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Папа Римский

Папа Римский ( лат . papa , от древнегреческого πάππας , романизированного páppas , букв .  «  отец») [2] [3]епископ Рима и видимый глава [a] всемирной Католической Церкви . Он также известен как верховный понтифик , [b] римский понтифик [c] или суверенный понтифик . С восьмого века до 1870 года папа был сувереном или главой государства Папской области , а с 1929 года — гораздо меньшего государства-города Ватикан . [4] [5] Нынешним папой является Франциск , избранный 13 марта 2013 года . [6]

С католической точки зрения, главенство епископа Рима во многом вытекает из его роли апостольского преемника Святого Петра , которому первенство было даровано Иисусом, давшим Петру ключи от Небес и власть «связывать и разрешать», назвав его «камнем», на котором будет построена Церковь.

В то время как его должность называется папством , юрисдикция епископского престола называется Святым Престолом . [7] Именно Святейший Престол является суверенным образованием в соответствии с международным правом со штаб-квартирой в отчетливо независимом государстве-городе Ватикан, городе-государстве , которое образует географический анклав в пределах агломерации Рима , созданном Латеранским договором в 1929 году между фашистской Италией и Святейшим Престолом для обеспечения его временной и духовной независимости. Святейший Престол признан своей приверженностью на различных уровнях международным организациям и посредством своих дипломатических отношений и политических соглашений со многими независимыми государствами.

Согласно католической традиции , апостольский престол Рима был основан святыми Петром и Павлом в первом веке. Папство является одним из самых устойчивых институтов в мире и сыграло видную роль в истории человечества . [8] В древние времена папы помогали распространять христианство и вмешивались, чтобы найти решения в различных доктринальных спорах. [9] В Средние века они играли важную светскую роль в Западной Европе, часто выступая в качестве арбитров между христианскими монархами. [10] [11] [d] Помимо расширения христианской веры и доктрины , современные папы участвуют в экуменизме и межконфессиональном диалоге , благотворительной деятельности и защите прав человека. [12]

Со временем папство приобрело широкое светское и политическое влияние , в конечном итоге соперничая с влиянием территориальных правителей. В последние столетия светская власть папства пошла на убыль, и теперь эта должность в основном сосредоточена на религиозных вопросах. [9] Напротив, папские притязания на духовную власть со временем выражались все более твердо, достигнув кульминации в 1870 году с провозглашением догмата о папской непогрешимости в редких случаях, когда папа говорит ex cathedra — буквально «с кафедры (святого Петра) », — чтобы дать формальное определение веры или морали. [9] Папа считается одним из самых могущественных людей в мире из-за обширного дипломатического, культурного и духовного влияния его положения как на 1,3  миллиарда католиков, так и на тех, кто не исповедует католическую веру, [13] [14] [15] [16] и потому, что он возглавляет крупнейшего в мире неправительственного поставщика услуг образования и здравоохранения , [17] с обширной сетью благотворительных организаций.

История

Название и этимология

Слово «папа» происходит от греческого πάππας ( páppas ), что означает «отец». В ранние века христианства этот титул применялся, особенно на Востоке, ко всем епископам [18] и другим высшим священнослужителям, а позднее стал зарезервирован на Западе за епископом Рима во время правления папы Льва I (440–461), [19] оговорка стала официальной только в XI веке. [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Самая ранняя запись об использовании титула «папа» была в отношении к тому времени покойного патриарха Александрийского Геракла ( 232–248 ). [25] Самое раннее зарегистрированное использование титула «папа» на английском языке относится к середине X века, когда он был использован по отношению к римскому папе VII века Виталиану в древнеанглийском переводе « Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum » Беды Достопочтенного . [ 26]

Положение в Церкви

Католическая церковь учит, что пастырское служение, служение по наставлению в Церкви, которое выполняли апостолы как группа или «коллегия» со святым Петром во главе, теперь выполняется их преемниками, епископами, во главе с епископом Рима (папой). [27] Так происходит еще один титул, под которым известен папа, — «верховный понтифик».

Католическая церковь учит, что Иисус лично назначил Петра видимым главой Церкви, [e] и догматическая конституция Католической церкви Lumen gentium проводит четкое различие между апостолами и епископами, представляя последних как преемников первых, а папу — как преемника Петра, поскольку он является главой епископов, как и Петр был главой апостолов. [29] Некоторые историки выступают против представления о том, что Петр был первым епископом Рима, отмечая, что епископский престол в Риме можно проследить не ранее 3-го века. [30]

Труды отца Церкви Иринея , писавшего около 180 г. н. э., отражают веру в то, что Петр «основал и организовал» Церковь в Риме. [31] Более того, Ириней был не первым, кто писал о присутствии Петра в ранней Римской Церкви. Римская Церковь писала в письме к Коринфянам (которое традиционно приписывается Клименту Римскому около  96 г. ) [32] о преследовании христиан в Риме как о «борьбе в наше время» и представляла Коринфянам своих героев, «первых, величайших и самых справедливых столпов», «добрых апостолов» Петра и Павла. [33] Игнатий Антиохийский писал вскоре после Климента; в своем письме из города Смирны к Римлянам он сказал, что не будет командовать ими, как это делали Петр и Павел. [34]

Учитывая это и другие доказательства, такие как возведение императором Константином «Старой базилики Святого Петра» на месте гробницы Святого Петра, как это хранилось и было передано ему христианской общиной Рима, многие ученые сходятся во мнении, что Петр принял мученическую смерть в Риме при Нероне , хотя некоторые ученые утверждают, что он, возможно, принял мученическую смерть в Палестине. [35] [36] [37]

Хотя это и открыто для исторических дебатов, христианские общины первого века могли иметь группу пресвитеров-епископов, действующих в качестве руководителей своих местных церквей. Постепенно в столичных областях были созданы епископские кафедры. [38] Антиохия могла разработать такую ​​структуру до Рима. [38] В Риме в разное время на разных этапах были соперничающие претенденты на звание законного епископа, хотя Ириней снова подчеркнул обоснованность одной линии епископов со времен Святого Петра до его современника папы Виктора I и перечислил их. [39] Некоторые авторы утверждают, что появление единого епископа в Риме, вероятно, произошло не ранее середины II века. По их мнению, Лин, Клетус и Климент, возможно, были видными пресвитерами-епископами, но не обязательно монархическими епископами. [30]

Документы I века и начала II века указывают на то, что епископ Рима имел некое превосходство и известность в Церкви в целом, поскольку даже письмо епископа или патриарха Антиохийского признавал епископа Рима «первым среди равных» [40] , хотя подробности того, что это означало, неясны. [f]

Раннее христианство (в. 30–325)

Источники предполагают, что поначалу термины «епископос» и «пресвитер» использовались как взаимозаменяемые, [44] при этом среди ученых сложилось единое мнение, что к рубежу I и II веков местные общины возглавлялись епископами и пресвитерами, чьи должностные обязанности перекрывались или были неотличимы друг от друга. [45] Некоторые [ кто? ] говорят, что, вероятно, «в Риме не было ни одного «монархического» епископа до середины II века... и, вероятно, позже». [46]

В раннюю христианскую эпоху Рим и несколько других городов претендовали на лидерство во всемирной Церкви. Иаков Справедливый , известный как «брат Господень», был главой Иерусалимской церкви , которая до сих пор почитается как «Материнская Церковь» в православной традиции. Александрия была центром еврейского образования и стала центром христианского образования. В Риме в ранний апостольский период была большая община, к которой апостол Павел обращался в своем Послании к римлянам , и, согласно традиции, Павел был там замучен. [47]

В течение 1-го века Церкви ( ок.  30–130 гг .) римская столица была признана христианским центром исключительной важности. Церковь там в конце столетия написала послание Церкви в Коринфе , вмешавшись в крупный спор и извинившись за то, что не предприняла никаких действий ранее. [48] Есть еще несколько ссылок того времени на признание авторитетного первенства Римского престола за пределами Рима.

В Равеннском документе от 13 октября 2007 года теологи, избранные Католической и Восточной Православной Церквями, заявили: [49]

Обе стороны согласны, что этот канонический таксис был признан всеми в эпоху неразделенной Церкви. Кроме того, они согласны, что Рим, как Церковь, которая «председательствует в любви» согласно фразе святого Игнатия Антиохийского (К Римлянам, Пролог), занимал первое место в таксисе, и что епископ Рима был поэтому protos среди патриархов. Однако они расходятся во мнениях относительно интерпретации исторических свидетельств этой эпохи относительно прерогатив епископа Рима как protos, вопроса, который уже понимался по-разному в первом тысячелетии.

—  Равеннский документ, 41

В 195 году нашей эры Папа Виктор I, что рассматривается как осуществление римской власти над другими церквями, отлучил квартодециманов за соблюдение Пасхи 14 нисана , даты еврейской Пасхи , традиции, переданной Иоанном Евангелистом (см. Пасхальные споры ). Празднование Пасхи в воскресенье, на котором настаивал Папа, является системой, которая возобладала (см. computus ).

Никейский собор в расколе Восток-Запад (325–1054)

Миланский эдикт 313 года даровал свободу всем религиям в Римской империи, [50] положив начало Миру Церкви . В 325 году Первый Никейский собор осудил арианство , объявив тринитаризм догматическим, и в своем шестом каноне признал особую роль Римского, Александрийского и Антиохийского престолов. [51] Великими защитниками тринитарной веры были папы, особенно Либерий , который был сослан в Верию Констанцием II за свою тринитарную веру, [52] Дамас I и несколько других епископов. [53]

В 380 году Фессалоникийский эдикт объявил никейское христианство государственной религией империи, а название «католические христиане» зарезервировано для тех, кто принял эту веру. [54] [55] В то время как гражданская власть в Восточной Римской империи контролировала церковь, а патриарх Константинополя , столицы, обладал большой властью, [56] в Западной Римской империи епископы Рима смогли консолидировать влияние и власть, которыми они уже обладали. [56] После падения Западной Римской империи варварские племена были обращены в арианское христианство или никейское христианство; [57] Хлодвиг I , король франков , был первым важным варварским правителем, который обратился в основную церковь, а не в арианство, заключив союз с папством. Другие племена, такие как вестготы , позже отказались от арианства в пользу официальной церкви. [57]

Средний возраст

Григорий Великий ( ок.  540–604 ), на картине Карло Сарачени , ок.  1610 , Рим

После падения Западной Римской империи папа служил источником власти и преемственности. Папа Григорий I ( ок.  540–604 ) управлял церковью с помощью строгой реформы. Из древней сенаторской семьи, Григорий работал с суровым суждением и дисциплиной, типичной для древнеримского правления. Теологически он представляет собой переход от классического к средневековому мировоззрению; его популярные произведения полны драматических чудес , могущественных реликвий , демонов , ангелов , призраков и приближающегося конца света . [58]

Преемники Григория в значительной степени находились под влиянием экзарха Равенны , представителя византийского императора на итальянском полуострове . Эти унижения, ослабление Византийской империи перед лицом мусульманских завоеваний и неспособность императора защитить папские поместья от лангобардов заставили папу Стефана II отвернуться от императора Константина V. Он обратился к франкам с просьбой защитить свои земли. Пипин Короткий покорил лангобардов и пожертвовал итальянские земли папству. Когда папа Лев III короновал Карла Великого (800) как императора, он создал прецедент, что в Западной Европе ни один человек не мог стать императором, не будучи коронованным папой. [58]

Низшая точка папства была 867-1049. [59] Этот период включает Saeculum obscurum , эпоху Crescentii и Тускуланское папство . Папство попало под контроль соперничающих политических фракций. Папы по-разному заключались в тюрьму, морялись голодом, убивались и низлагались силой. Семья некоего папского чиновника [ кто? ] назначала и низлагала пап в течение пятидесяти лет. Правнук чиновника, папа Иоанн XII , устраивал оргии разврата в Латеранском дворце . Император Оттон I предал Иоанна обвинению в церковном суде, который низложил его и избрал мирянина папой Львом VIII . Иоанн изуродовал императорских представителей в Риме и восстановил себя в качестве папы. Конфликт между императором и папством продолжался, и в конечном итоге герцоги в союзе с императором почти открыто покупали епископов и пап. [60]

В 1049 году Лев IX отправился в главные города Европы, чтобы лично разобраться с моральными проблемами церкви, в частности, с симонией , а также с браками и сожительством духовенства . Благодаря своему долгому путешествию он восстановил престиж папства в Северной Европе. [60]

Начиная с VII века, для европейских монархий и знати стало обычным основывать церкви и проводить инвеституру или низложение духовенства в своих государствах и феодальных владениях, их личные интересы вызывали коррупцию среди духовенства. [61] [62] Эта практика стала общепринятой, поскольку часто прелаты и светские правители также были участниками общественной жизни. [63]

Для борьбы с этой и другими практиками, которые считались развращающими Церковь, между 900 и 1050 годами появились центры, продвигающие церковную реформу, наиболее важным из которых было аббатство Клюни , которое распространило свои идеалы по всей Европе. [62] Это реформаторское движение набрало силу с избранием папы Григория VII в 1073 году, который принял ряд мер в движении, известном как Григорианская реформа , чтобы решительно бороться с симонией и злоупотреблением гражданской властью и попытаться восстановить церковную дисциплину, включая целибат священников . [53]

Этот конфликт между папами и светскими автократическими правителями, такими как император Священной Римской империи Генрих IV и король Генрих I Английский , известный как спор об инвеституре , был разрешен только в 1122 году Вормсским конкордатом , в котором папа Калликст II постановил, что священнослужители должны инвестироваться духовными лидерами, а светские правители — светской инвеститурой. [61] Вскоре после этого папа Александр III начал реформы, которые привели к установлению канонического права . [58]

С начала VII века исламские завоевания успешно контролировали большую часть южного Средиземноморья и представляли угрозу христианству. [64] В 1095 году византийский император Алексей I Комнин попросил военную помощь у папы Урбана II в продолжающихся византийско-сельджукских войнах . [65] Урбан на соборе в Клермоне призвал к Первому крестовому походу, чтобы помочь Византийской империи вернуть старые христианские территории, особенно Иерусалим. [66]

Раскол между Востоком и Западом и Реформация (1054–1517)

Историческая карта средиземноморских государств 1400 года. Западный раскол продолжался с 1378 по 1417 год.

С расколом Восток-Запад Восточная Православная Церковь и Католическая Церковь окончательно раскололись в 1054 году. Этот раскол был вызван скорее политическими событиями, чем небольшими расхождениями в вере . Папы раздражали византийских императоров, встав на сторону короля франков, короновав соперника римского императора, присвоив Равеннский экзархат и вторгнувшись в греческую Италию. [60]

В Средние века папы боролись с монархами за власть. [9]

С 1309 по 1377 год папа находился не в Риме, а в Авиньоне . Авиньонское папство было печально известно своей жадностью и коррупцией. [67] В этот период папа был фактически союзником Королевства Франции , оттолкнув врагов Франции, таких как Королевство Англии . [68]

Папа, как считалось, имел право черпать из Сокровищницы заслуг, созданной святыми и Христом, чтобы он мог даровать индульгенции , сокращая время пребывания в чистилище . Концепция, согласно которой денежный штраф или пожертвование сопровождали раскаяние, исповедь и молитву, в конечном итоге уступила место общему предположению, что индульгенции зависели от простого денежного взноса. Папы осуждали недоразумения и злоупотребления, но были слишком ограничены в доходах, чтобы осуществлять эффективный контроль над индульгенциями. [67]

Папы также боролись с кардиналами , которые иногда пытались утвердить авторитет католических Вселенских Соборов над папскими. Концилиаризм утверждает, что высшая власть церкви принадлежит Генеральному Собору, а не папе. Его основы были заложены в начале XIII века, и он достиг кульминации в XV веке с Жаном Жерсоном в качестве его главного представителя. Неспособность концилиаризма получить широкое признание после XV века рассматривается как фактор протестантской Реформации . [69]

Различные антипапы оспаривали папскую власть, особенно во время Западной схизмы (1378–1417). Она завершилась, когда Констанцский собор , находившийся на пике конциллиаризма, принял решение среди папских претендентов.

Восточная церковь продолжала приходить в упадок вместе с Восточной Римской (Византийской) империей, подрывая претензии Константинополя на равенство с Римом. Дважды восточный император пытался заставить Восточную церковь воссоединиться с Западом. Первый раз на Втором соборе в Лионе (1272–1274) и второй раз на соборе во Флоренции (1431–1449). Папские претензии на превосходство были камнем преткновения в воссоединении, которое в любом случае провалилось. В 15 веке Османская империя захватила Константинополь и положила конец Византийской империи. [70]

Реформация по настоящее время (с 1517 года по настоящее время)

В рамках католической Реформации папа Павел III (1534–1549) инициировал Тридентский собор (1545–1563), который установил торжество папства над теми, кто стремился примириться с протестантами или выступал против папских притязаний.

Протестантские реформаторы критиковали папство как коррумпированное и характеризовали папу как антихриста . [71] [72] [73] [74]

Папы учредили Католическую Реформацию [9] (1560–1648), которая рассматривала проблемы протестантской Реформации и проводила внутренние реформы. Папа Павел III инициировал Тридентский собор (1545–1563), определения доктрины и реформы которого закрепили победу папства над элементами в церкви, которые искали примирения с протестантами и выступали против папских притязаний. [75]

Постепенно вынужденные отказаться от светской власти в пользу все более напористых европейских национальных государств , папы сосредоточились на духовных вопросах. [9] В 1870 году Первый Ватиканский собор провозгласил догмат о папской непогрешимости для самых торжественных случаев, когда папа говорит ex cathedra , давая определения веры или морали. [9] Позже в том же году Виктор Эммануил II из Италии вырвал Рим из-под контроля папы и в значительной степени завершил объединение Италии . [9]

В 1929 году Латеранский договор между Королевством Италия и Святым Престолом провозгласил Ватикан независимым городом-государством , гарантируя папскую независимость от светского правления. [9]

В 1950 году Папа Пий XII определил Успение Пресвятой Богородицы как догмат, и это был единственный случай, когда Папа выступил с речью ex cathedra с тех пор, как была прямо провозглашена папская непогрешимость.

Первенство Святого Петра , спорная доктринальная основа власти папы, продолжает разделять восточные и западные церкви и отделять протестантов от Рима.

Ранние христианские упоминания

Отцы Церкви

В трудах нескольких отцов ранней церкви содержатся ссылки на авторитет и уникальное положение, занимаемое епископами Рима, что дает ценную информацию о признании и значении папства в раннюю христианскую эпоху. [76] Эти источники свидетельствуют о признании епископа Рима как влиятельной фигуры в Церкви, а некоторые подчеркивают важность следования учению и решениям Рима. Такие ссылки служили для установления концепции папского первенства и продолжают информировать католическое богословие и практику. [77] [78]

Киприан Карфагенский ( ок. 210 – 258 н. э.) в своих письмах признал епископа Рима преемником Святого Петра в своем Послании 55 (ок. 251 н. э.), которое адресовано Папе Корнелию , [79] [80] и подтвердил его уникальный авторитет в ранней христианской Церкви. [81]

Корнелий [епископ Рима] был поставлен епископом по выбору Бога и Его Христа, по благоприятному свидетельству почти всего духовенства, по голосам присутствовавшего народа и по собранию древних священников и добрых людей. И он был поставлен епископом, когда никто другой не был поставлен епископом до него, когда место Фабиана , то есть место Петра и должность епископского кресла были вакантны. Но когда место было занято по воле Божией, и это назначение было утверждено согласием всех нас, если кто-либо захочет быть сделанным епископом после этого, это должно быть сделано вне церкви; если человек не поддерживает единство единства Церкви, для него невозможно получить рукоположение Церкви.

—  Киприан Карфагенский, Письмо 55, 8.4

Ириней Лионский ( ок.  130 – ок. 202 н. э.), выдающийся христианский теолог второго века, предоставил список ранних пап в своей работе «Против ересей III» . Список охватывает период от Святого Петра до папы Элевтерия , который служил с 174 по 189 н. э. [82] [83]

Блаженные апостолы [Петр и Павел], основав и устроив Церковь [в Риме], передали в руки Лина епископство. Об этом Лине Павел упоминает в Посланиях к Тимофею. Ему наследовал Анаклет ; а после него, на третьем месте от апостолов, епископство было уделено Клименту . [...] Этому Клименту наследовал Эвирист . Александр последовал за Эваристом; затем, шестым от апостолов, был назначен Сикст ; после него Телефор , который был славно предан мученической смерти; затем Гигин ; после него Пий ; затем после него Аникит . Сотер, сменивший Аникита, теперь, на двенадцатом месте от апостолов, удерживает наследие епископства.

—  Ириней Лионский, Против ересей III, Глава 3.2

Игнатий Антиохийский (умер около 108/140 г. н. э.) писал в своем « Послании к Римлянам» , что церковь в Риме — это «церковь, которая главенствует над любовью». [84] [85]

...Церковь, возлюбленная и просвещенная волей Того, Кто желает всего, что соответствует любви Иисуса Христа, Бога нашего, которая также председательствует в месте области Римской, достойная Бога, достойная чести, достойная высшего блаженства, достойная похвалы, достойная достижения всякого желания, достойная считаться святой и которая председательствует в любви, именуется от Христа и от Отца, которую я и приветствую во имя Иисуса Христа, Сына Отчего, тем, кто соединен и по плоти и по духу, со всеми заповедями Его,

—  Игнатий Антиохийский, Послание к Римлянам

Августин из Гиппона (354 – 430 н. э.) в своем Письме 53 составил список из 38 пап от Святого Петра до Сириция. Порядок этого списка отличается от списков Иринея и Annuario Pontificio . Список Августина утверждает, что Лина сменил Климент, а Климента сменил Анаклет, как и в списке Евсевия , в то время как два других списка меняют местами Климента и Анаклета. [86]

Ибо если принять во внимание преемственность епископов по прямой линии, то с какой же большей уверенностью и пользой для Церкви мы можем отсчитывать назад, пока не достигнем самого Петра, которому, как носителю образа всей Церкви, Господь сказал: На сем камне Я создам Церковь Мою, и врата ада не одолеют ее! Матфея 16:18. Преемником Петра был Лин, а его преемниками в непрерывной преемственности были: Климент, Анаклет, Эварист...

—  Августин Блаженный, Письмо 53, Параграф 2

Другие ранние христианские упоминания

Евсевий ( ок. 260/265 – 339) упоминает Лина как преемника Святого Петра и Климента как третьего епископа Рима в своей книге «История Церкви » . Как записано Евсевием, Климент работал со Святым Павлом как его «соработник». [87]

Что касается остальных его последователей, то Павел свидетельствует, что Крискент был послан в Галлию; но Лин, которого он упоминает во Втором послании к Тимофею как своего спутника в Риме, был преемником Петра в епископстве тамошней церкви, как уже было показано. Также Климент, который был назначен третьим епископом церкви в Риме, был, как свидетельствует Павел, его сотрудником и соратником.

—  Евсевий Кесарийский, История церкви, книга III, глава 4:9-10

Тертуллиан ( ок. 155 – ок. 220 н. э.) писал в своей работе « Предписание против еретиков » об авторитете церкви в Риме. В этой работе Тертуллиан сказал, что Церковь в Риме имеет авторитет Апостолов из-за своего апостольского основания. [88]

Поскольку, кроме того, вы близко к Италии, у вас есть Рим, из которого даже в наши руки приходит сама власть (самих апостолов). Как счастлива ее церковь, на которую апостолы излили все свое учение вместе со своей кровью! Где Петр претерпевает страдания, подобные страданиям его Господа! Где Павел получает свой венец в смерти, подобной смерти Иоанна, где апостол Иоанн был впервые брошен, невредимым, в кипящее масло, а оттуда отправлен в изгнание на остров!

—  Тертуллиан, «Предписание против еретиков», Глава 32

Согласно той же книге, Климент Римский был рукоположен святым Петром в епископы Рима.

Ибо именно таким образом апостольские церкви передают свои регистры: как, например, церковь Смирны, которая сообщает, что Поликарп был поставлен в нее Иоанном; как и церковь Рима, которая утверждает, что Климент был рукоположен подобным же образом Петром.

—  Тертуллиан, Предписание против еретиков, Глава 32

Оптат, епископ Милевиса в Нумидии (сегодняшний Алжир) и современник донатистского раскола , представляет подробный анализ истоков, верований и практик донатистов, а также событий и споров, окружающих раскол, в своей книге «Раскол донатистов» (367 г. н. э.) . В книге Оптат писал о позиции епископа Рима в поддержании единства Церкви. [89] [90]

Вы не можете отрицать, что вам известно, что в городе Риме епископское кресло было отдано сначала Петру; кресло, на котором сидел Петр, было тем самым, кто был главой — вот почему его также называют Кифа [«камень»] — всех апостолов; единственное кресло, на котором все сохраняют единство.

—  Оптат, Раскол донатистов, 2:2

Святой Петр и происхождение папского престола

Католическая церковь учит, что в христианской общине епископы как орган преемственности являются преемниками апостольского органа ( апостольская преемственность ), а епископ Рима является преемником Святого Петра. [4]

В поддержку особого положения Петра по отношению к церкви приводятся следующие тексты Священного Писания:

Символические ключи в папских гербах являются ссылкой на фразу « ключи Царства Небесного » в первом из этих текстов. Некоторые протестантские авторы утверждали, что «скала», о которой Иисус говорит в этом тексте, — это сам Иисус или вера, выраженная Петром. [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] Эта идея подрывается библейским использованием «Cephas», что является мужской формой слова «скала» в арамейском языке , для описания Петра. [100] [101] [102] Encyclopaedia Britannica комментирует, что «консенсус подавляющего большинства ученых сегодня заключается в том, что следует толковать наиболее очевидное и традиционное понимание, а именно, что скала относится к личности Петра». [103]

Новый Элиаким

Согласно католической церкви, папа также является новым Елиакимом , фигурой в Ветхом Завете Библии, который руководил делами королевского двора , управлял дворцовым персоналом и занимался государственными делами. Исаия также описывает его как имеющего ключ от дома Давида, что символизирует его власть и силу. [104]

Картина Элиакима в Сикстинской капелле, Ватикан
Фреска Элиакима в Сикстинской капелле , Ватикан

И Матфея 16:18–19, и Исаии 22:22 показывают сходство между Елиакимом и Петром, получающими ключи, которые символизируют власть. Елиаким получает власть закрывать и открывать, в то время как Петр получает власть связывать и разрешать.

Согласно Книге пророка Исаии , Элиаким получает ключи и власть закрывать и открывать.

И возложу ключ дома Давидова на рамена его: что он откроет, того никто не затворит, и что он закроет, того никто не отворит. [105]

—  Исаия, 22:22

Согласно Евангелию от Матфея, Петр также получает ключи и власть связывать и разрешать.

И дам тебе ключи Царства Небесного: и что свяжешь на земле, то будет связано на небесах, и что разрешишь на земле, то будет разрешено на небесах». [106]

—  Матфей, ​​16:19

В книгах Исаии 22:3 и Матфея 16:18 и Елиаким, и Петр сравниваются с объектом. Елиаким — с колышком (конструкцией, которая вбивается в стену или другую конструкцию для обеспечения поддержки и устойчивости), а Петр — со скалой.

И укреплю его, как гвоздь, в надежном месте, и станет он престолом почета для дома отца своего. [107]

—  Исаия, 22:23

В Евангелии от Матфея 16:18 Петр сравнивается со скалой.

И Я говорю тебе: ты — Петр, и на сем камне Я создам Церковь Мою, и врата ада не одолеют ее [108]

— Matthew, 16:18

Election, death and resignation

Election

The Delivery of the Keys painted by Pietro Perugino (1492)

The pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all cardinal electors were made equal in 1179. The electors are now limited to those who have not reached 80 on the day before the death or resignation of a pope.[109] The pope does not need to be a cardinal elector or indeed a cardinal; since the pope is the bishop of Rome, only those who can be ordained a bishop can be elected, which means that any male baptized Catholic is eligible. The last to be elected when not yet a bishop was Gregory XVI in 1831, the last to be elected when not even a priest was Leo X in 1513, and the last to be elected when not a cardinal was Urban VI in 1378.[110] If someone who is not a bishop is elected, he must be given episcopal ordination before the election is announced to the people.[111]

The Second Council of Lyon was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year sede vacante following the death of Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-16th century, the electoral process had evolved into its present form, allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.[112] Traditionally, the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote.

The conclave in Konstanz where Pope Martin V was elected

Since 1878, the election of the pope has taken place in the Sistine Chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a "conclave" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clave, i.e., with key, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. For the Papal conclave, 2005, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the ballots are counted while still folded; if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until someone is elected by a two-thirds majority. (With the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by Pope Benedict XVI by motu proprio in 2007.)

The formal declaration of "Habemus Papam" after the election of Pope Martin V

One of the most prominent aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from Saint Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound to create black smoke, or fumata nera. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to produce the black smoke, but this was not completely reliable. The chemical compound is more reliable than the straw.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope.[113] Starting with the Papal conclave, 2005,[114] church bells are also rung as a signal that a new pope has been chosen.[115][116]

The dean of the College of Cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the man who has been elected. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election as supreme pontiff?" If he replies with the word "Accepto", his reign begins at that instant. In practice, any cardinal who intends not to accept will explicitly state this before he receives a sufficient number of votes to become pope.[117][118]

The dean asks next, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope announces the regnal name he has chosen. If the dean himself is elected pope, the vice dean performs this task.[119]

The new pope is led to the Room of Tears, a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (immantatio) await in three sizes.[120] Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church.[121] The pope assumes a place of honour as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (adoratio) and to receive his blessing.[122]

The cardinal protodeacon announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name.[123][124]

Until 1978, the pope's election was followed in a few days by the papal coronation, which started with a procession with great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. After a solemn Papal Mass, the new pope was crowned with the triregnum (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of flax at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, as he said, Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the traditional exclamation, "Annos Petri non-videbis", reminding the newly crowned pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter. According to tradition, he headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest-reigning pope in the history of the Catholic Church.[125]

The Latin term, sede vacante ("while the see is vacant"),[126] refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death or resignation of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term sedevacantism, which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a sede vacante.

For centuries, from 1378 on, those elected to the papacy were predominantly Italians. Prior to the election of the Polish-born John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was Adrian VI of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by election of the German-born Benedict XVI, who was in turn followed by Argentine-born Francis, the first non-European after 1272 years and the first Latin American (albeit of Italian ancestry).[127][128]

Death

Funeral of Pope John Paul II at the Vatican in April 2005, presided over by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI

The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum—that is, a sede vacante ("vacant seat")—were promulgated by Pope John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the sede vacante period, the College of Cardinals is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church. Canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.[129]

In recent centuries, when a pope was judged to have died, it was reportedly traditional for the cardinal camerlengo to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time.[130] This was not done on the deaths of popes John Paul I[131] and John Paul II.[132] The cardinal camerlengo retrieves the Ring of the Fisherman and cuts it in two in the presence of the cardinals. The pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.[133]

The body lies in state for several days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; all popes who have died in the 20th and 21st centuries have been interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novendialis) follows the interment.[133]

Resignation

It is highly unusual for a pope to resign.[134] The 1983 Code of Canon Law[135] states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." Benedict XVI, who vacated the Holy See on 28 February 2013, was the most recent to do so, and the first since Gregory XII's resignation in 1415.[136]

Titles

Regnal name

Popes adopt a new name on their accession, known as papal name, in Italian and Latin. Currently, after a new pope is elected and accepts the election, he is asked, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope chooses the name by which he will be known from that point on. The senior cardinal deacon, or cardinal protodeacon, then appears on the balcony of Saint Peter's to proclaim the new pope by his birth name, and announce his papal name in Latin. It's customary when referring to popes to translate the regnal name into all local languages. For example, the current pope bears the papal name Papa Franciscus in Latin and Papa Francesco in Italian, but Papa Francisco in his native Spanish, Pope Francis in English, etc.

Official list of titles

The official list of titles of the pope, in the order in which they are given in the Annuario Pontificio, is:

Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, Servant of the servants of God.[137]

The best-known title, that of "pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus Paul VI signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "papa pontifex" ("pope and pontiff").[138][139][140][141][142]

The title "pope" was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for any bishop in the West.[18] In the East, it was used only for the bishop of Alexandria.[18] Marcellinus (d. 304) is the first bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title "pope" used of him. From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved this designation for the bishop of Rome.[18] From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century.[18]

In Eastern Christianity, where the title "pope" is used also of the bishop of Alexandria, the bishop of Rome is often referred to as the "pope of Rome", regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not.[143]

Vicar of Jesus Christ

"Vicar of Jesus Christ" (Vicarius Iesu Christi) is one of the official titles of the pope given in the Annuario Pontificio. It is commonly used in the slightly abbreviated form "vicar of Christ" (vicarius Christi). While it is only one of the terms with which the pope is referred to as "vicar", it is "more expressive of his supreme headship of the Church on Earth, which he bears in virtue of the commission of Christ and with vicarial power derived from him", a vicarial power believed to have been conferred on Saint Peter when Christ said to him: "Feed my lambs...Feed my sheep".[144][145]

The first record of the application of this title to a bishop of Rome appears in a synod of 495 with reference to Gelasius I.[146] But at that time, and down to the 9th century, other bishops too referred to themselves as vicars of Christ, and for another four centuries this description was sometimes used of kings and even judges,[147] as it had been used in the 5th and 6th centuries to refer to the Byzantine emperor.[148] Earlier still, in the 3rd century, Tertullian used "vicar of Christ" to refer to the Holy Spirit[149][150] sent by Jesus.[151] Its use specifically for the pope appears in the 13th century in connection with the reforms of Pope Innocent III,[148] as can be observed already in his 1199 letter to Leo I, King of Armenia.[152] Other historians suggest that this title was already used in this way in association with the pontificate of Eugene III (1145–1153).[146]

This title "vicar of Christ" is thus not used of the pope alone and has been used of all bishops since the early centuries.[153] The Second Vatican Council referred to all bishops as "vicars and ambassadors of Christ",[154] and this description of the bishops was repeated by John Paul II in his encyclical Ut unum sint, 95. The difference is that the other bishops are vicars of Christ for their own local churches, the pope is vicar of Christ for the whole Church.[155]

On at least one occasion the title "vicar of God" (a reference to Christ as God) was used of the pope.[145]

The title "vicar of Peter" (vicarius Petri) is used only of the pope, not of other bishops. Variations of it include: "Vicar of the Prince of the Apostles" (Vicarius Principis Apostolorum) and "Vicar of the Apostolic See" (Vicarius Sedis Apostolicae).[145] Saint Boniface described Pope Gregory II as vicar of Peter in the oath of fealty that he took in 722.[156] In today's Roman Missal, the description "vicar of Peter" is found also in the collect of the Mass for a saint who was a pope.[157]

Supreme pontiff

Entrance to Vatican City, with inscription "Benedictus XVI Pont(ifex) Max(imus) Anno Domini MMV Pont(ificatus) I.", i.e., "Benedict XVI, Pontifex Maximus, in the year of Our Lord 2005, the first year of his pontificate."

The term "pontiff" is derived from the Latin: pontifex, which literally means "bridge builder" (pons + facere) and which designated a member of the principal college of priests in pagan Rome.[158][159] The Latin word was translated into ancient Greek variously: as Ancient Greek: ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, Ancient Greek: ἱερονόμος, Ancient Greek: ἱεροφύλαξ, Ancient Greek: ἱεροφάντης (hierophant),[160] or Ancient Greek: ἀρχιερεύς (archiereus, high priest)[161][162] The head of the college was known as the Latin: Pontifex Maximus (the greatest pontiff).[163]

In Christian use, pontifex appears in the Vulgate translation of the New Testament to indicate the High Priest of Israel (in the original Koine Greek, ἀρχιερεύς).[164] The term came to be applied to any Christian bishop,[165] but since the 11th century commonly refers specifically to the bishop of Rome,[166] who is more strictly called the "Roman Pontiff". The use of the term to refer to bishops in general is reflected in the terms "Roman Pontifical" (a book containing rites reserved for bishops, such as confirmation and ordination), and "pontificals" (the insignia of bishops).[167]

The Annuario Pontificio lists as one of the official titles of the pope that of "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (Latin: Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis).[168] He is also commonly called the supreme pontiff or the sovereign pontiff (Latin: summus pontifex).[169]

Pontifex Maximus, similar in meaning to Summus Pontifex, is a title commonly found in inscriptions on papal buildings, paintings, statues and coins, usually abbreviated as "Pont. Max" or "P.M." The office of Pontifex Maximus, or head of the College of Pontiffs, was held by Julius Caesar and thereafter, by the Roman emperors, until Gratian (375–383) relinquished it.[160][170][171] Tertullian, when he had become a Montanist, used the title derisively of either the pope or the bishop of Carthage.[172] The popes began to use this title regularly only in the 15th century.[172]

Servant of the servants of God

Although the description "servant of the servants of God" (Latin: servus servorum Dei) was also used by other Church leaders, including Augustine of Hippo and Benedict of Nursia, it was first used extensively as a papal title by Gregory the Great, reportedly as a lesson in humility for the patriarch of Constantinople, John the Faster, who had assumed the title "ecumenical patriarch". It became reserved for the pope in the 12th century and is used in papal bulls and similar important papal documents.[173]

Patriarch of the West

From 1863 to 2005, and again in 2024, the Annuario Pontificio also included the title "patriarch of the West". This title was first used by Pope Theodore I in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church—and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern Churches, as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council.[174] "Patriarch of the West" was reintroduced to the pope's list of titles in the 2024 edition of the Annuario Pontifico. The Vatican has not made any statements explaining why the title has been brought back into use.[175]

Other titles

Other titles commonly used are "His Holiness" (either used alone or as an honorific prefix as in "His Holiness Pope Francis"; and as "Your Holiness" as a form of address), "Holy Father". In Spanish and Italian, "Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "Santísimo/Santissimo Padre" (Most Holy Father). In the medieval period, "Dominus Apostolicus" ("the Apostolic Lord") was also used.

Signature

Pope Francis signs some documents with his name alone, either in Latin ("Franciscus", as in an encyclical dated 29 June 2013)[176] or in another language.[177] Other documents he signs in accordance with the tradition of using Latin only and including the abbreviated form "PP.", for the Latin Papa ("Pope").[178] Popes who have an ordinal numeral in their name traditionally place the abbreviation "PP." before the ordinal numeral, as in "Benedictus PP. XVI" (Pope Benedict XVI), except in papal bulls of canonization and decrees of ecumenical councils, which a pope signs with the formula, "Ego N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae", without the numeral, as in "Ego Benedictus Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae" (I, Benedict, Bishop of the Catholic Church).

Regalia and insignia

The coat of arms of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.[182]

In heraldry, each pope has his own personal coat of arms. Though unique for each pope, the arms have for several centuries been traditionally accompanied by two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae (lappets—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is blazoned: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or". The 21st century has seen departures from this tradition. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI, while maintaining the crossed keys behind the shield, omitted the papal tiara from his personal coat of arms, replacing it with a mitre with three horizontal lines. Beneath the shield he added the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan archbishops as a sign of communion with the See of Rome. Although the tiara was omitted in the pope's personal coat of arms, the coat of arms of the Holy See, which includes the tiara, remained unaltered. In 2013, Pope Francis maintained the mitre that replaced the tiara, but omitted the pallium.

The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.[183]

Papal garments

Pope Pius V (reigned 1566–1572), is often credited with having originated the custom whereby the pope wears white, by continuing after his election to wear the white habit of the Dominican order. In reality, the basic papal attire was white long before. The earliest document that describes it as such is the Ordo XIII, a book of ceremonies compiled in about 1274. Later books of ceremonies describe the pope as wearing a red mantle, mozzetta, camauro and shoes, and a white cassock and stockings.[184][185] Many contemporary portraits of 15th and 16th-century predecessors of Pius V show them wearing a white cassock similar to his.[186]

Status and authority

Development

First Vatican Council

1881 illustration depicting papal infallibility

The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the council established the following canons:[187]

If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the apostles, and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be anathema.[188]

If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema.[189]

If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema.[190]

We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema.[191]

Second Vatican Council

Pope Pius XII, wearing the traditional 1877 Papal tiara, is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a sedia gestatoria c. 1955.

In its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (1964), the Second Vatican Council declared:

Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown so that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking. ... this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the College of Bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith.[192]

On 11 October 2012, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council 60 prominent theologians, (including Hans Küng), put out a Declaration, stating that the intention of Vatican II to balance authority in the Church has not been realized. "Many of the key insights of Vatican II have not at all, or only partially, been implemented... A principal source of present-day stagnation lies in misunderstanding and abuse affecting the exercise of authority in our Church."[193]

Politics of the Holy See

Pope Pius VII, bishop of Rome, seated, and Cardinal Caprara

Residence and jurisdiction

The pope's official seat is in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, considered the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome, and his official residence is the Apostolic Palace. He also possesses a summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, situated on the site of the ancient city of Alba Longa.

The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are ecclesiastical terminology for the ordinary jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Saint Peter, one of the twelve apostles.[194] Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his pontificate from being the bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in Avignon, France,[195] a period often called the "Babylonian captivity" in allusion to the Biblical narrative of Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah living as captives in Babylonia.

Though the pope is the diocesan bishop of Rome, he delegates most of the day-to-day work of leading the diocese to the cardinal vicar, who assures direct episcopal oversight of the diocese's pastoral needs, not in his own name but in that of the pope. The most recent cardinal vicar was Angelo De Donatis, who served from 2017 until 2024.

Political role

Antichristus, a woodcut by Lucas Cranach of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a generously contributing ruler

Though the progressive Christianization of the Roman Empire in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the Donation of Sutri, which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the Lombards. The pope may have utilized the forged Donation of Constantine to gain this land, which formed the core of the Papal States. This document, accepted as genuine until the 15th century, states that Constantine the Great placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of Charles V in 1530. Pius VII was present at the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804 but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy.

Popes like Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and Julius II, a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the emperors, such as during the pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III).

Papal bulls, interdict, and excommunication (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to exercise papal power. The bull Laudabiliter in 1155 authorized King Henry II of England to invade Ireland. In 1207, Innocent III placed England under interdict until King John made his kingdom a fiefdom to the pope, complete with yearly tribute, saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins".[196] The Bull Inter caetera in 1493 led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule. The bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I of England and declared that all her subjects were released from allegiance to her. The bull Inter gravissimas in 1582 established the Gregorian calendar.[197]

In recent decades, although the papacy has become less directly involved in politics, popes have nevertheless retained significant political influence. They have also served as mediators, with the support of the Catholic establishment.[198][199] John Paul II, a native of Poland, was regarded as influential in the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe.[200] He also mediated the Beagle conflict between Argentina and Chile, two predominantly Catholic countries.[201] In the 21st century, Francis played a role in brokering the 2015 improvement in relations between the United States and Cuba.[202][203]

International position

Under international law, a serving head of state has sovereign immunity from the jurisdiction of the courts of other countries, though not from that of international tribunals.[204][205] This immunity is sometimes loosely referred to as "diplomatic immunity", which is, strictly speaking, the immunity enjoyed by the diplomatic representatives of a head of state.

International law treats the Holy See, essentially the central government of the Catholic Church, as the juridical equal of a state. It is distinct from the state of Vatican City, existing for many centuries before the foundation of the latter. (It is common for publications and news media to use "the Vatican", "Vatican City", and even "Rome" as metonyms for the Holy See.) Most countries of the world maintain the same form of diplomatic relations with the Holy See that they entertain with other states. Even countries without those diplomatic relations participate in international organizations of which the Holy See is a full member.

It is as head of the state-equivalent worldwide religious jurisdiction of the Holy See (not of the territory of Vatican City) that the U.S. Justice Department ruled that the pope enjoys head-of-state immunity.[206] This head-of-state immunity, recognized by the United States, must be distinguished from that envisaged under the United States' Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976, which, while recognizing the basic immunity of foreign governments from being sued in American courts, lays down nine exceptions, including commercial activity and actions in the United States by agents or employees of the foreign governments. It was in relation to the latter that, in November 2008, the United States Court of Appeals in Cincinnati decided that a case over sexual abuse by Catholic priests could proceed, provided the plaintiffs could prove that the bishops accused of negligent supervision were acting as employees or agents of the Holy See and were following official Holy See policy.[207][208][209]

In April 2010, there was press coverage in Britain concerning a proposed plan by atheist campaigners and a prominent barrister, Geoffrey Robertson, to have Pope Benedict XVI arrested and prosecuted in the UK for alleged offences, dating from several decades before, in failing to take appropriate action regarding Catholic sex abuse cases and concerning their disputing his immunity from prosecution in that country.[210] This was generally dismissed as "unrealistic and spurious".[211] Another barrister said that it was a "matter of embarrassment that a senior British lawyer would want to allow himself to be associated with such a silly idea".[212]

Sovereign immunity does not apply to disputes relating to commercial transactions, and governmental units of the Holy See can face trial in foreign commercial courts. The first such trial to take place in the English courts is likely to occur in 2022 or 2023.[213][214]

Objections to the papacy

Antichristus, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, from Luther's 1521 Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist. The pope is signing and selling indulgences.

The pope's claim to authority is either disputed or rejected outright by other churches, for various reasons.

Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches

Other traditional Christian churches (Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Old Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic churches, etc.) accept the doctrine of Apostolic succession and, to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour, while generally rejecting the pope as the successor to Peter in any other sense than that of other bishops. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of universal immediate jurisdiction, or to claims of papal infallibility. Several of these churches refer to such claims as ultramontanism.

Protestant denominations

In 1973, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' Committee on Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs and the USA National Committee of the Lutheran World Federation in the official Catholic–Lutheran dialogue included this passage in a larger statement on papal primacy:

In calling the pope the "Antichrist", the early Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back into the eleventh century. Not only dissidents and heretics but even saints had called the bishop of Rome the "Antichrist" when they wished to castigate his abuse of power. What Lutherans understood as a papal claim to unlimited authority over everything and everyone reminded them of the apocalyptic imagery of Daniel 11, a passage that even prior to the Reformation had been applied to the pope as the Antichrist of the last days.[215]

Protestant denominations of Christianity reject the claims of Petrine primacy of honour, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from rejecting the legitimacy of the pope's claim to authority, to believing that the pope is the Antichrist[216] from 1 John 2:18, the Man of Sin from 2 Thessalonians 2:3–12,[217] and the Beast out of the Earth from Revelation 13:11–18.[218]

Christus, by Lucas Cranach. This woodcut of John 13:14–17 is from Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist.[219] Cranach shows Jesus kissing Peter's foot during the footwashing. This stands in contrast to the opposing woodcut, where the pope demands others kiss his foot.
Antichristus, by the Lutheran Lucas Cranach the Elder. This woodcut of the traditional practice of kissing the pope's foot is from Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist.

This sweeping rejection is held by, among others, some denominations of Lutherans: Confessional Lutherans hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a quia ("because") rather than quatenus ("insofar as") subscription to the Book of Concord. In 1932, one of these Confessional churches, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), adopted A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod, which a small number of Lutheran church bodies now hold. The Lutheran Churches of the Reformation,[220] the Concordia Lutheran Conference,[221] the Church of the Lutheran Confession,[222] and the Illinois Lutheran Conference[223] all hold to the Brief Statement, which the LCMS places on its website.[224] The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), another Confessional Lutheran church that declares the Papacy to be the Antichrist, released its own statement, the "Statement on the Antichrist", in 1959. The WELS still holds to this statement.[225]

Historically, Protestants objected to the papacy's claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy,[226] the papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the Roman and Byzantine empires, and the autocratic character of the papal office.[227] In Western Christianity these objections both contributed to and are products of the Protestant Reformation.

Antipopes

Groups sometimes form around antipopes, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church (heresy) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (schism). Briefly in the 15th century, three separate lines of popes claimed authenticity.[228]

Other uses of the title "Pope"

In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope", meaning "father", had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others did not. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

In English, Catholic priests are still addressed as "father", but the term "pope" is reserved for the head of the church hierarchy.

In the Catholic Church

"Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but unofficially, given to the superior general of the Society of Jesus due to the Jesuits' importance within the Church. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of Pius V the popes dress in white) and the cardinal prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,[229] but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where Protestants or Eastern Christianity was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, New Zealand is still in the care of this Congregation.

In the Eastern Churches

Since the papacy of Heraclas in the 3rd century, the bishop of Alexandria in both the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria continues to be called "pope", the former being called "Coptic pope" or, more properly, "Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle" and the latter called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa".[230]

In the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church and Macedonian Orthodox Church, it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" pop). This is different from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" papa, Russian "папа римский" papa rimskiy).

In new religious movements and other Christian-related new religious movements

Some new religious movements within Christianity, especially those that have disassociated themselves from the Catholic Church yet retain a Catholic hierarchical framework, have used the designation "pope" for a founder or current leader. Examples include the African Legio Maria Church and the European Palmarian Catholic Church in Spain. The Cao Dai, a Vietnamese faith that duplicates the Catholic hierarchy, is similarly headed by a pope.

Lengths of papal reign

Longest-reigning popes

Pope Pius IX, the pope with the longest verifiable reign

The longest papal reigns of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:

  1. Saint Peter (c. 30–64/68): c. 34 – c. 38 years (Around 12,000–14,000 days)[231]
  2. Bl. Pius IX (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days)
  3. St. John Paul II (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days)
  4. Leo XIII (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days)
  5. Pius VI (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days)
  6. Adrian I (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days)
  7. Pius VII (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days)
  8. Alexander III (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days)
  9. St. Sylvester I (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days)
  10. St. Leo I (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days (7,713 days)

During the Western Schism, Avignon Pope Benedict XIII (1394–1423) ruled for 28 years, 7 months and 12 days, which would place him third in the above list. Since he is regarded as an anti-pope, he is not included there.

Shortest-reigning popes

Pope Urban VII, the shortest-reigning pope

There have been a number of popes whose reign lasted about a month or less. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this counts as reigning for two calendar days.

  1. Urban VII (15–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before coronation.
  2. Boniface VI (April 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
  3. Celestine IV (25 October – 10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before coronation.
  4. Theodore II (December 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
  5. Sisinnius (15 January – 4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days
  6. Marcellus II (9 April – 1 May 1555): reigned for 23 calendar days
  7. Damasus II (17 July – 9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days
  8. Pius III (22 September – 18 October 1503) and Leo XI (1–27 April 1605): both reigned for 27 calendar days
  9. Benedict V (22 May – 23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days
  10. Bl. John Paul I (26 August – 28 September 1978): reigned for 34 calendar days

Stephen (23–26 March 752) died of stroke three days after his election, and before his consecration as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the 15th century as Stephen II, causing difficulties in enumerating later popes named Stephen. The Holy See's Annuario Pontificio, in its list of popes and antipopes, attaches a footnote to its mention of Pope Stephen II:

On the death of Zachary the Roman priest Stephen was elected; but, since four days later he died, before his consecratio, which according to the canon law of the time was the true commencement of his pontificate, his name is not registered in the Liber Pontificalis nor in other lists of the popes.[232]

Published every year by the Roman Curia, the Annuario Pontificio attaches no consecutive numbers to the popes, stating that it is impossible to decide which side represented at various times the legitimate succession, in particular regarding Pope Leo VIII, Pope Benedict V and some mid-11th-century popes.[233]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ According to Catholic ecclesiology, Jesus Christ is the "invisible head" of the Church, while the Pope is the "visible head".
  2. ^ pontifex maximus or summus pontifex
  3. ^ Romanus pontifex
  4. ^ The papacy was an influence in regulating the colonization of the New World. See Treaty of Tordesillas and Inter caetera.
  5. ^ "Continuing in that same undertaking, this Council is resolved to declare and proclaim before all men the doctrine concerning bishops, the successors of the apostles, who together with the successor of Peter, the Vicar of Christ, the visible Head of the whole Church, govern the house of the living God."[28]
  6. ^ "From an historical perspective, there is no conclusive documentary evidence from the first century or the early decades of the second century of the exercise of, or even the claim to, a primacy of the Roman bishop or to a connection with Peter, although documents from this period accord the church at Rome some kind of pre‑eminence";[41] and "The see of Rome, whose prominence was associated with the deaths of Peter and Paul, became the principal center in matters concerning the universal Church".[42] The same writer quotes with approval the words of Joseph Ratzinger: "In Phanar, on 25 July 1976, when Patriarch Athenegoras addressed the visiting pope as Peter's successor, the first in honor among us, and the presider over charity, this great church leader was expressing the essential content of the declarations of the primacy of the first millennium".[43]

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  99. ^ Henry, Matthew. "Commentary on Matthew 16:18". Matthew Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible. StudyLight.org. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2013. First, Some by this rock understand Peter himself as an apostle, the chief, though not the prince, of the twelve, senior among them, but not superior over them. The church is built upon the foundation of the apostles, Ephesians 2:20. The first stones of that building were laid in and by their ministry; hence their names are said to be written in the foundations of the new Jerusalem, Revelation 21:14... First, Some by this rock understand Peter himself as an apostle, the chief, though not the prince, of the twelve, senior among them, but not superior over them. The church is built upon the foundation of the apostles, Ephesians 2:20. The first stones of that building were laid in and by their ministry; hence their names are said to be written in the foundations of the new Jerusalem, Revelation 21:14. ... Thirdly, Others by this rock understand this confession which Peter made of Christ, and this comes all to one with understanding it of Christ himself. It was a good confession which Peter witnessed, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God; the rest concurred with him in it. "Now", saith Christ, "this is that great truth upon which I will build my church." 1. Take away this truth itself, and the universal church falls to the ground. If Christ be not the Son of God, Christianity is a cheat, and the church is a mere chimera; our preaching is vain, your faith is vain, and you are yet in your sins, 1 Corinthians 15:14–17. If Jesus be not the Christ, those that own him are not of the church, but deceivers and deceived. 2. Take away the faith and confession of this truth from any particular church, and it ceases to be a part of Christ's church, and relapses to the state and character of infidelity. This is articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesia – that article, with the admission or the denial of which the church either rises or falls; "the main hinge on which the door of salvation turns;" those who let go this, do not hold the foundation; and though they may call themselves Christians, they give themselves the lie; for the church is a sacred society, incorporated upon the certainty and assurance of this great truth; and great it is, and has prevailed.
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Bibliography

Further reading

External links