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лютеранство

Лютеранство — одно из основных направлений протестантизма , которое в первую очередь отождествляет себя с теологией Мартина Лютера , немецкого монаха и реформатора XVI века , чьи усилия по реформированию теологии и практики католической церкви положили начало Реформации в 1517 году. [1] Впоследствии лютеранство стало государственной религией многих частей Северной Европы , начиная с Пруссии в 1525 году.

В 1521 году раскол между лютеранами и Римско-католической церковью был публично и ясно обозначен Вормсским эдиктом , в котором сейм осудил Лютера и официально запретил подданным Священной Римской империи защищать или распространять идеи Лютера, грозя сторонникам лютеранства конфискацией всего имущества. Половина из него затем конфисковывалась имперскому правительству, а оставшаяся половина — обвиняющей стороне. [2]

Разделение в основном касалось двух моментов: надлежащего источника власти в церкви, часто называемого формальным принципом Реформации, и доктрины оправдания, материального принципа лютеранской теологии. [a] Лютеранство отстаивает доктрину оправдания «только по благодати , только через веру на основе только Писания », доктрину о том, что Писание является окончательным авторитетом во всех вопросах веры. Это контрастирует с верой Римско-католической церкви, определенной на Тридентском соборе , которая утверждает, что окончательный авторитет исходит как из Писания, так и из традиции . [3]

В отличие от кальвинизма , лютеранство сохраняет многие литургические практики и таинства учений дореформационной Западной Церкви, уделяя особое внимание Евхаристии, или Вечере Господней, хотя восточное лютеранство использует византийский обряд . [4] Лютеранское богословие отличается от реформатского богословия в христологии , божественной благодати , цели Закона Божьего , концепции стойкости святых и предопределения , а также в других вопросах.

Этимология

Название «лютеране» возникло как уничижительный термин, который использовал против Лютера немецкий теолог -схоласт Иоганн Майер фон Экк во время Лейпцигских дебатов в июле 1519 года. [5] Экк и другие римские католики следовали традиционной практике называть ересь именем ее лидера, таким образом называя всех, кто отождествлял себя с теологией Мартина Лютера , лютеранами. [2]

Мартин Лютер всегда не любил термин «лютеранин» , предпочитая термин «евангелический », который произошел от εὐαγγέλιον euangelion , греческого слова, означающего «благая весть», т. е. « Евангелие ». [5] Последователи Жана Кальвина , Хульдриха Цвингли и другие теологи, связанные с реформатской традицией, также использовали этот термин. Чтобы различать две евангелические группы, другие начали называть их евангелическими лютеранами и евангелическими реформаторами . Со временем слово «евангелический» было исключено. Сами лютеране начали использовать термин «лютеранство» в середине XVI века, чтобы отличать себя от других групп, таких как анабаптисты и кальвинисты .

В 1597 году теологи Виттенберга определили название «лютеранин» как относящееся к истинной церкви. [2]

История

Мартин Лютер , портрет Мартина Лютера , написанный Лукасом Кранахом Старшим в 1529 году.

Лютеранство берет свое начало в трудах Мартина Лютера , который стремился реформировать Западную Церковь на основе, которую он считал более библейской. [6] [7] Реакция правительства и церковных властей на международное распространение его трудов, начиная с Девяноста пяти тезисов , разделила западное христианство . [8] Во время Реформации лютеранство стало государственной религией многих государств Северной Европы , особенно в Северной Германии , Скандинавии и тогдашнем Ливонском ордене . Лютеранское духовенство стало государственными служащими, а лютеранские церкви стали частью государства. [1]

Распространение в Северной Европе

Титульный лист шведской Библии Густава Вазы , переведенной братьями Олаусом Петри и Лаурентиусом Петри и Лаурентиусом Андреа

Лютеранство распространилось по всей Скандинавии в XVI веке, когда монархи Дании-Норвегии и Швеции приняли эту веру. Через балтийско-немецкое и шведское правление лютеранство также распространилось в Эстонии и Латвии . Оно также начало распространяться в Литве, где практически все члены литовской знати обратились в лютеранство или кальвинизм , но в конце XVII века протестантизм в целом начал терять поддержку из-за Контрреформации и религиозных преследований . [9] Однако в Малой Литве , находящейся под немецким управлением , лютеранство оставалось доминирующей ветвью христианства. [10] Лютеранство сыграло решающую роль в сохранении литовского языка . [11]

С 1520 года в Копенгагене проводились регулярные [12] лютеранские службы . Во время правления Фридриха I (1523–1533) Дания-Норвегия официально оставалась католической. Хотя Фридрих изначально обещал преследовать лютеран, вскоре он принял политику защиты лютеранских проповедников и реформаторов, наиболее значительным из которых был Ганс Таузен . [13]

Во время правления Фридриха лютеранство значительно проникло в Данию. На открытом собрании в Копенгагене, на котором присутствовал король Кристиан III в 1536 году, люди кричали: «Мы будем стоять за святое Евангелие и больше не хотим таких епископов». [14] Сын Фридриха был открытым лютеранином, что помешало его избранию на престол после смерти отца в 1533 году. Однако после победы в последовавшей гражданской войне в 1536 году он стал Кристианом III и продвинул Реформацию в Дании и Норвегии .

Конституция, на которой, согласно Церковному уставу , должна была основываться Датско-Норвежская Церковь, была «Чистое Слово Божие, которое есть Закон и Евангелие». [15] В ней не упоминается Аугсбургское исповедание . [12] Священники должны были достаточно хорошо понимать Священное Писание, чтобы проповедовать и объяснять Евангелие и Послания своим прихожанам. [12]

Молодежь обучалась [16] по «Краткому катехизису» Лютера , доступному на датском языке с 1532 года. Их учили ожидать в конце жизни: [12] «прощения грехов», «быть признанным праведным» и «вечной жизни». Наставления по-прежнему схожи. [17]

Первая полная Библия на датском языке была основана на переводе Мартина Лютера на немецкий язык . Она была опубликована в 1550 году тиражом 3000 экземпляров в первом издании; второе издание было опубликовано в 1589 году. [18] В отличие от католицизма, лютеранство не верит, что традиция является носителем «Слова Божьего», или что только причастию епископа Рима было доверено толковать «Слово Божье». [12] [19]

Реформация в Швеции началась с Олауса и Лаурентиуса Петри , братьев, которые принесли Реформацию в Швецию после обучения в Германии. Они привели Густава Вазу , избранного королем в 1523 году, к лютеранству. Отказ папы разрешить замену архиепископа, который поддерживал вторгшиеся силы, выступавшие против Густава Вазы во время Стокгольмской кровавой бани, привел к разрыву любой официальной связи между Швецией и папством в 1523 году. [13]

Четыре года спустя, на Вестеросском сейме  [sv] , королю удалось заставить сейм признать его господство над национальной церковью. Королю было передано во владение все церковное имущество, а также церковные назначения и одобрение духовенства. Хотя это фактически предоставило официальное одобрение лютеранским идеям, [13] лютеранство не стало официальным до 1593 года. В то время Уппсальский синод объявил Священное Писание единственным руководством для веры, с четырьмя документами, принятыми в качестве верных и авторитетных его объяснений: Апостольский символ веры , Никейский символ веры , Афанасьевский символ веры и неизмененное Аугсбургское исповедание 1530 года. [20] Перевод Микаэля Агриколы первого финского Нового Завета был опубликован в 1548 году. [21]

Контрреформация и споры

Копия церкви Хундскирхе

После смерти Мартина Лютера в 1546 году Шмалькальденская война началась как конфликт между двумя немецкими лютеранскими правителями в 1547 году. Вскоре войска Священной Римской империи присоединились к битве и завоевали членов Шмалькальденской лиги , притесняя и изгоняя многих немецких лютеран, поскольку они обеспечивали соблюдение условий Аугсбургского временного соглашения . Религиозная свобода в некоторых областях была обеспечена для лютеран через Пассауский мир в 1552 году и в соответствии с правовым принципом Cuius regio, eius religio (религия правителя должна была диктовать религию управляемых) и пунктами Declaratio Ferdinandei (ограниченная религиозная терпимость ) Аугсбургского мира в 1555 году. [22]

Религиозные споры между криптокальвинистами , филиппистами , сакраментарианцами , убиквитарианцами и гнесиолютеранами бушевали в лютеранстве в середине XVI века. Они в конечном итоге закончились разрешением вопросов в Формуле согласия . Большое количество политически и религиозно влиятельных лидеров собрались вместе, обсудили и решили эти темы на основе Писания, что привело к появлению Формулы, которую подписали более 8000 лидеров. Книга согласия заменила более ранние, неполные сборники доктрин , объединив всех немецких лютеран с одинаковой доктриной и начав период лютеранского православия.

В странах, где католицизм был государственной религией, лютеранство было официально незаконным, хотя меры по обеспечению соблюдения были разными. До конца Контрреформации некоторые лютеране тайно молились, например, в Hundskirke (что переводится как собачья церковь или собачий алтарь), треугольном камне для причастия в канаве между крестами в Патернионе , Австрия. Коронованный змей, возможно, является намеком на Фердинанда II, императора Священной Римской империи , в то время как собака, возможно, относится к Петру Канизию . Другая фигура, интерпретируемая как улитка, несущая церковную башню, возможно, является метафорой протестантской церкви. Также на камне есть число 1599 и фраза, переводимая как «так попадает в мир». [23]

лютеранская ортодоксальность

Йенский университет в Германии, центр гнесио-лютеранской деятельности, приведшей к Формуле Согласия , и центр лютеранской ортодоксальности
Датская королева София Магдалина выразила свои пиетистские настроения в 1737 году, основав лютеранский монастырь .

Исторический период лютеранского православия делится на три раздела: Раннее православие (1580–1600), Высокое православие (1600–1685) и Позднее православие (1685–1730). Лютеранская схоластика развивалась постепенно, особенно с целью спора с иезуитами , и была окончательно установлена ​​Иоганном Герхардом . Авраам Каловий представляет собой кульминацию схоластической парадигмы в ортодоксальном лютеранстве. Другие ортодоксальные лютеранские богословы включают Мартина Хемница , Эгидия Гунниуса , Леонарда Хуттера , Николауса Гунниуса , Йеспера Расмуссена Брохманда , Саломо Глассиуса , Иоганна Хюльземанна , Иоганна Конрада Даннхауэра , Иоганнеса Андреаса Квенштедта , Иоганна Фридриха Кёнига и Иоганна Вильгельма Байера .

Ближе к концу Тридцатилетней войны дух компромисса, который можно было наблюдать у Филиппа Меланхтона, снова поднялся в школе Гельмштедта и особенно в теологии Георгия Каликста , вызвав синкретический спор . Другой возникшей теологической проблемой был крипто-кенотический спор. [24]

Поздняя ортодоксия была разорвана влияниями рационализма , философии, основанной на разуме, и пиетизма , возрожденческого движения в лютеранстве. После столетия жизненной силы пиетистские теологи Филипп Якоб Шпенер и Август Герман Франке предупреждали, что ортодоксия выродилась в бессмысленный интеллектуализм и формализм , в то время как ортодоксальные теологи обнаружили, что эмоциональные и субъективные фокусы пиетизма уязвимы для рационалистической пропаганды. [25] В 1688 году финский радикальный пиетист Ларс Ульстадиус пробежал по главному проходу собора Турку голым, крича, что позор финских священнослужителей будет раскрыт, как и его нынешний позор.

Последним известным ортодоксальным лютеранским теологом до рационалистического Aufklärung , или Просвещения , был Давид Холлатц . Поздний ортодоксальный теолог Валентин Эрнст Лёшер принимал участие в полемике против пиетизма . Средневековые мистические традиции продолжились в работах Мартина Моллера , Иоганна Арндта и Иоахима Люткемана . Пиетизм стал соперником ортодоксии , но перенял некоторую религиозную литературу ортодоксальных теологов , включая Арндта, Кристиана Скривера и Стефана Преториуса .

Рационализм

Рационалистические философы из Франции и Англии оказали огромное влияние в XVIII веке, наряду с немецкими рационалистами Христианом Вольфом , Готфридом Лейбницем и Иммануилом Кантом . Их работа привела к росту рационалистических убеждений, «за счет веры в Бога и согласия с Библией». [25]

В 1709 году Валентин Эрнст Лёшер предупреждал, что этот новый рационалистический взгляд на мир фундаментально изменил общество, поставив под сомнение каждый аспект теологии. Вместо того чтобы рассматривать авторитет божественного откровения, объяснял он, рационалисты полагались исключительно на свое личное понимание в поисках истины. [26]

Иоганн Мельхиор Гёзе (1717–1786), пастор церкви Святой Екатерины в Гамбурге , написал апологетические труды против рационалистов, включая теологическую и историческую защиту от исторической критики Библии. [27]

Несогласные лютеранские пасторы часто подвергались выговору со стороны правительственной бюрократии, контролировавшей их, например, когда они пытались исправить влияние рационализма в приходской школе. [28] В результате влияния местной формы рационализма, называемой неологией , ко второй половине XVIII века подлинное благочестие можно было найти почти исключительно в небольших пиетистских конвентикулах. [25] Однако некоторые миряне сохранили лютеранскую ортодоксальность как от пиетизма, так и от рационализма, повторно используя старые катехизисы, сборники гимнов, постили и молитвенные сочинения, включая написанные Иоганном Герхардом , Генрихом Мюллером и Кристианом Скривером . [29]

Возрождения

Монастырь 19 века в Хауге
«Ольберс » , один из кораблей, перевозивших старых лютеран в Западное полушарие.
Представляя непрерывную традицию финского пробуждения , молодежь проходит конфирмацию на усадьбе Пааво Руотсалайнена в Нильсии , Финляндия.

Лютеровский ученый Иоганн Георг Хаманн (1730–1788), мирянин, прославился тем, что противостоял рационализму и стремился продвигать возрождение, известное как Erweckung , или Пробуждение . [30] В 1806 году вторжение Наполеона в Германию способствовало развитию рационализма и разозлило немецких лютеран, вызвав желание среди людей защитить теологию Лютера от угрозы рационалистов. Те, кто был связан с этим Пробуждением, считали, что разум недостаточен, и указывали на важность эмоциональных религиозных переживаний. [31] [32]

Возникали небольшие группы, часто в университетах, которые посвящали себя изучению Библии, чтению молитвенных текстов и встречам возрождения. Хотя начало этого Пробуждения в значительной степени тяготело к романтизму, патриотизму и опыту, акцент Пробуждения сместился около 1830 года на восстановление традиционной литургии, доктрины и исповеданий лютеранства в неолютеранском движении. [31] [32]

Это Пробуждение охватило всю Скандинавию, за исключением Исландии . [33] Оно развилось из немецкого неолютеранства и пиетизма. Датский пастор и философ НФС Грундтвиг преобразовал церковную жизнь по всей Дании посредством реформаторского движения, начавшегося в 1830 году. Он также написал около 1500 гимнов, включая « Слово Божье — наше великое наследие ». [34]

В Норвегии Ганс Нильсен Хауге , уличный проповедник, подчеркивал важность духовной дисциплины и положил начало хаугеанскому движению, [35] за которым последовало Джонсоновское пробуждение в государственной церкви. [36] Пробуждение вывело рост иностранных миссий в Норвегии для нехристиан на новую высоту, которая с тех пор никогда не достигалась. [33] В Швеции Ларс Леви Лестадиус начал лестадианское движение , которое подчеркивало моральную реформу. [35] В Финляндии фермер Пааво Руотсалайнен начал финское пробуждение, когда начал проповедовать о покаянии и молитве. [35]

В 1817 году Фридрих Вильгельм III Прусский приказал объединить лютеранские и реформатские церкви на своей территории, образовав Прусский союз церквей . Объединение двух ветвей немецкого протестантизма вызвало раскол старолютеран . Многие лютеране, называемые « старолютеранами », решили покинуть государственные церкви, несмотря на тюремное заключение и военную силу. [30] Некоторые сформировали независимые церковные органы, или « свободные церкви », дома, в то время как другие уехали в Соединенные Штаты, Канаду и Австралию. Подобное законодательное слияние в Силезии побудило тысячи людей присоединиться к старолютеранскому движению. Спор об экуменизме затмил другие противоречия внутри немецкого лютеранства. [37]

Несмотря на политическое вмешательство в церковную жизнь, местные и национальные лидеры стремились восстановить и обновить христианство. Неолютеранин Иоганн Конрад Вильгельм Лёэ и лидер старой лютеранской свободной церкви Фридрих Август Брюнн [38] оба отправили молодых людей за границу, чтобы они служили пасторами для немецких американцев , в то время как Внутренняя миссия сосредоточилась на обновлении ситуации дома. [39] Иоганн Готфрид Гердер , суперинтендант в Веймаре и часть движения Внутренней миссии, присоединился к романтическому движению в своем стремлении сохранить человеческие эмоции и опыт от рационализма. [40]

Эрнст Вильгельм Хенгстенберг , хотя и вырос в реформатской вере, в молодости убедился в истинности исторического лютеранства. [41] Он возглавлял Неолютеранскую школу репристинации теологии, которая выступала за возвращение к ортодоксальным теологам 17-го века и выступала против современной библейской науки. [42] [ требуется лучший источник ] Будучи редактором периодического издания Evangelische Kirchenzeitung , он превратил ее в главную поддержку неолютеранского возрождения и использовал ее для нападок на все формы теологического либерализма и рационализма. Хотя он получил большое количество клеветы и насмешек за свои сорок лет во главе возрождения, он никогда не сдавал своих позиций. [41]

Теологический факультет в Университете Эрлангена в Баварии стал еще одной силой реформ. [41] Там профессор Адольф фон Харлесс , хотя ранее он был приверженцем рационализма и немецкого идеализма , сделал Эрланген магнитом для теологов, ориентированных на возрождение. [43] Названные Эрлангенской школой теологии, они разработали новую версию Воплощения , [ 43] которая, по их мнению, подчеркивала человечность Иисуса лучше, чем экуменические символы веры. [44] Как теологи, они использовали как современные исторические критические, так и гегелевские философские методы вместо того, чтобы пытаться возродить ортодоксальность 17-го века. [45]

Фридрих Юлиус Шталь возглавлял лютеран Высокой церкви . Хотя он был воспитан евреем, он был крещен как христианин в возрасте 19 лет под влиянием лютеранской школы, которую он посещал. Как лидер неофеодальной прусской политической партии, он боролся за божественное право королей , власть дворянства и епископальное устройство церкви. Вместе с Теодором Клифотом и Августом Фридрихом Христианом Вильмаром он продвигал соглашение с Римско-католической церковью в отношении авторитета институциональной церкви , ex opere operato эффективности таинств и божественного авторитета духовенства. Однако, в отличие от католиков, они также настаивали на полном согласии с Книгой Согласия . [44]

Неолютеранскому движению удалось замедлить секуляризм и противостоять атеистическому марксизму , но оно не достигло полного успеха в Европе. [39] Оно частично преуспело в продолжении движения пиетистов по исправлению социальных несправедливостей и сосредоточению на индивидуальном обращении. Неолютеранский призыв к обновлению не смог получить широкого народного признания, потому что он и начался, и продолжался с возвышенного, идеалистического романтизма , который не был связан с все более индустриализированной и секуляризированной Европой. [46] Работа местных лидеров привела к определенным областям яркого духовного обновления, но люди в лютеранских районах становились все более далекими от церковной жизни. [39] Кроме того, движения возрождения были разделены философскими традициями. Школа репристинации и старые лютеране тяготели к кантианству, в то время как школа Эрлангена продвигала консервативную гегелевскую точку зрения . К 1969 году Манфрид Кобер жаловался, что «неверие процветает» даже в немецких лютеранских приходах. [47]

Доктрина

Библия

Перевод Библии Лютера 1534 года
Моисей и Илия указывают грешнику, ищущему Божьего спасения, на крест, где он может его обрести. Это лютеранский идеал, известный как теология креста .

Традиционно лютеране считают, что Писания Ветхого и Нового Заветов являются единственными богодухновенными книгами, единственными доступными в настоящее время источниками божественного знания и единственным непогрешимым источником христианского учения. [48] Только Писание является формальным принципом веры, окончательным авторитетом во всех вопросах веры и морали из-за его богодухновенности, авторитетности, ясности, действенности и достаточности. [49]

Авторитет Писания оспаривался в истории лютеранства. Мартин Лютер учил, что Библия была написанным Словом Божьим и единственным непогрешимым руководством для веры и практики. Он считал, что каждый отрывок Писания имеет одно прямое значение, буквальный смысл, интерпретируемый другим Писанием. [50] Эти учения были приняты во время ортодоксального лютеранства 17-го века. [51] В 18-м веке рационализм отстаивал разум, а не авторитет Библии как конечный источник знания, но большинство мирян не приняли эту рационалистическую позицию. [52] В 19-м веке конфессиональное возрождение вновь подчеркнуло авторитет Писания и согласие с лютеранскими исповеданиями.

Сегодня лютеране расходятся во мнениях о вдохновении и авторитете Библии. Теологические консерваторы используют историко-грамматический метод толкования Библии, в то время как теологические либералы используют более высокий критический метод. Исследование религиозного ландшафта США 2008 года, проведенное Исследовательским центром Пью, опросило 1926 взрослых в Соединенных Штатах, которые идентифицировали себя как лютеран. Исследование показало, что 30% считали, что Библия была Словом Божьим и ее следует понимать буквально слово в слово. 40% считали, что Библия была Словом Божьим, но не была буквально верной слово в слово или были не уверены. 23% сказали, что Библия была написана людьми, а не Словом Божьим. 7% не знали, не были уверены или имели другие позиции. [53]

Вдохновение

Хотя многие лютеране сегодня придерживаются менее конкретных взглядов на вдохновение , исторически лютеране утверждают, что Библия не просто содержит Слово Божье, но каждое ее слово, из-за полного, словесного вдохновения, является прямым, непосредственным словом Божьим. [54] Апология Аугсбургского исповедания отождествляет Священное Писание со Словом Божьим [55] и называет Святого Духа автором Библии. [56] Из-за этого лютеране исповедуют в Формуле Согласия , что «мы принимаем и принимаем всем нашим сердцем пророческие и апостольские Писания Ветхого и Нового Заветов как чистый, ясный источник Израиля». [57] Пророческие и апостольские Писания исповедуются как подлинные и написанные пророками и апостолами. Правильный перевод их писаний рассматривается как Слово Божье, потому что он имеет то же значение, что и оригинальный еврейский и греческий. [58] Неправильный перевод не является словом Божьим, и никакой человеческий авторитет не может наделить его божественным авторитетом. [58]

Ясность

Исторически лютеране понимают Библию как ясно излагающую все доктрины и заповеди христианской веры . [59] Кроме того, лютеране верят, что Слово Божье свободно доступно каждому читателю или слушателю с обычным интеллектом, без необходимости какого-либо специального образования. [60] Лютеранин должен понимать язык, на котором представлены Священные Писания, и не должен быть настолько озабочен ошибками, чтобы помешать пониманию. [61] В результате этого лютеране не верят, что нужно ждать, пока какое-либо духовенство, Папа, ученый или Вселенский собор объяснят истинное значение любой части Библии. [62]

Эффективность

Лютеране признают, что Писание соединено с силой Святого Духа и с ней не только требует, но и создает принятие своего учения. [63] Это учение производит веру и послушание. Священное Писание не является мертвой буквой, но, скорее, сила Святого Духа присуща ему. [64] Писание не принуждает к простому интеллектуальному согласию со своим учением, опираясь на логическую аргументацию, но, скорее, оно создает живое согласие веры. [65] Как утверждают Шмалькальденские артикулы , «в тех вещах, которые касаются изреченного, внешнего Слова, мы должны твердо держаться того, что Бог не дарует Своего Духа или благодати никому, кроме как через или с предшествующим внешним Словом». [66]

Достаточность

Закон и благодать , портрет Лукаса Кранаха Старшего ; левая сторона показывает осуждение людей по закону Божьему, а правая сторона представляет Божью благодать во Христе.

Лютеране уверены, что Библия содержит все, что нужно знать, чтобы обрести спасение и жить христианской жизнью. [67] В Писании нет недостатков, которые нужно восполнять традицией, высказываниями Папы , новыми откровениями или современным развитием доктрины . [68]

Закон и Евангелие

Лютеране понимают Библию как содержащую два различных типа содержания, называемых Законом и Евангелием (или Законом и Обещаниями). [69] Правильное разграничение Закона и Евангелия предотвращает затуманивание евангельского учения об оправдании по благодати только через веру. [70]

Лютеранские исповеди

Титульный лист Книги Согласия , опубликованной в 1580 году.

Книга Согласия , опубликованная в 1580 году, содержит 10 документов, которые некоторые лютеране считают верными и авторитетными объяснениями Священного Писания. Помимо трех Вселенских Символов Веры , которые датируются римскими временами , Книга Согласия содержит семь документов, излагающих лютеранское богословие в эпоху Реформации.

Доктринальные позиции лютеранских церквей не являются единообразными, поскольку Книга Согласия не занимает одинакового положения во всех лютеранских церквях. Например, государственные церкви в Скандинавии рассматривают только Аугсбургское исповедание в качестве «краткого изложения веры» в дополнение к трем вселенским символам веры. [71] Лютеранские пасторы, общины и церковные органы в Германии и Америке обычно соглашаются учить в гармонии со всеми лютеранскими исповеданиями. Некоторые лютеранские церковные органы требуют, чтобы это обещание было безусловным, поскольку они считают, что исповедания правильно излагают то, чему учит Библия. Другие позволяют своим общинам делать это «постольку, поскольку» исповедания согласуются с Библией. Кроме того, лютеране принимают учения первых семи вселенских соборов христианской церкви. [72] [73]

Лютеранская церковь традиционно рассматривает себя как «главный ствол исторического христианского древа», основанного Христом и апостолами, утверждая, что во время Реформации Римская церковь отпала . [74] [75] Таким образом, Аугсбургское исповедание учит, что «вера, исповедуемая Лютером и его последователями, не является чем-то новым, но истинной католической верой, и что их церкви представляют истинную католическую или вселенскую церковь». [76] Когда лютеране представили Аугсбургское исповедание Карлу V, императору Священной Римской империи , они объяснили, «что каждый пункт веры и практики был верен прежде всего Священному Писанию, а затем также учению отцов церкви и соборов». [76]

Оправдание

Лютеранская вера проповедует, что всякий, кто верует только в Иисуса, получит спасение по благодати Божьей и войдет в небеса навечно.

Ключевой доктриной, или материальным принципом , лютеранства является доктрина оправдания . Лютеране верят, что люди спасаются от своих грехов только по благодати Божьей ( Sola Gratia ), только через веру ( Sola Fide ), на основе только Писания ( Sola Scriptura ). [77] Ортодоксальное лютеранское богословие утверждает, что Бог сотворил мир, включая человечество, совершенным, святым и безгрешным. Однако Адам и Ева решили не повиноваться Богу, полагаясь на свою собственную силу, знания и мудрость. [78] [79] Следовательно, люди обременены первородным грехом , рождаются грешными и неспособны избегать совершения греховных поступков. [80] Для лютеран первородный грех является «главным грехом, корнем и источником всех настоящих грехов». [81]

Лютеране учат, что грешники, хотя и способны совершать дела, которые внешне «хороши», не способны совершать дела, которые удовлетворяют справедливость Божию. [82] Каждая человеческая мысль и дело заражены грехом и греховными мотивами . [83] Из-за этого все человечество заслуживает вечного осуждения в аду . [84] Бог в вечности обратил Свое Отцовское сердце к этому миру и задумал его искупление, потому что он любит всех людей и не хочет, чтобы кто-либо был вечно осужден. [85]

С этой целью «Бог послал Своего Сына Иисуса Христа, нашего Господа, в мир, чтобы искупить и избавить нас от власти дьявола, и привести нас к Себе, и управлять нами как Царь праведности, жизни и спасения от греха, смерти и злой совести», как поясняет Большой катехизис Лютера . [86] Из-за этого лютеране учат, что спасение возможно только благодаря благодати Божией, явленной в рождении, жизни, страдании, смерти, воскресении и продолжающемся присутствии силой Святого Духа Иисуса Христа. [87] По благодати Божией, явленной и действенной в личности и деле Иисуса Христа, человек прощается, усыновляется как дитя и наследник Бога и получает вечное спасение. [88] Христос, поскольку он был полностью послушен закону в отношении как своей человеческой, так и божественной природы, «является совершенным удовлетворением и примирением человеческого рода», как утверждает Формула Согласия и продолжает подводить итог: [89]

[Христос] подчинился закону за нас, понес наш грех и, придя к Отцу, проявил полное и совершенное послушание за нас, бедных грешников, от своего святого рождения до своей смерти. Тем самым он покрыл все наше непослушание, которое заложено в нашей природе и в ее мыслях, словах и делах, так что это непослушание не вменяется нам в осуждение, но прощается и прощается по чистой благодати, благодаря одному Христу.

Лютеране верят, что люди получают этот дар спасения только через веру. [90] Спасительная вера — это знание, [91] принятие, [92] и доверие [93] к обещанию Евангелия. [94] Даже сама вера рассматривается как дар Божий, созданный в сердцах христиан [95] работой Святого Духа через Слово [96] и Крещение. [97] Вера получает дар спасения, а не является причиной спасения. [98] Таким образом, лютеране отвергают « теологию решения », которая распространена среди современных евангелистов .

Поскольку термин «благодать» определяется по-разному другими христианскими церковными организациями. [99] Лютеранство определяет благодать как полностью ограниченную дарами Бога нам, которые даруются как чистый дар, а не как что-то, что мы заслуживаем поведением или поступками. Для лютеран благодать не касается нашего ответа на дары Бога, а только Его дары.

Троица

Лютеране верят в Троицу .

Лютеране верят в Троицу , отвергая идею о том, что Отец и Бог Сын — это просто лица одной и той же личности, утверждая, что и Ветхий Завет , и Новый Завет показывают их как две разные личности. [100] Лютеране верят, что Святой Дух исходит как от Отца, так и от Сына. [101] В словах Афанасьевского Символа веры : «Мы поклоняемся единому Богу в Троице, и Троице в Единстве; не смешивая Лиц, и не разделяя Сущности. Ибо одно Лицо у Отца, другое у Сына, иное у Святого Духа. Но Божество Отца, Сына и Святого Духа — одно: слава одинакова, величие одинаково вечно». [102]

Две природы Христа

Лютеране верят, что Иисус есть Христос , спаситель, обещанный в Ветхом Завете. Они верят, что он по природе Бог и по природе человек в одном лице , как они исповедуют в Малом Катехизисе Лютера , что он «истинный Бог, рожденный Отцом от вечности, а также истинный человек, рожденный Девой Марией». [103]

The Augsburg Confession explains:[104]

[T]he Son of God, did assume the human nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin Mary, so that there are two natures, the divine and the human, inseparably enjoined in one Person, one Christ, true God and true man, who was born of the Virgin Mary, truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried, that He might reconcile the Father unto us, and be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual sins of men.

Sacraments

Article IX, "Of Confession", of the Augsburg Confession[105]

Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution.[106] Whenever they are properly administered by the use of the physical component commanded by God[107] along with the divine words of institution,[108] God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component.[109] He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament[110] forgiveness of sins[111] and eternal salvation.[112] He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession.[113]

Lutherans are not dogmatic about the number of the sacraments.[114] In line with Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism some speak of only two sacraments,[115] Baptism and Holy Communion, although later in the same work he calls Confession and Absolution[116] "the third sacrament".[117]

The definition of sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession lists Absolution as one of them.[118] Private Confession is expected before receiving the Eucharist for the first time.[119][120] Some churches also allow for individual absolution on Saturdays before the Eucharistic service.[121] A General Confession and Absolution, known as the Penitential Rite, is proclaimed in the Eucharistic liturgy.[122]

Baptism

Lutherans practice infant baptism.

Lutherans hold that Baptism is a saving work of God,[123] mandated and instituted by Jesus Christ.[124] Baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration"[125] in which infants and adults are reborn.[126] Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same.[127]

It is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, so Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare".[128] Lutherans hold fast to the Scripture cited in 1 Peter 3:21, "Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ."[129] Therefore, Lutherans administer Baptism to both infants[130] and adults.[131] In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism, Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.[132][133]

Eucharist

Martin Luther communing John the Steadfast

Lutherans hold that within the Eucharist, also referred to as the Sacrament of the Altar or the Lord's Supper, the true body and blood of Christ are truly present "in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,[134] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the sacramental union.[135]

Confession

Many Lutherans receive the sacrament of penance before receiving the Eucharist.[136][121] Prior to going to Confessing and receiving Absolution, the faithful are expected to examine their lives in light of the Ten Commandments.[120] An order of Confession and Absolution is contained in the Small Catechism, as well as in liturgical books.[120] Lutherans typically kneel at the communion rails to confess their sins, while the confessor listens and then offers absolution while laying their stole on the penitent's head.[120] Clergy are prohibited from revealing anything said during private Confession and Absolution per the Seal of the Confessional, and face excommunication if it is violated. Apart from this, Laestadian Lutherans have a practice of lay confession.[137]

Conversion

In Lutheranism, conversion or regeneration in the strict sense of the term is the work of divine grace and power by which man, born of the flesh, and void of all power to think, to will, or to do any good thing, and dead in sin is, through the gospel and holy baptism, taken from a state of sin and spiritual death under God's wrath into a state of spiritual life of faith and grace, rendered able to will and to do what is spiritually good and, especially, made to trust in the benefits of the redemption which is in Christ Jesus.[138]

During conversion, one is moved from impenitence to repentance. The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."[139]

Predestination

Article XVIII of the Augsburg Confession, "Of Free Will" Free Will

Lutherans adhere to divine monergism, the teaching that salvation is by God's act alone, and therefore reject the idea that humans in their fallen state have a free will concerning spiritual matters.[140] Lutherans believe that although humans have free will concerning civil righteousness, they cannot work spiritual righteousness in the heart without the presence and aid of the Holy Spirit.[141][142] Lutherans believe Christians are "saved";[143] that all who trust in Christ alone and his promises can be certain of their salvation.[144]

According to Lutheranism, the central final hope of the Christian is "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting" as confessed in the Apostles' Creed rather than predestination. Lutherans disagree with those who make predestination—rather than Christ's suffering, death, and resurrection—the source of salvation. Unlike some Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation,[145] usually referencing "God our Savior, who desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth"[146] as contrary evidence to such a claim. Instead, Lutherans teach eternal damnation is a result of the unbeliever's sins, rejection of the forgiveness of sins, and unbelief.[147]

Divine providence

The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular 1866 German Pietist portrait

According to Lutherans, God preserves his creation, cooperates with everything that happens, and guides the universe.[148] While God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, with evil deeds he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, but not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but he does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effect.[149] Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growth.[150]

The explanation of the Apostles' Creed given in the Small Catechism declares that everything good that people have is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things.[151] Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God".[152] Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should not look down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world.[152]

Good works

"Even though I am a sinner and deserving of death and hell, this shall nonetheless be my consolation and my victory that my Lord Jesus lives and has risen so that He, in the end, might rescue me from sin, death, and hell", said Martin Luther concerning the meaning of the Resurrection.[153]

Lutherans believe that Augsburg Confession's "Article XX: Of Good Works" are the fruit of faith,[154] always and in every instance.[155] Good works have their origin in God,[156] not in the fallen human heart or in human striving;[157] their absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent.[158] Lutherans do not believe that good works are a factor in obtaining salvation; they believe that we are saved by the grace of God—based on the merit of Christ in his suffering and death—and faith in the Triune God. Good works are the natural result of faith, not the cause of salvation. Although Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors.[159]

Judgment and eternal life

Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day.[160] Lutherans teach that, at death, the souls of Christians are immediately taken into the presence of Jesus,[161] where they await the second coming of Jesus on the last day.[162] On the last day,[163] all the bodies of the dead will be resurrected.[164]

Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying.[165] The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment,[166] those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory.[167] After the resurrection of all the dead,[168] and the change of those still living,[169] all nations shall be gathered before Christ,[170] and he will separate the righteous from the wicked.[171]

Christ will publicly judge[172] all people by the testimony of their deeds,[173] the good works[174] of the righteous in evidence of their faith,[175] and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief.[176] He will judge in righteousness[177] in the presence of all people and angels,[178] and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous.[179]


Practices

Luther composed hymns and hymn tunes, including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God").
Divine Service at the St. Nicholas church in Luckau, Germany

Liturgy

Lutherans place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services;[211] although there are substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the Haugean Lutherans from Norway. Martin Luther was a great proponent of music, and this is why music forms a central part of Lutheran services to this day. In particular, Luther admired the composers Josquin des Prez and Ludwig Senfl, and wanted singing in the church to move away from the ars perfecta (Catholic Sacred Music of the late Renaissance) and towards singing as a Gemeinschaft (community).[212] Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales. Lutheran hymnody is well known for its doctrinal, didactic, and musical richness. Most Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally change ringing groups that ring bells in a bell tower. Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed a huge body of sacred music for the Lutheran church.

Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist/Communion, emphasizing the Sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called Real Presence or sacramental union and is different from consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or memorial. They confess in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession:

[W]e do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other festivals, when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things.[213]

In addition to the Holy Communion (Divine Service), congregations frequently also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include Matins, Vespers, Compline, or other observances of the Daily Office. Private or family offices include the Morning and Evening Prayers from Luther's Small Catechism.[214] Meals are blessed with the Common table prayer, Psalm 145:15–16, or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with Psalm 136:1. Luther himself encouraged the use of Psalm verses, such as those already mentioned, along with the Lord's Prayer and another short prayer before and after each meal: Blessing and Thanks at Meals from Luther's Small Catechism.[214] In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small daily devotionals, for example, Portals of Prayer, to large breviaries, including the Breviarium Lipsiensae and Treasury of Daily Prayer.

The predominant rite used by Lutheran churches is a Western one based on the Formula missae ("Form of the Mass"), although other Lutheran liturgies are also in use, such as those used in the Byzantine Rite Lutheran Churches, such as the Ukrainian Lutheran Church and Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovenia.[215] Although Luther's Deutsche Messe was completely chanted except for the sermon, this is less common today.

In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelistic outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those who preferred contemporary worship music. Today, a few Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation; rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations.[216] In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the St Thomas Mass [fi] and Metal Mass in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. Some Laestadians enter a heavily emotional and ecstatic state during worship. The Lutheran World Federation, in its Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture, recommended every effort be made to bring church services into a more sensitive position with regard to cultural context.[217]

In 2006, both the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), in cooperation with certain international English speaking church bodies within their respective fellowships, released new hymnals: Evangelical Lutheran Worship (ELCA) and Lutheran Service Book (LCMS). Along with these, the most widely used among English speaking congregations include: Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary (1996, Evangelical Lutheran Synod), The Lutheran Book of Worship (1978, Lutheran Council in the United States of America), Lutheran Worship (1982, LCMS), Christian Worship (1993, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod), and The Lutheran Hymnal (1941, Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America). In the Lutheran Church of Australia, the official hymnal is the Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement of 1986, which includes a supplement to the Lutheran Hymnal of 1973, itself a replacement for the Australian Lutheran Hymn Book of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran church bodies in Australia (which merged in 1966) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language. Spanish-speaking ELCA churches frequently use Libro de Liturgia y Cántico (1998, Augsburg Fortress) for services and hymns. For a more complete list, see List of English language Lutheran hymnals.

Missions

Christ Lutheran Church in India

Sizable Lutheran missions arose for the first time during the 19th century. Early missionary attempts during the century after the Reformation did not succeed. However, European traders brought Lutheranism to Africa beginning in the 17th century as they settled along the coasts. During the first half of the 19th century, missionary activity in Africa expanded, including preaching by missionaries, translation of the Bible, and education.[218]

Lutheranism came to India beginning with the work of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, where a community totaling several thousand developed, complete with their own translation of the Bible, catechism, their own hymnal, and system of Lutheran schools. In the 1840s, this church experienced a revival through the work of the Leipzig Mission, including Karl Graul.[219] After German missionaries were expelled in 1914, Lutherans in India became entirely autonomous, yet preserved their Lutheran character. In recent years India has relaxed its anti-religious conversion laws, allowing a resurgence in missionary work.

In Latin America, missions began to serve European immigrants of Lutheran background, both those who spoke German and those who no longer did. These churches in turn began to evangelize those in their areas who were not of European background, including indigenous peoples.[220]

In 1892, the first Lutheran missionaries reached Japan. Although work began slowly and a major setback occurred during the hardships of WWII.[221] Lutheranism there has survived and become self-sustaining.[222] After missionaries to China, including those of the Lutheran Church of China, were expelled, they began ministry in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the latter which became a center of Lutheranism in Asia.[222]

The Lutheran Mission in New Guinea, though founded only in 1953, became the largest Lutheran mission in the world in only several decades. Through the work of native lay evangelists, many tribes of diverse languages were reached with the Gospel.[222]

Today the Lutheran World Federation operates Lutheran World Relief, a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries.

Education

Resurrection Lutheran School is a parochial school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) in Rochester, Minnesota and the fourth-largest private school system in the United States.[223]

Catechism instruction is considered foundational in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and some host or maintain Lutheran schools, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school, folk high school, or university level. Lifelong study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur.[224] Lutheran schools have always been a core aspect of Lutheran mission work, starting with Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Putschasu, who began work in India in year 1706.[225] During the Counter-Reformation era in German speaking areas, backstreet Lutheran schools were the main Lutheran institution among crypto-Lutherans.[226]

Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Koine Greek and Biblical Hebrew so that they can refer to the Christian scriptures in the original language. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the local congregation. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in German, Danish, Finnish, Norwegian, or Swedish, but retention of immigrant languages has been in significant decline since the early and middle 20th century.

Church fellowship

Georg Calixtus taught at the University of Helmstedt during the Syncretistic controversy.
Stormtroopers holding German Christian propaganda during church council elections on 23 July 1933 at St. Mary's Church in Berlin after which internal struggles, controversies, reorganization, and splits struck the German Evangelical Church, resulting in the Confessing Church's creation.
A Lutheran pastor wearing a chasuble during communion
Confirmation at the Church of Norway's Lunder Church in Ringerike, Norway in 2012
A Læstadian lay preacher in Finnmark, Norway in 1898

Lutherans were divided about the issue of church fellowship for the first 30 years after Luther's death. Philipp Melanchthon and his Philippist party felt that Christians of different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the Gnesio-Lutherans, led by Matthias Flacius and the faculty at the University of Jena. They condemned the Philippist position for indifferentism, describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy.[227]

Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the Formula of Concord of 1577.[228] Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided ecumenical fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not, for example, join for the Lord's Supper or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, Georgius Calixtus began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the Syncretistic Controversy with Abraham Calovius as his main opponent.[229]

In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. John Robinson, Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although Jesper Swedberg and Johannes Gezelius the younger, bishops of Skara, Sweden and Turku, Finland, were in favor.[230] With the encouragement of Swedberg, church fellowship was established between Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans in the Middle Colonies. Over the course of the 1700s and the early 1800s, Swedish Lutherans were absorbed into Anglican churches, with the last original Swedish congregation completing merger into the Episcopal Church in 1846.[231]

In the 19th century, Samuel Simon Schmucker attempted to lead the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the Augsburg Confession in favor of his compromising Definite Platform failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the General Council, including Charles Porterfield Krauth. Their alternative approach was "Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only and Lutheran altars...for Lutheran communicants only."[232]

Beginning in 1867, confessional and liberal minded Lutherans in Germany joined to form the Common Evangelical Lutheran Conference against the ever looming prospect of a state-mandated union with the Reformed.[233] However, they failed to reach consensus on the degree of shared doctrine necessary for church union.[39] Eventually, the fascist German Christians movement pushed the final national merger of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed church bodies into a single Reich Church in 1933, doing away with the previous umbrella German Evangelical Church Confederation (DEK). As part of denazification the Reich Church was formally done away with in 1945, and certain clergy were removed from their positions. However, the merger between the Lutheran, United, and Reformed state churches was retained under the name Protestant Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland, EKD). In 1948 the Lutheran church bodies within the EKD founded the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), but it has since been reduced from being an independent legal entity to an administrative unit within the EKD.

Lutherans are currently divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Some Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10)[234] before pastors can share each other's pulpits, and before communicants commune at each other's altars, a practice termed closed (or close) communion. On the other hand, other Lutherans practice varying degrees of open communion and allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits.

While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in Freemasonry. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading Unitarianism, as the Brief Statement of the LCMS reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges."[235] A 1958 report from the publishing house of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former."[236]

The largest organization of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, the International Lutheran Council (ILC), and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC). These organizations together account for the great majority of Lutheran denominations. The LCMS and the Lutheran Church–Canada are members of the ILC. The WELS and ELS are members of the CELC. Many Lutheran churches are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC: The congregations of the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) are affiliated with their mission organizations in Canada, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and many African nations; and those affiliated with the Church of the Lutheran Brethren are especially active doing mission work in Africa and East Asia.

The Lutheran World Federation-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. As part of this, in 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church jointly issued a statement, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, that stated that the LWF and the Catholics both agreed about certain basics of Justification and lifted certain Catholic anathemas formerly applying to the LWF member churches.The LCMS has participated in most of the official dialogues with the Roman Catholic Church since shortly after the Second Vatican Council, though not the one which produced the Joint Declaration and to which they were not invited. While some Lutheran theologians saw the Joint Declaration as a sign that the Catholics were essentially adopting the Lutheran position, other Lutheran theologians disagreed, claiming that, considering the public documentation of the Catholic position, this assertion does not hold up.[citation needed]

Besides their intra-Lutheran arrangements, some member churches of the LWF have also declared full communion with non-Lutheran Protestant churches. The Porvoo Communion is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, Church of Sweden also has declared full communion with the Philippine Independent Church and the United Methodist Church.[citation needed] The state Protestant churches in Germany many other European countries have signed the Leuenberg Agreement to form the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has been involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations. The ELCA has declared full communion with multiple American Protestant churches.[237]

Although on paper the LWF churches have all declared have full communion with each other, in practice some churches within the LWF have renounced ties with specific other churches.[238] One development in this ongoing schism is the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, which consists of churches and church related organizations tracing their heritage back to mainline American Lutheranism in North America, European state churches, as well as certain African churches. As of 2019, the Forum is not a full communion organization. Similar in this structure is the International Lutheran Council, where issues of communion are left to the individual denominations. Not all ILC churches have declared church-fellowship with each other. In contrast, mutual church-fellowship is part of the CELC member churches, and unlike in the LWF, this is not contradicted by individual statements from any particular member church body.

Laestadians within certain European state churches maintain close ties to other Laestadians, often called Apostolic Lutherans. Altogether, Laestadians are found in 23 countries across five continents, but there is no single organization which represents them. Laestadians operate Peace Associations to coordinate their churchly efforts. Nearly all are located in Europe, although they there are 15 combined in North America, Ecuador, Togo, and Kenya.

By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as some unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession and North American Laestadians maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing "fake ecumenism" by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching.[239]

Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the megachurches of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals". These influences are sharply criticized by some Lutherans as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs.[240]

Polity

Hallowed be Thy Name by Lucas Cranach the Elder illustrates a Lutheran pastor preaching Christ crucified. During the Reformation and afterwards, many churches did not have pews, so people would stand or sit on the floor. The elderly might be given a chair or stool.

Lutheran polity varies depending on influences. Although Article XIV of the Augsburg Confession mandates that one must be "properly called" to preach or administer the Sacraments, some Lutherans have a broad view of on what constitutes this and thus allow lay preaching or students still studying to be pastors someday to consecrate the Lord's Supper.[241] Despite considerable diversity, Lutheran polity trends in a geographically predictable manner in Europe, with episcopal governance to the north and east but blended and consistorial-presbyterian type synodical governance in Germany.

Scandinavia

Nathan Söderblom is ordained as archbishop of the Church of Sweden in 1914. Although Swedish Lutherans boast of an unbroken line of ordinations going back prior to the Reformation, the bishops of Rome do not recognize such ordinations as valid.

To the north in Scandinavia, the population was more insulated from the influence and politics of the Reformation and thus the Church of Sweden (which at the time included Finland) retained the Apostolic succession,[242] although they did not consider it essential for valid sacraments as the Donatists did in the fourth and fifth centuries and the Roman Catholics do today. Recently, the Swedish succession was introduced into all of the Porvoo Communion churches, all of which have an episcopal polity. Although the Lutheran churches did not require this or change their doctrine, this was important in order for more strictly high church Anglican individuals to feel comfortable recognizing their sacraments as valid. The occasional ordination of a bishop by a priest was not necessarily considered an invalid ordination in the Middle Ages, so the alleged break in the line of succession in the other Nordic Churches would have been considered a violation of canon law rather than an invalid ordination at the time. Moreover, there are no consistent records detailing pre-Reformation ordinations prior to the 12th century.[243]

In the far north of the Scandinavian peninsula are the Sámi people, some of which practice a form of Lutheranism called Apostolic Lutheranism, or Laestadianism due to the efforts of Lars Levi Laestadius. However, others are Orthodox in religion. Some Apostolic Lutherans consider their movement as part of an unbroken line down from the Apostles. In areas where Apostolic Lutherans have their own bishops apart from other Lutheran church organizations, the bishops wield more practical authority than Lutheran clergy typically do. In Russia, Laestadians of Lutheran background cooperate with the Ingrian church, but since Laestadianism is an interdenominational movement, some are Eastern Orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Laestadians are known as Ushkovayzet (article is in Russian).[244]

Eastern Europe and Asian Russia

Lutheran Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in Saint Petersburg

Although historically Pietism had a significant influence on the understanding of the ministry among Lutherans in the Russian Empire,[b] today nearly all Russian and Ukrainian Lutherans are influenced by Eastern Orthodox polity. In their culture, giving a high degree of respect and authority to their bishops is necessary for their faith to be seen as legitimate and not sectarian.[245] In Russia, lines of succession between bishops and the canonical authority between their present-day hierarchy is also carefully maintained in order to legitimize the existing Lutheran churches as present day successors of the former Lutheran Church of the Russian Empire originally authorized by Catherine the Great. This allows for the post-Soviet repatriation of Lutheran church buildings to local congregations on the basis of this historical connection.[246]

Germany

The Schwäbisch Hall Church Order in 1543

In Germany, several dynamics encouraged Lutherans to maintain a different form of polity. First, due to de facto practice during the Nuremberg Religious Peace the subsequent legal principal of Cuius regio, eius religio in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, German states were officially either Catholic or "Evangelical" (that is, Lutheran under the Augsburg Confession). In some areas both Catholic and Lutheran churches were permitted to co-exist. Because German-speaking Catholic areas were nearby, Catholic-leaning Christians were able to emigrate and there was less of an issue with Catholics choosing to live as "crypto-papists" in Lutheran areas. Although Reformed-leaning Christians were not allowed to have churches, Melancthon wrote Augsburg Confession Variata which some used to claim legal protection as "Evangelical" churches. Many chose to live as crypto-Calvinists either with or without the protection offered by the Variata, but this did not make their influence go away, and as a result the Protestant church in Germany as of 2017 was only about ≈40% Lutheran, with most of the rest being United Protestant, a combination of Lutheran and Reformed beliefs and practices.[247]

In terms of polity, over the 17th and 18th centuries the carefully negotiated and highly prescriptive church orders of the Reformation era gave way to a joint cooperation between state control and a Reformed-style blend of consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. Just as negotiations over the details in the church orders involved the laity, so did the new synodical governance. Synodical governance had already been practiced in the Reformed Netherlands prior to its adoption by Lutherans. During the formation of the modern German state, ideas about the nature of authority and the best design for governments and organizations came from the philosophies of Kant and Hegel, further modifying the polity. When the monarchy and the sovereign governance of the church were ended in 1918, the synods took over the governance of the state churches.

Western Hemisphere and Australia

The Pennsylvania Ministerium published this hymnal in 1803.[248]
Lighthouse Lutheran Church, an LCMC congregation in Freedom, Pennsylvania

During the period of the emigration, Lutherans took their existing ideas about polity with them across the ocean,[249][250] though with the exception of the early Swedish Lutherans immigrants of the New Sweden colony who accepted the rule of the Anglican bishops and became part of the established church, they now had to fund churches on their own. This increased the congregationalist dynamic in the blended consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. The first organized church body of Lutherans in America was the Pennsylvania Ministerium, which used Reformed style synodical governance over the 18th and 19th centuries. Their contribution to the development of polity was that smaller synods could in turn form a larger body, also with synodical governance, but without losing their lower level of governance. As a result, the smaller synods gained unprecedented flexibility to join, leave, merge, or stay separate, all without the hand of the state as had been the case in Europe.

During their 19th-century persecution, Old Lutheran, defined as scholastic and orthodox believers, were left in a conundrum. Resistance to authority was traditionally considered disobedience, but, under the circumstances, upholding orthodox doctrine and historical practice was considered by the government disobedience. However, the doctrine of the lesser magistrate allowed clergy to legitimately resist the state and even leave. Illegal free churches were set up in Germany and mass emigration occurred. For decades the new churches were mostly dependent on the free churches to send them new ministerial candidates for ordination. These new church bodies also employed synodical governance, but tended to exclude Hegelianism in their constitutions, due to its incompatibility with the doctrine of the lesser magistrates. In contrast to Hegelianism where authority flows in from all levels, Kantianism presents authority proceeding only from the top down, hence the need for a lesser magistrate to become the new top magistrate.

Over the 20th and 21st centuries, some Lutheran bodies have adopted a more congregationalist approach, such as the Protes'tant Conference and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ, or LCMC. The LCMC formed due to a church split after the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America signed an agreement with the Episcopal Church to start ordaining all of their new bishops into the Episcopalian apostolic succession. In other words, this meant that new ELCA bishops, at least at first, would be jointly ordained by Anglican bishops as well as Lutheran bishops so that the more strict Episcopalians (i.e., Anglo-Catholics) would recognize their sacraments as valid. This was offensive to some in the ELCA at the time because of the implications this practice would have on the teachings of the priesthood of all believers and the nature of ordination.

Some Lutheran churches permit dual-rostering.[251] Situations like this one where a church or church body belongs to multiple larger organizations that do not have ties are termed "triangular fellowship". Another variant is independent Lutheran churches, although for some independent churches the clergy are members of a larger denomination. In other cases, a congregation may belong to a synod, but the pastor may be unaffiliated. In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church of Australia,[252] the Wisconsin Synod, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and the Missouri Synod, teachers at parochial schools are considered to be ministers of religion, with the latter defending this before the Supreme Court in 2012. However, differences remain in the precise status of their teachers.[253]

Throughout the world

The building of a congregation in North Sumatra in Indonesia belonging to the Batak Christian Protestant Church, which is a merged denomination that includes a Lutheran element
The altar and pulpit at the Chapel of the Ascension in Jerusalem
Faith Lutheran School in Hong Kong

Lutheran churches currently have millions of members, and are present on all populated continents.[254] The Lutheran World Federation estimates the total membership of its churches over 77 million.[255] This figure miscounts Lutherans worldwide as not all Lutheran churches belong to this organization, and many members of merged LWF church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.[256] Lutheran churches in North America, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean regions are experiencing decreases and no growth in membership, while those in Africa and Asia continue to grow. Lutheranism is the largest religious group in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Namibia, Norway, Sweden, and North Dakota and South Dakota in the United States.

Lutheranism is also the dominant form of Christianity in the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache nations. In addition, Lutheranism is a main Protestant denomination in Germany (behind United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed) churches; EKD Protestants form about 24.3% of the country's total population),[257] Estonia, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, and Tanzania.[258] Although some convents and monasteries voluntarily closed during the Reformation, and many of the remaining damenstift were shuttered by communist authorities following World War II, the Lüne abbeys are still open. Nearly all active Lutheran orders are located in Europe.

Although Namibia is the only country outside Europe to have a Lutheran majority, there are sizable Lutheran bodies in other African countries. In the following African countries, the total number of Lutherans exceeds 100,000: Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Kenya, Malawi, Congo, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar. In addition, the following nations also have sizable Lutheran populations: Canada, France, the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, the Netherlands (as a synod within the PKN and two strictly Lutheran denominations), South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, especially in the heavily German and Scandinavian Upper Midwest.[259][260]

Lutheranism is also a state religion in Denmark and Iceland. Lutheranism was also the state church in Finland, Norway and Sweden, but its status in Norway and Sweden was changed to that of a national church in 2017 and 2000 respectively.[261][262]

Brazil

The Evangelical Church of the Lutheran Confession in Brazil (Igreja Evangélica de Confissão Luterana no Brasil) is the largest Lutheran denomination in Brazil. It is a member of the Lutheran World Federation, which it joined in 1952. It is a member of the Latin American Council of Churches, the National Council of Christian Churches and the World Council of Churches. The denomination has 1.02 million adherents and 643,693 registered members. The church ordains women as ministers. In 2011, the denomination released a pastoral letter supporting and accepting the Supreme Court's decision to allow same-sex marriage.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil (Portuguese: Igreja Evangélica Luterana do Brasil, IELB) is a Lutheran church founded in 1904 in Rio Grande do Sul, a southern state in Brazil. The IELB is a conservative, confessional Lutheran synod which holds to the Book of Concord. It started as a mission of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and operated as the Brazilian District of that body. The IELB became an independent church body in 1980. It has about 243,093 members. The IELB is a member of the International Lutheran Council.

The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) started a Brazilian mission, the first for WELS in the Portuguese language, in the early 1980s. Its first work was done in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in the south of Brazil, alongside some small independent Lutheran churches which had asked for help from WELS. Today, the Brazilian WELS Lutheran Churches are self-supporting and an independent mission partner of the Latin America WELS missions team.

Distribution

This map shows where countries with over 25,000 members of the Lutheran World Federation were located in 2019.[263][c]

Lutheran World Federation membership by country in 2019.

  More than 10 million  5 million to 10 million  1 million to 5 million  500 thousand to 1 million  100 thousand to 500 thousand  25 thousand to 100 thousand

adata for China is explicitly for the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong.
bArgentina's LWF member churches include member congregations in Paraguay and Uruguay.

This map shows where members of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference were located in 2013:

Countries with a member of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference as of 2013

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Cf. material and formal principles in theology
  2. ^ See Edward Wust [ru] and Wustism [ru] in the Russian Wikipedia for more on this.
  3. ^ This map undercounts several countries, notably the United States. The LWF does not include the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and several other Lutheran bodies which together have over 2.5 million members

References

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  70. ^ Walther, C. F. W. The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel. W. H. T. Dau, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1929.
  71. ^ F.E. Mayer, The Religious Bodies of America. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1954, p. 184. For further information, see The Formula of Concord in the History of Swedish Lutheranism Archived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Seth Erlandsson
  72. ^ The Ecumenical Councils and Authority in and of the Church (PDF). The Lutheran World Federation. 10 July 1993. The seven ecumenical councils of the early Church were assemblies of the bishops of the Church from all parts of the Roman Empire to clarify and express the apostolic faith. These councils are Nicaea (325 AD), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680/81), and Nicaea II (787)... As Lutherans and Orthodox we affirm that the teachings of the ecumenical councils are authoritative for our churches ... The Seventh Ecumenical Council, the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which rejected iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons in the churches, was not part of the tradition received by the Reformation. Lutherans, however, rejected the iconoclasm of the 16th century, and affirmed the distinction between adoration due to the Triune God alone and all other forms of veneration (CA 21). Through historical research this council has become better known. Nevertheless it does not have the same significance for Lutherans as it does for the Orthodox. Yet, Lutherans and Orthodox are in agreement that the Second Council of Nicaea confirms the christological teaching of the earlier councils and in setting forth the role of images (icons) in the lives of the faithful reaffirms the reality of the incarnation of the eternal Word of God, when it states: "The more frequently, Christ, Mary, the mother of God, and the saints are seen, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these icons the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honored and life-giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred objects" (Definition of the Second Council of Nicaea).
  73. ^ Ecumenical Council. Titi Tudorancea Encyclopedia. 1991–2016. The Lutheran World Federation, in ecumenical dialogues with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has affirmed all of the first seven councils as ecumenical and authoritative.
  74. ^ Junius Benjamin Remensnyder (1893). The Lutheran Manual. Boschen & Wefer Company. p. 12.
  75. ^ Frey, H. (1918). Is One Church as Good as Another?. Vol. 37. The Lutheran Witness. pp. 82–83.
  76. ^ a b Ludwig, Alan (12 September 2016). "Luther's Catholic Reformation". The Lutheran Witness. When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, "This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers" (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the Augsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places).
  77. ^ "Sola Scriptura?". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 15 May 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 26 May 2024. [M]any passages...state sola scriptura, such as Revelation 22:18-19. If we cannot add anything to the words of Scripture and we cannot take anything away from them, that is Scripture alone.
  78. ^ Paul R. Sponheim, "The Origin of Sin", in Christian Dogmatics, Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, eds. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 385–407.
  79. ^ Francis Pieper, "Definition of Original Sin", in Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1953), 1:538.
  80. ^ Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.. 1875. pp. 335–455, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin.
  81. ^ Formula of Concord, Original Sin Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  82. ^ Rom. 7:18, 8:7 1 Cor. 2:14, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 639–652, "The Third Question: Whether the Good Works of the Regenerate in This Life Are So Perfect that They Fully, Abundantly, and Perfectly Satisfy the Divine Law".
  83. ^ Gen. 6:5, 8:21, Mat. 7:17, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.. 1875. pp. 388–390, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin, Thesis VII The Results, Section ii Positive.
  84. ^ Dt. 27:26,Rom. 5:12,2 Th. 1:9 Rom. 6:23, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 38–41, Part VIII. "Sin"
  85. ^ 1 Tim. 2:4, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 43–44, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 55.
  86. ^ Triglot Concordia: The Symbolical Books of the Ev. Lutheran Church. St. Louis: Concordia, 1921. Large Catechism Archived 14 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Lord's Prayer, The Second Petition, Par. 51.
  87. ^ Gal. 3:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 43, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 54.
  88. ^ Rom. 10:4, Gal. 4:4–5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 42, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 52.
  89. ^ Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article III, "Concerning the Righteousness of Faith before God". par. 57–58. trans. Kolb, R., Wengert, T., and Arand, C. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2000.
  90. ^ "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  91. ^ John 17:3, Luke 1:77,Galatians 4:9, Philippians 3:8, and 1 Timothy 2:4 refer to faith in terms of knowledge.
  92. ^ John 5:46 refers to acceptance of the truth of Christ's teaching, while John 3:36 notes the rejection of his teaching.
  93. ^ John 3:16,36, Galatians 2:16, Romans 4:20–25, 2 Timothy 1:12 speak of trust, confidence, and belief in Christ. John 3:18 notes belief in the name of Christ, and Mark 1:15 notes belief in the gospel.
  94. ^ Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 54–55, Part XIV. "Sin"
  95. ^ Ps. 51:10, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78.
  96. ^ John 17:20, Rom. 10:17, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 101 Part XXV. "The Church", paragraph 141.
  97. ^ Titus 3:5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 87 Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
  98. ^ Eph. 2:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78.
  99. ^ The Roman Catholic Catechism, part 3, section 1, chapter 3, article 2, II, paragraphs 2000 and 2001; downloaded February 18, 2017; defines grace as something which brings about a change in us, such that we cooperate in justification and act without sin (i.e. sanctified).
  100. ^ Is. 63:8–9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 158–160, section "The Doctrine of God", part 5. "The Holy Trinity Revealed in the Old Testament",Heb. 1:5, see Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 33–36, Part VI. "The Trinity".
  101. ^ The Nicene Creed and the Filioque: A Lutheran Approach by Rev. David Webber for more information
  102. ^ Athanasian Creed – for an older Trinitarian Creed used by Lutherans, see the Nicene Creed: the version in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. But the version in both "Lutheran Service Book" (2006) of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Lutheran Church Canada (LCC) is that of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer with modernized spelling of the words "catholic" and "apostolic", with changes in capitalization of these and other words, and with "Holy Spirit" in place of "Holy Ghost".[citation needed]
  103. ^ Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed, Second Article Archived 28 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine,Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 100ff. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006.
  104. ^ Augsburg confession, Article III Archived 11 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  105. ^ "Private Absolution ought to be retained in the churches, although in confession an enumeration of all sins is not necessary." Article XI: Of Confession
  106. ^ Matthew 28:19, 1 Corinthians 11:23–25, Matthew 26:26–28, Mark 14:22–24, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  107. ^ Ephesians 5:27, John 3:5, John 3:23, 1 Corinthians 10:16, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  108. ^ Ephesians 5:26, 1 Corinthians 10:16, 1 Corinthians 11:24–25, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  109. ^ Matthew 3:16–17, John 3:5, 1 Corinthians 11:19, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  110. ^ Luke 7:30, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  111. ^ Acts 21:16, Acts 2:38, Luke 3:3, Ephesians 5:26, 1 Peter 3:21, Galatians 3:26–27, Matthew 26:28, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  112. ^ 1 Peter 3:21, Titus 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  113. ^ Titus 3:5, John 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  114. ^ The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 2: "We believe we have the duty not to neglect any of the rites and ceremonies instituted in Scripture, whatever their number. We do not think it makes much difference if, for purposes of teaching, the enumeration varies, provided what is handed down in Scripture is preserved" (cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 211).
  115. ^ Luther's Large Catechism IV, 1: "We have now finished the three chief parts of the common Christian doctrine. Besides these we have yet to speak of our two Sacraments instituted by Christ, of which also every Christian ought to have at least an ordinary, brief instruction, because without them there can be no Christian; although, alas! hitherto no instruction concerning them has been given" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 733).
  116. ^ John 20:23, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 112–113, Part XXVI "The Ministry", paragraph 156.
  117. ^ Luther's Large Catechism IV, 74–75: "And here you see that Baptism, both in its power and signification, comprehends also the third Sacrament, which has been called repentance, as it is really nothing else than Baptism" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 751).
  118. ^ The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 3, 4: "If we define the sacraments as rites, which have the command of God and to which the promise of grace has been added, it is easy to determine what the sacraments are, properly speaking. For humanly instituted rites are not sacraments, properly speaking, because human beings do not have the authority to promise grace. Therefore signs instituted without the command of God are not sure signs of grace, even though they perhaps serve to teach or admonish the common folk. The sacraments, therefore, are actually baptism, the Lord's Supper, and absolution (the sacrament of repentance)" (cf. Tappert, 211). Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article 13, Of the Number and Use of the Sacraments
  119. ^ Apology of the Augsburg Confession, article 24, paragraph 1. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
  120. ^ a b c d Wendel, David M. (1997). Manual for the Recovery of a Parish Practice of Individual Confession and Absolution (PDF). The Society of the Holy Trinity. pp. 2, 7, 8, 11.
  121. ^ a b Kolb, Robert (2008). Lutheran Ecclesiastical Culture: 1550 – 1675. Brill Publishers. p. 282. ISBN 9789004166417. The North German church ordinances of the late 16th century all include a description of private confession and absolution, which normally took place at the conclusion of Saturday afternoon vespers, and was a requirement for all who desired to commune the following day.
  122. ^ "The Sacraments of the Lutheran Church". Christ The King Lutheran Church. Retrieved 14 May 2023. The Sacrament of Holy Absolution has two forms: the General Confession (known as the Penitential Rite or Order of Confession of Sins) that is done at the beginning of the Divine Service. In this case, the entire congregation says the confession, as the pastor says the absolution. Private Confession – done privately to a pastor, where the penitent confesses sins that trouble him/her and pleads to God for mercy, and the pastor announces God's forgiveness to the person, as the sign of the cross is made. Private confession is subject to total confidentiality by the pastor. In historic Lutheran practice, Holy Absolution is expected before partaking of Holy Communion. General confession, as well as Private Confession, are still contained in most Lutheran hymnals. Two works which are part of the Book of Concord lend support to the belief that Holy Absolution is for Lutherans the third sacrament. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession acknowledges outright that Holy Absolution is a sacrament, referring to it as the sacrament of penitence. In the Large Catechism, Luther calls Holy Absolution the third sacrament.
  123. ^ 1 Pet. 3:21, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 491–496, section "The Doctrine of Baptism", part 4. "Baptism a True Means of Grace", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 87, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
  124. ^ Martin Luther, Small Catechism 4
  125. ^ Titus 3:5
  126. ^ John 3:3–7
  127. ^ "Baptism and Its Purpose". Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
  128. ^ Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "The Sacrament of Holy Baptism". Luther's Small Catechism. Evangelical Lutheran Synod. ISBN 978-0-89279-043-2. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
  129. ^ 1 Peter 3:21, ESV
  130. ^ Mat. 19:14, Acts 2:38–39, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
  131. ^ 1 Cor. 1:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
  132. ^ Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "Of Infant Baptism". Luther's Large Catechism. ISBN 978-1-4264-3861-5. Archived from the original on 13 June 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.Luther's Large Catechism – Holy Baptism Archived 23 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  133. ^ "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  134. ^ 1 Cor. 10:16, 11:20, 27, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.
  135. ^ "The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper". Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
  136. ^ Richard, James William (1909). The Confessional History of the Lutheran Church. Lutheran Publication Society. p. 113. In the Luthearn Church, private confession was at first voluntary. Later, in portions of the Lutheran Church, it was made obligatory, as a test of orthodoxy, and as a preparation of the Lord's Supper.
  137. ^ Granquist, Mark A. (2015). Scandinavian Pietists: Spiritual Writings from 19th-Century Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. Paulist Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781587684982. Initially, Laestadius exercised his ministry mainly among the indigenous Sami (Lapp) people, but his influence soon spread into areasa of northern Finland, and the Laestadian (or Apostolic Lutheran) movement became predominantly Finnish. Even though he was a university-trained pastor and scientist (he was a renowned botanist), his powerful preaching and spiritual example ignited a lay-awakening movement in the north, a movement that is known for its distinctive religious practices, including lay confession and absolution.
  138. ^ Augustus Lawrence Graebner, Lutheran Cyclopedia p. 136, "Conversion"
  139. ^ "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Archived from the original on 11 March 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  140. ^ 1 Cor. 2:14, 12:3, Rom. 8:7, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 409–453, "Seventh Topic, Concerning Free Will: From the Decree of the Sixth Session of the Council of Trent".
  141. ^ Augsburg Confession, Article 18, Of Free Will Archived 15 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  142. ^ Acts 13:48, Eph. 1:4–11, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 585–589, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 1. The Definition of the Term", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 124–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 176.
  143. ^ 2 Thess. 2:13, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 589–93, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 2. How Believers are to Consider Their Election, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 180.
  144. ^ Rom. 8:33, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 179., Engelder, T.E.W., The Certainty of Final Salvation. The Lutheran Witness 2(6). English Evangelical Missouri Synod: Baltimore. 1891, pp. 41ff.
  145. ^ 1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, and Engelder's Popular Symbolics, Part XXXI. The Election of Grace, pp. 124–128.
  146. ^ 1 Timothy 2:3–4 ESV
  147. ^ Hos. 13:9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 637, section "The Doctrine of the Last Things (Eschatology), part 7. "Eternal Damnation", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 135–136, Part XXXIX. "Eternal Death", paragraph 196.
  148. ^ Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House. 1934. pp. 189–195 and Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 635 and Christian Cyclopedia article on Divine Providence. For further reading, see The Proof Texts of the Catechism with a Practical Commentary, section Divine Providence, p. 212, Wessel, Louis, published in Theological Quarterly, Vol. 11, 1909.
  149. ^ Mueller, Steven P.,Called to Believe, Teach, and Confess. Wipf and Stock. 2005. pp. 122–123.
  150. ^ Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House: 1934. pp. 190 and Edward. W. A.,A Short Explanation of Dr. Martin Luther's Small Catechism. Concordia Publishing House. 1946. p. 165. and Divine Providence and Human Adversity Archived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Markus O. Koepsell
  151. ^ "The Small Catechism". Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  152. ^ a b "Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment". Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
  153. ^ quoted in Scaer, David P. (July 1983). "Luther's Concept of the Resurrection in his Commentary on I Corinthians 15" (PDF). Concordia Theological Quarterly. 47 (3): 219. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  154. ^ John 15:5, Tit. 2:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 62–63, Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 88 The New Obedience Is The Fruit Of Conversion, The Product Of Faith.
  155. ^ 2 Cor. 9:8, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.. 1875. pp. 313–314, Part D Confession of the Conservative Reformation: II, Secondary Confessions: Book of Concord, Formula of Concord, Part IV The Doctrinal Result, 2, Section iv, Of Good Works.
  156. ^ Phil 2:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 74, Part XIX. "Preservation in Faith", paragraph 102.
  157. ^ Rom. 7:18 Heb 11:6, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 39–40, Part VIII. "Sin", paragraph 46 "Original Sin".
  158. ^ "Mat. 7:15–16; NIV – True and False Prophets". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  159. ^ Albrecht Beutel, "Luther's Life", tr. Katharina Gustavs, in The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther, ed. Donald K. McKim (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 11.
  160. ^ "Joh 18:36; ESV – Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of..." Bible Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  161. ^ Luke 23:42–43, 2 Cor. 5:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 130, Part XXXIV. "The State of the Soul in the Interval Between Death and the Resurrection", paragraph 185.
  162. ^ 1 Cor. 15:22–24, Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 505–515; Heinrich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 624–32; John Mueller, Christian Dogmatics, 616–619
  163. ^ John 6:40, John 6:54
  164. ^ John 5:21, John 5:28–29, Matthew 25:32, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Acts 24:15
  165. ^ Romans 8:11, Philippians 3:21, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Job 19:26, 1 Corinthians 15:44, 1 Corinthians 15:53, John 5:28, Revelation 20:12
  166. ^ Daniel 12:2, Matthew 25:41–46, John 5:29
  167. ^ Daniel 12:1–2, John 5:29, 1 Corinthians 15:52, 1 Corinthians 15:42–44, 1 Corinthians 15:49–53, Philippians 3:21, Matthew 13:43, Revelation 7:16
  168. ^ John 6:40, John 6:44, John 11:24
  169. ^ 1 Corinthians 15:51–52, 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17
  170. ^ Matthew 25:32, Romans 14:10, John 5:22, Acts 17:31, Revelation 1:7
  171. ^ Matthew 25:32, Mark 16:16
  172. ^ 2 Corinthians 5:10, 1 Corinthians 4:5, Romans 2:5, Romans 2:16
  173. ^ Romans 2:6, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Matthew 25:35–36, Matthew 25:42–43
  174. ^ Isaiah 43:25, Ezekiel 18:22, 1 John 2:28
  175. ^ Matthew 25:34–35, John 3:16–18, John 3:36, Revelation 14:13, Galatians 5:6, John 13:35
  176. ^ Matthew 25:42, Matthew 7:17–18, John 3:18, John 3:36
  177. ^ Romans 2:5, Acts 17:31, Romans 2:16
  178. ^ Luke 9:26, Matthew 25:31–32
  179. ^ Matthew 25:41, Matthew 25:34, Matthew 25:46, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 233–8. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
  180. ^ Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
  181. ^ a b c "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015. "Total Depravity – Lutherans and Calvinists agree." Yes this is correct. Both agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind.
  182. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
  183. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
  184. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
  185. ^ Morris, J.W., The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History, p267, "The Book of Concord became the official statement of doctrine for most of the world's Lutherans. The Formula of Concord reaffirmed the traditional Lutheran doctrine of total depravity in very clear terms"
  186. ^ Melton, J.G., Encyclopedia of Protestantism, p229, on Formula of Concord, "the 12 articles of the formula focused on a number of newer issues such as original sin (in which total depravity is affirmed)"
  187. ^ "WELS vs Assembly of God". WELS Topical Q&A. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. [P]eople by nature are dead in their transgressions and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion.
  188. ^ Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
  189. ^ Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
  190. ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. pp. 157–158.
  191. ^ The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
  192. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63. Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional.
  193. ^ The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".
  194. ^ "Justification / Salvation". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2015. Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.
  195. ^ "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith". This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015. We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18]). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).
  196. ^ Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
  197. ^ "Universal Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2015. Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.
  198. ^ Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."
  199. ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. p. 136. Faith is a condition of justification
  200. ^ Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine's "monergistic view".
  201. ^ Diehl, Walter A. "The Age of Accountability". Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved 10 February 2015. In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).
  202. ^ Monergism; thefreedictionary.com
  203. ^ "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  204. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18. Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.
  205. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 165. [Arminius]' evangelical synergism reserves all the power, ability and efficacy in salvation to grace, but allows humans the God-granted ability to resist or not resist it. The only "contribution" humans make is nonresistance to grace.
  206. ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
  207. ^ "Once saved always saved". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.
  208. ^ "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That's why Lutherans typically speak of God's preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit's preservation.
  209. ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.
  210. ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. p. 35. Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints.
  211. ^ McGrath, Alister, E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006. p. 272.
  212. ^ Taruskin, Richard. The Oxford History of Western Music – Volume I (Music in the Earliest Notations to the sixteenth century), pp. 753–758 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)
  213. ^ Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article XXIV.1
  214. ^ a b See Luther's Small Catechism, Daily Prayers Archived 1 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  215. ^ Hämmerli, Maria; Mayer, Jean-François (23 May 2016). Orthodox Identities in Western Europe: Migration, Settlement and Innovation. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 9781317084914.
  216. ^ Principle examples of this in the ELCA include Family of God, Cape Coral FL. Archived 16 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Well, Charlotte NC, Hosanna! of Lakeville, Minnesota, and Church of the Apostles, Seattle WA. Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  217. ^ "A given culture's values and patterns, insofar as they are consonant with the values of the Gospel, can be used to express the meaning and purpose of Christian worship. Contextualization is a necessary task for the Church's mission in the world, so that the Gospel can be ever more deeply rooted in diverse local cultures." NAIROBI STATEMENT ON WORSHIP AND CULTURE: Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities Archived 22 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  218. ^ Piepkorn, A.C. Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 31.
  219. ^ Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 32.
  220. ^ Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 35.
  221. ^ Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 33.
  222. ^ a b c Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 34.
  223. ^ Hunt, T.; Carper, J. (2012). The Praeger Handbook of Faith-Based Schools in the United States, K-12, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 177. ISBN 978-0313391392.
  224. ^ Preface Archived 21 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine to Luther's Large and preface Archived 28 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine to Luther's Small Catechism.
  225. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 367.
  226. ^ Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (Google Books) by James van Horn Melton, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  227. ^ Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia, 1977. p. 16
  228. ^ Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia. p. 18
  229. ^ See Lutheran Orthodoxy Under Fire: An Exploratory Study of the Syncretistic Controversy And The Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranae Archived 15 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine and Strenuus Christi Athleta Abraham Calov (1612–1686): Sainted Doctor And Defender of the Church Archived 15 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, both by Timothy R. Schmeling
  230. ^ (in Swedish)Svenskakyrkan.se Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  231. ^ Bente, Friedrich, 1858–1930. American Lutheranism Volume 1: Early History of American Lutheranism: Lutheran Swedes in Delaware. St. Louis: Concordia, 1919, pp. 13–16.
  232. ^ Eklund, Emmet E. (1988). His Name Was Jonas: A Biography of Jonas Swenson. Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana Historical Society. p. 99. ISBN 978-0910184366. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
  233. ^ Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 185.
  234. ^ For a historical example, see Robert Preus, To Join or Not To Join. North Dakota District of The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, 1968.
  235. ^ See Brief Statement was adopted as LCMS doctrine in 1932, and from time to time has been adopted by other Lutherans Archived 14 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  236. ^ Report of the Lutheran Church, The Northwestern Lutheran, p. 281, 31 August 1988.
  237. ^ These include, but are not limited to the following: the American Provinces of the Moravian Church, the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Reformed Church in America, the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Christ.
  238. ^ For a similar phenomenon also currently developing, see Anglican realignment.
  239. ^ see Ecumenism: Facts and Illusions by Kurt E. Marquart for a short explanation of the modern ecumenism movement from a Confessional Lutheran perspective
  240. ^ See scholarly articles on the Church Growth Movement Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library and Implications of the Church Growth Movement for Lutherans: Possibilities and Concerns Archived 14 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine by Harold L. Senkbeil as examples of criticism from confessional Lutherans
  241. ^ For some opinions and historical discussion from someone who takes a broader view, see What is a call?: or, When is a call a call, and who makes it such? Archived 12 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine By Alfred H. Maaske
  242. ^ Gassman, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Olderburg, Mark W. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism (2nd ed.). The Scarecrow Press, Inc. ISBN 9780810874824.
  243. ^ Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge. In: Dorothea Sattler, Gunther Wenz: Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge. Volume 3: Verständigungen und Differenzen. Herder/ Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Freiburg and Göttingen 2008. ISBN 3-451-29943-7, p. 167–267, and p. 266.
  244. ^ Karelian religious movement Uskhovayzet
  245. ^ Kirche weltweit Ukraine: "Ihre Gemeinde ist annulliert" 18.09.2016 by Von Helmut Frank]
  246. ^ A New "Old" Lutheran Church in Asian Russia by Alexei Streltsov, in Logia, Epiphany 2006: Volume 15, Number 1
  247. ^ Zahlen und Fakte zum kirchlichen Leben 2019 Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
  248. ^ This website has text and midi files for the 1865 Pennsylvania Ministerium hymnal.
  249. ^ Abdel Ross Wentz (1954), A Basic History of Lutheranism in America, Philadelphia, Pa., p. 41
  250. ^ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 6, 140
  251. ^ For example, the single Lutheran church on Guam is a member of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ. See Lutheran Church of Guam History Archived 17 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  252. ^ Legitimacy, authority and transition in the public office of the ministry in the Lutheran Church of Australia by Grulke, David. 2 vols. (2007), thesis, Australian Catholic University
  253. ^ One example of these differences are those between the Missouri and Wisconsin Synods.
  254. ^ "About Us". Lutheran Church of New Zealand. Retrieved 5 March 2015. However, some Lutherans disagree with the way the Lutheran World Federation arrives at this number, as millions of them actually come from bodies that are largely Reformed, but include some Lutherans. For more information on this, see: Schumacher, William (April 2005). "Theological Observer: How Many Lutherans?" (PDF). Concordia Journal. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007.
  255. ^ "Member Churches". The Lutheran World Federation. 19 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  256. ^ "Survey Shows 70.5 Million Members in LWF-Affiliated Churches". The Lutheran World Federation. 14 March 2012. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
  257. ^ "Gezählt 2021 – Zahlen und Fakten zum kirchlichen Leben" (PDF). ekd.de. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  258. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Dominant Protestant Denomination Per Country Archived 25 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 1995.
  259. ^ Lutherans as a Percentage of All Residents, 2000 Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine (Map by county). Also see comparable maps of other religions along with specific denominations of Lutheran at the main American Ethnic Geography Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine site
  260. ^ 2011 World Lutheran Membership Details Archived 24 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  261. ^ "Norway: State and Church Separate After 500 Years". Library of Congress. 3 February 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  262. ^ "Sweden Ends Designation of Lutheranism as Official Religion". Los Angeles Times. January 2000. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  263. ^ The Lutheran World Federation 2019 Membership Figures

Further reading

External links