levels of employer liability, and that speech or conduct in itself can create a "hostile environment".[215] This case filed by Mechelle Vinson ruled that the sexual conduct between the subordinate and supervisor could not be deemed voluntary due to the hierarchical relationship between the two positions in the workplace.[216] Following the ruling in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, reported sexual harassment cases grew from 10 cases being registered by the EEOC per year before 1986 to 624 case being reported in the subsequent following year.[217] This number of reported cases to the EEOC rose to 2,217 in 1990 and then 4,626 by 1995.[217]

The Civil Rights Act of 1991 added provisions to Title VII protections including expanding the rights of women to sue and collect compensatory and punitive damages for sexual discrimination or harassment, and the case of Ellison v. Brady (US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit – 924 F.2d 872 (9th Cir. 1991)) resulted in rejecting the reasonable person standard in favor of the "reasonable woman standard" which allowed for cases to be analyzed from the perspective of the complainant and not the defendant.[218] However, some legal scholars have argued this does not go far enough and that the reasonable person standard also needs to take intersectionality into account.[219] Also in 1991, Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite Co. became the first sexual harassment case to be given class action status paving the way for others. Seven years later, in 1998, through that same case, new precedents were established that increased the limits on the "discovery" process in sexual harassment cases, that then allowed psychological injuries from the litigation process to be included in assessing damages awards. In the same year, the courts concluded in Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, Florida, and Burlington v. Ellerth, that employers are liable for harassment by their employees.[220][221] Moreover, Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services set the precedent for same-sex harassment, and sexual harassment without motivation of "sexual desire", stating that any discrimination based on sex is actionable so long as it places the victim in an objectively disadvantageous working condition, regardless of the gender of either the victim, or the harasser.

In the 2006 case of Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White, the standard for retaliation against a sexual harassment complainant was revised to include any adverse employment decision or treatment that would be likely to dissuade a "reasonable worker" from making or supporting a charge of discrimination.

During 2007 alone, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and related state agencies received 12,510 new charges of sexual harassment on the job.[222] In Astra USA v. Bildman, 914 N.E.2d 36 (Mass. 2009), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a company's employee who had engaged in financial misdeeds and sexual harassment must "forfeit all of his salary and bonuses for the period of disloyalty."[223] The court held that this was the case even if the employee "otherwise performed valuable services", and that the employee was not entitled to recover restitution for the value of those other services.[223][224]

The 2010 case, Reeves v. C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc. ruled that a hostile work environment can be created in a workplace where sexually explicit language and pornography are present. A hostile workplace may exist even if it is not targeted at any particular employee.[225]

From 2010 through 2016, approximately 17% of sexual harassment complaints filed with the EEOC were made by men.[226]

Education

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (United States) states "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance."

In Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992), the U.S. Supreme Court held that private citizens could collect damage awards when teachers sexually harassed their students.[227] In Bethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser (1986), the courts ruled that schools have the power to discipline students if they use "obscene, profane language or gestures" which could be viewed as substantially interfering with the educational process, and inconsistent with the "fundamental values of public school education".[228] Under regulations issued in 1997 by the U.S. Department of Education, which administers Title IX, school districts should be held responsible for harassment by educators if the harasser "was aided in carrying out the sexual harassment of students by his or her position of authority with the institution."[229] In Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education, and Murrell v. School Dist. No. 1, 1999, schools were assigned liability for peer-to-peer sexual harassment if the plaintiff sufficiently demonstrated that the administration's response shows "deliberate indifference" to "actual knowledge" of discrimination.[230][231]

Additionally

There are a number of legal options for a complainant in the U.S.: mediation, filing with the EEOC or filing a claim under a state Fair Employment Practices (FEP) statute (both are for workplace sexual harassment), filing a common law tort, etc.[232] Not all sexual harassment will be considered severe enough to form the basis for a legal claim. However, most often there are several types of harassing behaviors present, and there is no minimum level for harassing conduct under the law.[97] The section below "EEOC Definition" describes the legal definitions that have been created for sexual harassment in the workplace. Definitions similar to the EEOC definition have been created for academic environments in the U.S. Department of Education Sexual Harassment Guidance.[233]

EEOC Definition

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission claims that it is unlawful to harass an applicant or employee of any sex in the workplace. The harassment could include sexual harassment. The EEOC says that the victim and harasser could be any gender and that the other does not have to be of the opposite sex. The law does not ban offhand comments, simple teasing, or incidents that are not very serious. If the harassment gets to the point where it creates a harsh work environment, it will be taken care of.[3] In 1980, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission produced a set of guidelines for defining and enforcing Title VII (in 1984 it was expanded to include educational institutions). The EEOC defines sexual harassment as:

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature when:

  1. Submission to such conduct was made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual's employment,
  2. Submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual was used as the basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or
  3. Such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment.

1. and 2. are called "quid pro quo" (Latin for "this for that" or "something for something"). They are essentially "sexual bribery", or promising of benefits, and "sexual coercion".

Type 3. known as "hostile work environment", is by far the most common form. This form is less clear cut and is more subjective.[112]

Note: A workplace harassment complainant must file with the EEOC and receive a "right to sue" clearance, before they can file a lawsuit against a company in federal court.[97]

Quid pro quo sexual harassment
International Trade Union Confederation (2015–2017)

Quid pro quo means "this for that". In the workplace, this occurs when a job benefit is directly tied to an employee submitting to unwelcome sexual advances. For example, a supervisor promises an employee a raise if he or she will go out on a date with him or her, or tells an employee he or she will be fired if he or she does not sleep with him or her.[234] Quid pro quo harassment also occurs when an employee makes an evaluative decision, or provides or withholds professional opportunities based on another employee's submission to verbal, nonverbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Quid pro quo harassment is equally unlawful whether the victim resists and suffers the threatened harm or submits and thus avoids the threatened harm.[235]

Hostile environment sexual harassment

This occurs when an employee is subjected to comments of a sexual nature, unwelcome physical contact, or offensive sexual materials as a regular part of the work environment. For the most part, a single isolated incident will not be enough to prove hostile environment harassment unless it involves extremely outrageous and egregious conduct. The courts will try to decide whether the conduct is both "serious" and "frequent". Supervisors, managers, co-workers and even customers can be responsible for creating a hostile environment.[236]

The line between "quid pro quo" and "hostile environment" harassment is not always clear and the two forms of harassment often occur together. For example, an employee's job conditions are affected when a sexually hostile work environment results in a constructive discharge. At the same time, a supervisor who makes sexual advances toward a subordinate employee may communicate an implicit threat to retaliate against her if she does not comply.[237]

"Hostile environment" harassment may acquire characteristics of "quid pro quo" harassment if the offending supervisor abuses his authority over employment decisions to force the victim to endure or participate in the sexual conduct. Sexual harassment may culminate in a retaliatory discharge if a victim tells the harasser or her employer she will no longer submit to the harassment, and is then fired in retaliation for this protest. Under these circumstances it would be appropriate to conclude that both harassment and retaliation in violation of section 704(a) of Title VII have occurred.

Sexual orientation discrimination

In the United States, there are no federal laws prohibiting discrimination against employees based on their sexual orientation. However, Executive Order 13087, signed by President Bill Clinton, outlaws discrimination based on sexual orientation against federal government employees. If a small business owner owns his or her business in a state where there is a law against sexual orientation discrimination, the owner must abide to the law regardless of there not being a federal law. Twenty states and the District of Columbia have laws against this form of discrimination in the workplace. These states include California, Connecticut, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin.[238] For example, California has laws in place to protect employees who may have been discriminated against based upon sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation. California law prohibits discrimination against those "with traits not stereotypically associated with their gender", such as mannerisms, appearance, or speech. Sexual orientation discrimination comes up, for instance, when employers enforce a dress code, permit women to wear makeup but not men, or require men and women to only use restrooms designated for their particular sex regardless of whether they are transgender.

Retaliation

Retaliation has occurred when an employee suffers a negative action after he or she has made a report of sexual harassment, file a grievance, assist someone else with a complaint, or participate in discrimination prevention activities. Negative actions can include being fired, demotion, suspension, denial of promotion, poor evaluation, unfavorable job reassignment—any adverse employment decision or treatment that would be likely to dissuade a "reasonable worker" from making or supporting a charge of discrimination. (See Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White.)[239] Retaliation is as illegal as the sexual harassment itself, but also as difficult to prove. Also, retaliation is illegal even if the original charge of sexual harassment was not proven.

New Jersey

New Jersey was historically known to have one of the strongest anti-sexual harassment laws in the United States. The Law Against Discrimination used to hold an employer liable if the sexual harassment was done by a member of upper-level management.[citation needed] In 2015, the New Jersey Supreme Court modified the precedence in the State of New Jersey and prevented the company from being liable if they had a well-published and enforced anti-harassment policy. Accordingly, if a policy existed and was enforced, the victim or witness to the sexual harassment would need to complain about the conduct. The company would not be liable if they investigate the matter and take some remedial measures to make sure that the harassment stops. The company only becomes liable if the activity occurs again. (See Aguas v. NJ.)[240][non-primary source needed]

Military

In January 2022, sexual harassment was made illegal under U.S. military law under an executive order by president Joe Biden.[241]

Criticism

Though the phrase sexual harassment is generally acknowledged to include clearly damaging and morally deplorable behavior, its boundaries can be broad and controversial. Accordingly, misunderstandings can occur. In the US, sexual harassment law has been criticized by persons such as the criminal defense lawyer Alan Dershowitz and the legal writer and libertarian Eugene Volokh, for imposing limits on the right to free speech.[242]

Jana Rave, professor in organizational studies at the Queen's School of Business, criticized sexual harassment policy in the Ottawa Business Journal as helping maintain archaic stereotypes of women as "delicate, asexual creatures" who require special protection when at the same time complaints are lowering company profits.[132] Camille Paglia says that young girls can end up acting in such ways as to make sexual harassment easier, such that for example, by acting "nice" they can become a target. Paglia commented in an interview with Playboy, "Realize the degree to which your niceness may invoke people to say lewd and pornographic things to you—sometimes to violate your niceness. The more you blush, the more people want to do it."[243]

Other critics assert that sexual harassment is a very serious problem, but current views focus too heavily on sexuality rather than on the type of conduct that undermines the ability of women or men to work together effectively. Viki Shultz, a law professor at Yale University comments, "Many of the most prevalent forms of harassment are designed to maintain work—particularly the more highly rewarded lines of work—as bastions of male competence and authority."[244] Feminist Jane Gallop sees this evolution of the definition of sexual harassment as coming from a "split" between what she calls "power feminists" who are pro-sex (like herself) and what she calls "victim feminists", who are not. She argues that the split has helped lead to a perversion of the definition of sexual harassment, which used to be about sexism but has come to be about anything that is sexual.[245]

There is also concern over abuses of sexual harassment policy by individuals as well as by employers and administrators using false or frivolous accusations as a way of expelling employees they want to eliminate for other reasons. These employees often have virtually no recourse thanks to the at-will law in most US states.[246]

O'Donohue and Bowers outlined 14 possible pathways to false allegations of sexual harassment: "lying, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, psychosis, gender prejudice, substance abuse, dementia, false memories, false interpretations, biased interviews, sociopathy, personality disorders not otherwise specified."[247]

There is also discussion of whether some recent trends towards more revealing clothing and permissive habits have created a more sexualized general environment, in which some forms of communication are unfairly labeled harassment, but are simply a reaction to greater sexualization in everyday environments.[248]

There are many debates about how organizations should deal with sexual harassment. Some observers feel strongly that organizations should be held to a zero tolerance standard of "Must report—must investigate—must punish."

Others write that those who feel harassed should in most circumstances have a choice of options.[140][141][249]

Sexual harassment laws may also be used unfairly applied in effect. Unsolicited sexual advances were considered more disturbing and more discomforting when perpetrated by an unattractive opposite sex colleague than when perpetrated by an attractive opposite sex colleague.[250]

In media and literature

See also

References

Citations

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Further reading

External links