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Англия

Англиястрана , входящая в состав Соединённого Королевства . [6] Она расположена на острове Великобритания , из которого она охватывает приблизительно 62% и более 100 более мелких прилегающих островов . Имеет сухопутные границы с Шотландией на севере и Уэльсом на западе, а также окружена Северным морем на востоке, Ла-Маншем на юге, Кельтским морем на юго-западе и Ирландским морем на западе. Континентальная Европа находится на юго-востоке, а Ирландия на западе. По переписи 2021 года население составляло 56 490 048 человек. [1] Лондон является как крупнейшим городом , так и столицей .

Территория, которая сейчас называется Англией, была впервые заселена современными людьми во время верхнего палеолита . Свое название она получила от англов , германского племени, которое поселилось в V и VI веках. Англия стала единым государством в X веке и оказала значительное культурное и юридическое влияние на весь мир со времен Великих географических открытий , которые начались в XV веке. [7] Королевство Англия , в которое после 1535 года входил Уэльс, перестало быть отдельным суверенным государством 1 мая 1707 года, когда Акты об унии ввели в действие политический союз с Королевством Шотландия , в результате чего было создано Королевство Великобритания . [8]

Англия является родиной английского языка , английской правовой системы (которая послужила основой для систем общего права многих других стран), ассоциативного футбола и англиканской ветви христианства; ее парламентская система правления была широко принята другими странами. [9] Промышленная революция началась в Англии 18 века, превратив ее общество в первую в мире индустриальную страну. [10] Англия является родиной двух старейших университетов в англоязычном мире: Оксфордского университета , основанного в 1096 году, и Кембриджского университета , основанного в 1209 году. Оба университета входят в число самых престижных в мире. [11] [12]

Рельеф Англии в основном состоит из низких холмов и равнин , особенно в центре и на юге . Возвышенности и гористая местность в основном встречаются на севере и западе, включая Дартмур , Озёрный край , Пеннинские горы и Шропширские холмы . Столица страны — Лондон , столичная область которого имеет население 14,2 миллиона человек по состоянию на 2021 год, представляя собой крупнейшую столичную область Соединённого Королевства. Население Англии в 56,3 миллиона человек составляет 84% населения Соединённого Королевства, [13] в основном сосредоточено вокруг Лондона, Юго-Востока и конурбаций в Мидлендсе , Северо-Западе , Северо-Востоке и Йоркшире , каждый из которых развивался как крупные промышленные регионы в 19 веке. [14]

Топонимия

Название «Англия» происходит от древнеанглийского названия Englaland , что означает «земля англов » . [15] Англы были одним из германских племен , которые поселились в Великобритании в раннем Средневековье . Они пришли из региона Ангельн , который сейчас является немецкой землей Шлезвиг-Гольштейн . [16] Самое раннее зарегистрированное использование термина, как « Engla londe », содержится в переводе конца девятого века на древнеанглийский язык « Церковной истории английского народа » Беды Достопочтенного . Тогда этот термин использовался для обозначения «земли, населенной англичанами», и он включал в себя англичан, которые жили на территории современной юго-восточной Шотландии, но тогда были частью английского королевства Нортумбрия . В «Англосаксонской хронике» записано, что « Книга страшного суда» 1086 года охватывала всю Англию, то есть Английское королевство, но несколько лет спустя в « Хронике» говорилось, что король Малкольм III отправился «из Шотландии в Лотиан в Англии», таким образом, употребляя это выражение в более древнем смысле. [17]

Самое раннее засвидетельствованное упоминание об англах встречается в работе Тацита I века « Germania» , в которой используется латинское слово Anglii . [18] Этимология самого племенного названия оспаривается учеными; было высказано предположение, что оно происходит от формы полуострова Ангельн, угловатой формы. [19] Как и почему термин, произошедший от названия племени, которое было менее значительным, чем другие, например, саксы , стал использоваться для всей страны, неизвестно, но, похоже, это связано с обычаем называть германский народ в Британии англосаксами или английскими саксами, чтобы отличать их от континентальных саксов (Eald-Seaxe) Старой Саксонии в Германии. [20] В шотландском гэльском языке племя саксов дало свое имя слову, обозначающему Англию ( Sasunn ); [21] аналогично, валлийское название английского языка — « Saesneg ». Романтическое название Англии — Лоегрия , связанное с валлийским словом для Англии, Lloegr , и ставшее популярным благодаря использованию в легенде о короле Артуре . Альбион также применяется к Англии в более поэтическом смысле, [22] хотя его первоначальное значение — остров Британия в целом.

История

Предыстория

Солнце светит сквозь ряд вертикально стоящих камней, наверху которых горизонтально расположены другие камни.
Стоунхендж , неолитический памятник

Самым ранним известным свидетельством присутствия человека в районе, который сейчас известен как Англия, был Homo antecessor , датируемый примерно 780 000 лет назад. Древнейшие кости проточеловека, обнаруженные в Англии, датируются 500 000 лет назад. [23] Известно, что современные люди населяли этот район в период верхнего палеолита , хотя постоянные поселения были основаны только в течение последних 6 000 лет. [24] После последнего ледникового периода остались только крупные млекопитающие, такие как мамонты , бизоны и шерстистые носороги . Примерно 11 000 лет назад, когда ледяные щиты начали отступать, люди снова заселили этот район; генетические исследования показывают, что они пришли из северной части Пиренейского полуострова . [25] Уровень моря был ниже, чем сегодня, и Британия была соединена сухопутным мостом с Ирландией и Евразией . [26] Когда уровень моря поднялся, 10 000 лет назад он отделился от Ирландии, а два тысячелетия спустя — от Евразии.

Культура кубков появилась около 2500 г. до н. э., представив питьевые и пищевые сосуды, сделанные из глины, а также сосуды, используемые в качестве восстановительных горшков для плавки медной руды. [27] Именно в это время были построены основные неолитические памятники, такие как Стоунхендж (фаза III) и Эйвбери . Нагревая вместе олово и медь, которые были в изобилии в этом районе, люди культуры кубков делали бронзу , а позже и железо из железной руды. Развитие выплавки железа позволило построить лучшие плуги , продвинуть сельское хозяйство (например, с кельтскими полями ), а также производить более эффективное оружие. [28]

Щит Баттерси — один из самых значительных образцов древнекельтского искусства, найденных в Британии.

В железном веке кельтская культура , происходящая от культур Гальштата и Латена , пришла из Центральной Европы. В то время разговорным языком был бриттский . Общество было племенным; согласно «Географии» Птолемея , в этом районе проживало около 20 племен. Как и другие регионы на окраине Империи, Британия долгое время имела торговые связи с римлянами. Юлий Цезарь из Римской республики дважды пытался вторгнуться в 55 г. до н. э.; хотя в целом безуспешно, ему удалось поставить на престол короля-клиента из триновантов .

Древняя история

Римляне вторглись в Британию в 43 г. н. э. во время правления императора Клавдия , впоследствии завоевав большую часть Британии , и эта область была включена в Римскую империю как провинция Британия . [29] Самым известным из местных племен, которые пытались сопротивляться, были катувеллауны во главе с Каратаком . Позже восстание во главе с Боудиккой , королевой иценов , закончилось самоубийством Боудикки после ее поражения в битве при Уотлинг-стрит . [30] Автор одного исследования Римской Британии предположил, что с 43 г. н. э. по 84 г. н. э. римские захватчики убили где-то от 100 000 до 250 000 человек из населения, возможно, 2 000 000. [31] В эту эпоху преобладала греко-римская культура с введением римского права , римской архитектуры , акведуков , канализации , многих сельскохозяйственных предметов и шелка. [32] В III веке император Септимий Север умер в Эборакуме (ныне Йорк ), где Константин был впоследствии провозглашен императором столетием позже. [33]

Существуют споры о том, когда впервые было введено христианство; это было не позднее 4 века, возможно, намного раньше. Согласно Беде , миссионеры были отправлены из Рима Элевтерием по просьбе вождя Луция Британии в 180 году нашей эры, чтобы урегулировать разногласия относительно восточных и западных церемоний, которые беспокоили церковь. Существуют традиции, связанные с Гластонбери, заявляющие о введении через Иосифа Аримафейского , в то время как другие утверждают, что через Луция Британии. [34] К 410 году, во время упадка Римской империи , Британия осталась беззащитной перед концом римского правления в Британии и выводом римских армейских подразделений, чтобы защищать границы в континентальной Европе и участвовать в гражданских войнах. [35] Кельтские христианские монашеские и миссионерские движения процветали. Этот период христианства находился под влиянием древней кельтской культуры в ее чувствах, политике, практиках и теологии. Местные «конгрегации» были сосредоточены в монашеской общине, а монастырские лидеры были скорее вождями, как пэры, а не в более иерархической системе церкви, находящейся под властью Рима. [36]

Средний возраст

Украшенная заклепками и украшениями металлическая маска человеческого лица.
Копия церемониального шлема Саттон-Ху VII века из Королевства Восточная Англия.

Римские военные отступления оставили Британию открытой для вторжения языческих воинов-мореплавателей с северо-запада континентальной Европы, в основном саксов, англов , ютов и фризов, которые долгое время совершали набеги на побережья римской провинции. Затем эти группы начали селиться во все большем количестве в течение пятого и шестого веков, первоначально в восточной части страны. [35] Их продвижение сдерживалось в течение нескольких десятилетий после победы бриттов в битве при горе Бадон , но впоследствии возобновилось, заполонив плодородные низменности Британии и сократив территорию под контролем бриттов до ряда отдельных анклавов в более суровой стране на западе к концу шестого века. Современные тексты, описывающие этот период, чрезвычайно скудны, что дало основание описывать его как Темный век . Подробности англосаксонского заселения Британии, следовательно, являются предметом значительных разногласий; Возникающий консенсус заключается в том, что это произошло в больших масштабах на юге и востоке, но было менее существенным на севере и западе, где кельтские языки продолжали использоваться даже в районах, находящихся под контролем англосаксов. [37] [38] Римское христианство, в целом, было заменено на завоеванных территориях англосаксонским язычеством , но было вновь введено миссионерами из Рима во главе с Августином с 597 года. [39] Споры между римскими и кельтскими формами христианства закончились победой римской традиции на соборе в Уитби (664), который был якобы о тонзурах (стрижках духовенства) и дате Пасхи, но что более важно, о различиях в римских и кельтских формах власти, теологии и практике. [36]

В период заселения земли, управляемые пришельцами, по-видимому, были раздроблены на многочисленные племенные территории, но к 7 веку, когда снова стали доступны существенные доказательства ситуации, они объединились примерно в дюжину королевств, включая Нортумбрию , Мерсию , Уэссекс , Восточную Англию , Эссекс , Кент и Сассекс . В течение последующих столетий этот процесс политической консолидации продолжался. [40] В 7 веке произошла борьба за гегемонию между Нортумбрией и Мерсией, которая в 8 веке уступила место превосходству Мерсии. [41] В начале 9 века Мерсия была вытеснена Уэссексом как передовое королевство. Позже в том же веке участившиеся нападения датчан достигли кульминации в завоевании севера и востока Англии, свергнув королевства Нортумбрия, Мерсия и Восточная Англия. Уэссекс при Альфреде Великом остался единственным сохранившимся английским королевством, а при его преемниках он неуклонно расширялся за счет королевств Данелага . Это привело к политическому объединению Англии, впервые осуществленному при Этельстане в 927 году и окончательно установленному после дальнейших конфликтов Эдредом в 953 году. Новая волна скандинавских атак с конца X века закончилась завоеванием этого объединенного королевства Свеном Вилобородым в 1013 году и снова его сыном Кнутом в 1016 году, превратив его в центр недолговечной империи Северного моря , в которую также входили Дания и Норвегия . Однако местная королевская династия была восстановлена ​​с восшествием на престол Эдуарда Исповедника в 1042 году.

Король Генрих V в битве при Азенкуре, 1415 год.
Король Генрих V в битве при Азенкуре , сражался в день Святого Криспина и завершился победой англичан над превосходящей французской армией в Столетней войне

Спор о престолонаследии Эдуарда привел к неудачному норвежскому вторжению в сентябре 1066 года недалеко от Йорка на севере и успешному нормандскому завоеванию в октябре 1066 года, совершенному армией во главе с герцогом Вильгельмом Нормандским, вторгшейся в Гастингс в конце сентября 1066 года. [ 42] Сами норманны были выходцами из Скандинавии и поселились в Нормандии в конце IX и начале X веков. [43] Это завоевание привело к почти полному лишению английской элиты собственности и ее замене новой франкоговорящей аристократией, чья речь оказала глубокое и постоянное влияние на английский язык. [44]

Впоследствии дом Плантагенетов из Анжу унаследовал английский престол при Генрихе II , добавив Англию к зарождающейся Анжуйской империи феодов, унаследованных семьей во Франции, включая Аквитанию . [45] Они правили в течение трех столетий, некоторыми известными монархами были Ричард I , Эдуард I , Эдуард III и Генрих V. [ 45] В этот период произошли изменения в торговле и законодательстве, включая подписание Великой хартии вольностей , английской правовой хартии, используемой для ограничения полномочий суверена законом и защиты привилегий свободных людей. Католическое монашество процветало, предоставляя философов, и университеты Оксфорда и Кембриджа были основаны при королевском покровительстве. Княжество Уэльс стало феодом Плантагенетов в 13 веке [46] , а лордство Ирландия было передано английской монархии Папой. В 14 веке Плантагенеты и дом Валуа утверждали, что являются законными претендентами на дом Капетингов и Францию; две державы столкнулись в Столетней войне . [47] Эпидемия Черной смерти поразила Англию ; начавшись в 1348 году, она в конечном итоге убила до половины жителей Англии . [48]

Между 1453 и 1487 годами между двумя ветвями королевской семьи, йоркистами и ланкастерцами , велась гражданская война, известная как Война роз . [49] В конечном итоге это привело к тому, что йоркисты полностью уступили трон валлийской знатной семье Тюдоров , ветви Ланкастеров во главе с Генрихом Тюдором , который вторгся с валлийскими и бретонскими наемниками, одержав победу в битве при Босворте , где был убит король йоркистов Ричард III . [50]

Ранний современный период

В период Тюдоров Англия начала развивать военно-морские навыки , а исследования усилились в эпоху Великих географических открытий . [51] Генрих VIII порвал общение с католической церковью из-за проблем, связанных с его разводом, в соответствии с Актами о супремати в 1534 году, которые провозгласили монарха главой Церкви Англии . В отличие от большей части европейского протестантизма , корни раскола были скорее политическими, чем теологическими. [d] Он также юридически включил свою родовую землю Уэльс в Королевство Англии актами 1535–1542 годов . Во время правления дочерей Генриха, Марии I и Елизаветы I , происходили внутренние религиозные конфликты . Первая вернула страну к католицизму, в то время как вторая снова порвала с ним, настойчиво утверждая верховенство англиканства . Елизаветинская эпоха — это эпоха в эпоху Тюдоров правления королевы Елизаветы I («королевы-девственницы»). Историки часто описывают его как золотой век в английской истории, который представлял собой апогей английского Возрождения и стал свидетелем расцвета великого искусства, драмы, поэзии, музыки и литературы. [53] В этот период в Англии было централизованное, хорошо организованное и эффективное правительство. [54]

Конкурируя с Испанией , первая английская колония в Америке была основана в 1585 году исследователем Уолтером Рэли в Вирджинии и названа Роанок . Колония Роанок потерпела неудачу и известна как потерянная колония после того, как была найдена заброшенной по возвращении поздно прибывшего судна снабжения. [55] С Ост-Индской компанией Англия также конкурировала с голландцами и французами на Востоке. В елизаветинский период Англия воевала с Испанией. Армада отплыла из Испании в 1588 году как часть более широкого плана по вторжению в Англию и восстановлению католической монархии. План был сорван плохой координацией, штормовой погодой и успешными изнуряющими атаками английского флота под командованием лорда Говарда Эффингемского . Эта неудача не положила конец угрозе: Испания спустила на воду еще две армады, в 1596 и 1597 годах , но обе были отброшены штормами.

Союз с Шотландией

Политическая структура острова изменилась в 1603 году, когда король Шотландии Яков VI , королевства, которое было давним соперником английских интересов, унаследовал трон Англии как Яков I, тем самым создав личную унию . [56] Он называл себя королем Великобритании , хотя это не имело никакого основания в английском праве. [57] Под эгидой Якова VI и I в 1611 году была опубликована Авторизованная версия Библии короля Якова . Это была стандартная версия Библии, которую читало большинство протестантских христиан в течение четырехсот лет, пока в 20 веке не были выпущены современные редакции.

Картина, изображающая сидящую мужскую фигуру с длинными черными волосами, в белой накидке и бриджах.
Английская Реставрация восстановила монархию при короле Карле II и мир после Гражданской войны в Англии .

Основанная на противоречивых политических, религиозных и социальных позициях, гражданская война в Англии велась между сторонниками парламента и сторонниками короля Карла I , известными в разговорной речи как «круглоголовые» и «кавалеры» соответственно. Это была переплетенная часть более широких многогранных войн Трех королевств , в которых участвовали Шотландия и Ирландия . Парламентарии победили, Карл I был казнен , а королевство было заменено Содружеством . Лидер парламентских сил Оливер Кромвель объявил себя лордом-протектором в 1653 году; последовал период личного правления . [58] После смерти Кромвеля и отставки его сына Ричарда с поста лорда-протектора Карл II был приглашен вернуться в качестве монарха в 1660 году в ходе движения, названного Реставрацией . С открытием театров, изящные искусства, литература и исполнительское искусство процветали на протяжении Реставрации «Веселого монарха» Карла II. [59] После Славной революции 1688 года было конституционно установлено, что король и парламент должны править вместе, хотя реальная власть будет у парламента. Это было установлено Биллем о правах в 1689 году. Среди установленных статутов было то, что закон может быть принят только парламентом и не может быть приостановлен королем, а также то, что король не может вводить налоги или собирать армию без предварительного одобрения парламента. [60] Также с того времени ни один британский монарх не входил в Палату общин , когда она заседает, что ежегодно отмечается на Государственном открытии парламента британским монархом, когда двери Палаты общин захлопываются перед посланником монарха, символизируя права парламента и его независимость от монарха. [61] С основанием Королевского общества в 1660 году наука получила большую поддержку.

В 1666 году Великий пожар в Лондоне уничтожил город, но вскоре после этого он был восстановлен со многими значительными зданиями, спроектированными сэром Кристофером Реном . [62] К середине-концу 17 века возникли две политические фракции — тори и виги . Хотя тори изначально поддерживали католического короля Якова II , некоторые из них, вместе с вигами, во время Революции 1688 года пригласили голландского принца Вильгельма Оранского победить Якова и стать королем. Некоторые англичане, особенно на севере, были якобитами и продолжали поддерживать Якова и его сыновей. При династии Стюартов Англия расширила торговлю, финансы и процветание. Королевский флот создал крупнейший торговый флот в Европе. [63] После того, как парламенты Англии и Шотландии согласились, [64] две страны объединились в политический союз , чтобы создать Королевство Великобритании в 1707 году. [56] Чтобы обеспечить союз, такие институты, как право и национальные церкви каждой страны, оставались отдельными. [65]

Поздний современный и современный периоды

Река Темза в георгианскую эпоху с террасы Сомерсет-хауса, вид на собор Святого Павла, около  1750 г.

В недавно образованном Королевстве Великобритании, результаты деятельности Королевского общества и других английских инициатив в сочетании с шотландским Просвещением создали инновации в науке и технике, в то время как огромный рост британской внешней торговли, защищенной Королевским флотом, проложил путь к созданию Британской империи . Внутри страны это привело к промышленной революции , периоду глубоких изменений в социально-экономических и культурных условиях Англии, что привело к индустриализации сельского хозяйства, производства, машиностроения и добычи полезных ископаемых, а также к появлению новых и новаторских автомобильных, железнодорожных и водных сетей для содействия их расширению и развитию. [66] Открытие канала Бриджуотер на северо-западе Англии в 1761 году ознаменовало начало эпохи каналов в Британии . [67] В 1825 году для публики открылась первая в мире постоянная пассажирская железная дорога с паровозной тягой — железная дорога Стоктона и Дарлингтона . [67]

многоэтажные квадратные промышленные здания за рекой
Трафальгарское сражение было морским сражением между Королевским флотом и объединёнными флотами Франции и Испании во время Наполеоновских войн . [68]

Во время промышленной революции многие рабочие переехали из сельской местности Англии в новые и расширяющиеся городские промышленные районы, чтобы работать на фабриках, например, в Бирмингеме и Манчестере , [69] причем последний был первым в мире промышленным городом. [70] Англия сохраняла относительную стабильность на протяжении всей Французской революции при Георге III и Уильяме Питте Младшем . Регентство Георга IV известно своей элегантностью и достижениями в изящных искусствах и архитектуре. [71] Во время наполеоновских войн Наполеон планировал вторгнуться с юго-востока ; однако это не удалось осуществить, и наполеоновские войска были разбиты британцами: на море Горацио Нельсоном , а на суше Артуром Уэлсли . Крупная победа в битве при Трафальгаре подтвердила морское превосходство, которое Британия установила в течение восемнадцатого века. [72] Наполеоновские войны способствовали формированию концепции британскости и единого национального британского народа , разделяемого англичанами, шотландцами и валлийцами. [73]

Викторианскую эпоху часто называют Золотым веком . Картина Уильяма Пауэлла Фрита, демонстрирующая культурные различия.

Лондон стал крупнейшим и самым густонаселенным мегаполисом в мире в викторианскую эпоху , а торговля в пределах Британской империи, а также положение британских военных и флота, были престижными. [74] С технологической точки зрения эта эпоха увидела много инноваций, которые оказались ключевыми для мощи и процветания Соединенного Королевства. [75] Политическая агитация внутри страны со стороны радикалов, таких как хартисты и суфражистки, способствовала проведению законодательной реформы и всеобщему избирательному праву . [76]

Смена власти в Восточной и Центральной Европе привела к Первой мировой войне; сотни тысяч английских солдат погибли, сражаясь за Соединенное Королевство в составе союзников . [ e] Два десятилетия спустя, во Второй мировой войне , Соединенное Королевство снова стало одним из союзников . Развитие военных технологий привело к тому, что многие города были повреждены воздушными налетами во время Блица . После войны Британская империя пережила быструю деколонизацию , и произошло ускорение технологических инноваций; автомобили стали основным средством передвижения, а разработка Фрэнком Уиттлом реактивного двигателя привела к более широкому распространению авиаперевозок . [78] Модели проживания изменились в Англии из-за частного автотранспорта и создания Национальной службы здравоохранения в 1948 году, которая предоставляла всем постоянным жителям бесплатное медицинское обслуживание, финансируемое государством, в случае необходимости. В совокупности это побудило реформировать местное самоуправление в Англии в середине 20-го века. [79]

Начиная с 20-го века, в Англию происходило значительное перемещение населения, в основном из других частей Британских островов , но также и из Содружества , в частности с Индийского субконтинента . [80] С 1970-х годов наблюдается значительный отход от производства и все больший акцент на сфере услуг . [81] Будучи частью Соединенного Королевства, эта область присоединилась к инициативе общего рынка под названием Европейское экономическое сообщество , которое стало Европейским союзом . С конца 20-го века администрация Соединенного Королевства перешла к децентрализованному управлению в Шотландии, Уэльсе и Северной Ирландии. [82] Англия и Уэльс продолжают существовать как юрисдикция в составе Соединенного Королевства. [83] Децентрализация стимулировала больший акцент на более специфической для Англии идентичности и патриотизме. [84] Децентрализованного английского правительства не существует, но попытка создать подобную систему на субрегиональной основе была отклонена на референдуме . [85]

Управление

Политика

Фотография прямоугольного здания с прожектором, отраженного в воде. Здание имеет несколько башен, по одной на каждом конце. Башня справа включает в себя освещенный циферблат часов.
Вестминстерский дворец , резиденция парламента Соединенного Королевства

Англия является частью Соединенного Королевства, конституционной монархии с парламентской системой . [86] В Англии не было правительства с 1707 года, когда Акты об унии 1707 года , [87] вступившие в силу условия Договора об унии , объединили Англию и Шотландию, образовав Королевство Великобритании . [64] До объединения Англией управляли ее монарх и парламент Англии . Сегодня Англией управляет непосредственно парламент Соединенного Королевства , хотя другие страны Соединенного Королевства имеют децентрализованные правительства. [88] Были дебаты о том, как уравновесить это в Англии. Первоначально планировалось, что различные регионы Англии будут децентрализованы, но после того, как предложение было отклонено Северо -Востоком на референдуме 2004 года , это не было реализовано. [85]

В Палате общин , которая является нижней палатой британского парламента, расположенной в Вестминстерском дворце , насчитывается 543 члена парламента (МП) от избирательных округов Англии из 650 в общей сложности. [89] Англию представляют 347 депутатов от Лейбористской партии , 116 от Консервативной партии , 65 от Либеральных демократов , пять от Реформ Великобритании и четыре от Зелёной партии Англии и Уэльса .

Закон

Королевские суды

Правовая система английского права , развивавшаяся на протяжении столетий, является основой правовых систем общего права [90], используемых в большинстве стран Содружества [91] и Соединенных Штатах (за исключением Луизианы ). Несмотря на то, что теперь они являются частью Соединенного Королевства, правовая система судов Англии и Уэльса продолжила свое существование в соответствии с Договором о союзе как отдельная правовая система от той, которая использовалась в Шотландии . Общая суть английского права заключается в том, что оно создается судьями, заседающими в судах, применяющими свой здравый смысл и знание правового прецедентаstare decisis – к фактам, представленным им. [92]

Судебную систему возглавляют Высшие суды Англии и Уэльса, состоящие из Апелляционного суда , Высокого суда по гражданским делам и Королевского суда по уголовным делам. [93] Верховный суд Соединенного Королевства является высшим судом по уголовным и гражданским делам в Англии и Уэльсе . Он был создан в 2009 году после конституционных изменений, взяв на себя судебные функции Палаты лордов . [94] Решение Верховного суда является обязательным для всех остальных судов в иерархии, которые должны следовать его указаниям. [95]

Министр юстиции — министр, ответственный перед парламентом за судебную систему , судебную систему, тюрьмы и пробацию в Англии. [96] Уровень преступности вырос в период с 1981 по 1995 год, но снизился на 42% в период с 1995 по 2006 год. [97] За тот же период численность заключенных удвоилась, что сделало ее одним из самых высоких показателей тюремного заключения в Западной Европе — 147 на 100 000 человек. [98] Тюремная служба Его Величества , подчиняющаяся Министерству юстиции , управляет большинством тюрем, в которых по состоянию на сентябрь 2022 года содержалось 81 309 заключенных в Англии и Уэльсе . [99]

Подразделения

Территориальные подразделения Англии состоят из четырех уровней субнационального деления , контролируемых различными типами административных единиц, созданных для целей местного самоуправления .

За пределами Лондонского региона высшим уровнем Англии являются 48 церемониальных графств . [100] Они используются в первую очередь как географическая система отсчета. Из них 38 постепенно развивались со времен Средневековья ; они были реформированы до 51 в 1974 году и до их нынешнего числа в 1996 году. [101] В каждом есть лорд-лейтенант и верховный шериф ; эти должности используются для представления британского монарха на местном уровне. [100] Некоторые графства, такие как Херефордшир , делятся только на гражданские приходы. Королевское графство Беркшир и столичные графства имеют другие типы статуса по сравнению с другими церемониальными графствами. [102]

Второй уровень состоит из объединенных органов власти и 27 графств уровня графства . В 1974 году все церемониальные графства были двухуровневыми; и с постепенным упразднением уровня столичного графства реформа 1996 года разделила церемониальный графство и административный уровень графства.

Англия также разделена на округа местного самоуправления. [103] Округ может соответствовать церемониальному графству или быть районом уровня в графстве графства , быть королевским или столичным городом , иметь статус городского поселения или города или быть унитарным органом власти .

На уровне общин большая часть Англии разделена на гражданские приходы со своими собственными советами ; в Большом Лондоне по состоянию на 2014 год существует только один такой приход, Куинс-Парк , после того как они были упразднены в 1965 году , пока законодательство не разрешило их воссоздание в 2007 году.

Лондон

С 1994 года до начала 2010-х годов Англия была разделена на регионы по нескольким причинам; референдум 1998 года по Лондонскому региону создал Лондонскую ассамблею два года спустя. [104] Неудачный референдум 2004 года о передаче полномочий северо-восточной Англии отменил дальнейшую передачу полномочий региональной ассамблее [85], а региональная структура за пределами Лондона была упразднена.

Церемониально и административно регион разделен на Лондонский Сити и Большой Лондон ; они, в свою очередь, делятся на 32 округа Лондона и 25 округов Лондонского Сити . [105]

География

Пейзаж и реки

Холмы Малверн, расположенные в английских графствах Вустершир и Херефордшир . Холмы были обозначены Агентством по сельской местности как Территория исключительной природной красоты .

Географически Англия включает в себя центральные и южные две трети острова Великобритания, а также такие прибрежные острова, как остров Уайт и острова Силли . Она граничит с двумя другими странами Соединенного Королевства: на севере с Шотландией и на западе с Уэльсом.

Англия ближе, чем любая другая часть материковой Британии, к европейскому континенту. Она отделена от Франции ( О-де-Франс ) 21-мильным (34 км) [106] морским проливом, хотя две страны соединены туннелем под Ла-Маншем около Фолкстона . [107] Англия также имеет берега в Ирландском море , Северном море и Атлантическом океане.

Порты Лондона, Ливерпуля и Ньюкасла расположены на приливных реках Темза , Мерси и Тайн соответственно. Протяженность реки Северн составляет 220 миль (350 км). [108] Она впадает в Бристольский залив и примечательна своим Северн Бор ( приливная волна ), высота которой может достигать 2 метров (6,6 футов). [109] Однако самая длинная река, полностью расположенная в Англии, — это Темза, длина которой составляет 215 миль (346 км). [110] В Англии много озер ; самое большое — Уиндермир , в пределах метко названного Озёрного края . [111]

Деревня Гленриддинг и Алсуотер в Камбрии .

Большая часть ландшафта Англии состоит из низких холмов и равнин, с возвышенностями и горной местностью на севере и западе страны. Северные возвышенности включают Пеннинские горы , цепь возвышенностей, разделяющих восток и запад, горы Озёрного края в Камбрии и холмы Чевиот , охватывающие границу между Англией и Шотландией. Самая высокая точка в Англии, высотой 978 метров (3209 футов), — это Скофел-Пайк в Озёрном крае. [111] Шропширские холмы находятся недалеко от Уэльса, а Дартмур и Эксмур — две возвышенности на юго-западе страны. Приблизительная разделительная линия между типами рельефа часто обозначается линией Тис–Экс . [112]

Пеннинские горы, известные как «позвоночник Англии», являются старейшим горным хребтом в стране, возникшим в конце палеозойской эры около 300 миллионов лет назад. [113] Их геологический состав включает, среди прочего, песчаник и известняк , а также уголь. В кальцитовых областях, таких как части Йоркшира и Дербишира , есть карстовые ландшафты . Пеннинские ландшафты представляют собой высокие вересковые пустоши в возвышенных районах, изрезанные плодородными долинами рек региона. Они содержат два национальных парка , Йоркшир-Дейлс и Пик-Дистрикт . В Западной стране Дартмур и Эксмур на Юго-Западном полуострове включают возвышенные вересковые пустоши, поддерживаемые гранитом. [114]

Английские низменности находятся в центральных и южных регионах страны, состоящие из зеленых холмов, включая холмы Котсуолд , Чилтерн , Северные и Южные холмы ; там, где они встречаются с морем, они образуют белые скальные обнажения, такие как скалы Дувра . Сюда также входят относительно плоские равнины, такие как равнина Солсбери , Сомерсет-Левелс , равнина Южного побережья и Фенс .

Климат

В Англии умеренный морской климат : он мягкий, с температурами не намного ниже 0 °C (32 °F) зимой и не намного выше 32 °C (90 °F) летом. [115] Погода относительно часто бывает сырой и изменчивой. Самые холодные месяцы — январь и февраль, последний особенно на английском побережье , в то время как июль обычно самый теплый месяц. Месяцы с мягкой или теплой погодой — май, июнь, сентябрь и октябрь. [115] Осадки распределяются довольно равномерно в течение года.

Важное влияние на климат Англии оказывают ее близость к Атлантическому океану , ее северная широта и потепление моря Гольфстримом . [ 115] Количество осадков выше на западе, и в некоторых частях Озёрного края выпадает больше осадков, чем где-либо еще в стране. [115] С момента начала ведения метеорологических наблюдений самая высокая зарегистрированная температура составила 40,3 °C (104,5 °F) 19 июля 2022 года в Конингсби , Линкольншир , [116] а самая низкая была -26,1 °C (-15,0 °F) 10 января 1982 года в Эджмонде , Шропшир. [117]

Природа и дикая природа

Крапивник , самый многочисленный вид птиц в Англии [ 118]

Фауна Англии похожа на фауну других областей Британских островов с широким спектром позвоночных и беспозвоночных в разнообразных средах обитания. [119] Национальные природные заповедники в Англии обозначены Natural England как ключевые места для дикой природы и природных особенностей в Англии. Они были созданы для защиты наиболее значимых областей среды обитания и геологических формаций. ННП управляются от имени нации, многие из них самой Natural England, но также и неправительственными организациями, включая членов партнерства The Wildlife Trusts , Национального фонда и Королевского общества защиты птиц . В Англии 221 ННП, охватывающих 110 000 гектаров (1100 квадратных километров). Часто они содержат редкие виды или национально важные популяции растений и животных. [120] .

The Environment Agency is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England.[121] The Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.[122]

Red deer in Richmond Park. The park was created by Charles I in the 17th century as a deer park.[123]

England has a temperate oceanic climate in most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas of subarctic and warmer areas in the South West. Towards the North of England the climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas. Deciduous woodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England to coniferous forests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife. Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly the red fox, which is the most successful urban mammal after the brown rat, and other animals such as common wood pigeon, both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.[124]

Major conurbations

The Greater London Built-up Area is by far the largest urban area in England[125] and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself.[125] Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands.[125] There are 50 settlements which have designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 66.

While many cities in England are quite large, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status.[126] Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.

Economy

England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £37,852 in 2022.[5] HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy.[127] Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.[128]

London is the financial capital of England and the United Kingdom.

The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy.[129] England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.[130] London is the largest financial centre in Europe and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.[131]

London has also been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more.[132][133] The Bank of England, founded in 1694 as private banker to the government of England and a state-owned institution since 1946, is the United Kingdom's central bank.[134] The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the UK. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.[135]

Автомобиль серого цвета.
Aston Martin manufacture luxury vehicles in England.

England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.[81] Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, automotives, crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.[136] The creative industries accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.[137]

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.[138] Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the remainder to arable crops.[139] The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and sugar beets. England retains a significant fishing industry. Its fleets bring home a variety of fish, ranging from sole to herring. England is also rich in natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, and silica.[140]

Science and technology

Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket
Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science.

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, Edward Jenner, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Joseph Priestley, Thomas Young, Christopher Wren and Richard Dawkins.

England was a leading centre of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century.[141] As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.[142] Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.[143]

The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.[144] The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[145]

Inventions and discoveries of the English include the jet engine; the first industrial spinning machine; the first computer and the first modern computer; the World Wide Web along with HTML; the first successful human blood transfusion; the motorised vacuum cleaner;[146] the lawn mower; the seat belt; the hovercraft; the electric motor; steam engines; and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.[147]

The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge,[148] is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. Founded on 28 November 1660,[148] It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.[149] The Royal Institution of Great Britain was founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, including Henry Cavendish.[150] Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins in 1668.[151]

Scientific research and development remains important in the universities of England, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[152] Cambridge is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.[153] In 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (after the United States and China).[154] Scientific journals produced in England include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet. The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology, and Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation has responsibility for science in England.[155]

Transport

The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. The department is run by the Secretary of State for Transport.

England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle[156] (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).[156] Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.[156]

red stone building with tall clock tower in corner
London St Pancras International is one of London's main domestic and international transport hubs providing both commuter rail and high-speed rail services across the UK and to Paris, Lille and Brussels.

Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include Arriva, FirstGroup, Go-Ahead Group, Mobico Group, Rotala and Stagecoach Group. Bus rapid transit originated in England with the Runcorn Busway opening in 1971.[157][158] The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. National Cycle Route offers cycling routes nationally.

Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.[159] Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.

Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain from 2024. The Office of Rail and Road is responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways.[160] Crossrail was Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost, opened in 2022.[161] High Speed 2, a new high-speed north–south railway line, is under construction.[162]

There is a rapid transit network in two English cities: the London Underground, and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and Sunderland.[163] There are several extensive tram networks, such as the Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram, West Midlands Metro, Nottingham Express Transit, and Tramlink in South London.[163] England also has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is Heathrow, which is the world's second busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.[164]

By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.[165] There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal & River Trust,[165] however, water transport is very limited. The River Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.[165]

Energy

Wind turbines at Den Brook, Devon. The UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.[166][167]

Successive governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.[167] Wind power contributed 26.8% of UK electricity generation in 2022.[168] England is home to Hornsea 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.[169]

The Climate Change Act 2008 was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally binding climate change mitigation target set by a country.[170] UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, while meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs.[171]

The current energy policy is the responsibility of the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero and Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero.[172] The Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth is responsible for green finance, climate science and innovation, and low carbon generation.[173] In 2022, the United Kingdom was ranked 2 out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index.[174] A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050.[175]

Healthcare

William Beveridge's 1942 report Social Insurance and Allied Services served as the basis for the post-World War II welfare state.

The National Health Service (NHS), is the publicly funded healthcare system responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by the economist and social reformer, William Beveridge.[176] The NHS is largely funded by general taxation and National Insurance payments;[177] it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.[178]

The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, under the Secretary of State for Health. Most of the department's expenses are on the NHS – £98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.[179] Regulatory bodies such as the General Medical Council and the Nursing and Midwifery Council are organised on a UK-wide basis, as are non-governmental bodies such as the Royal Colleges.

The average life expectancy is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.[180] The south of England has a higher life expectancy than the north, but regional differences seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years.[180]

Demography

Population

Map of England with regions shaded in different shades of blue.
The metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties, colour-coded to show population
Population of England and Wales by administrative areas. Their size shows their population, with some approximation. Each group of squares in the map key is 20% of total number of districts.

With over 56 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.[3] England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 26th largest country by population in the world.[181]

The English people are British people.[182] There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.[f] Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.[187] Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.[182] There has been significant Irish migration.[188] The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 81.7%,[189] including White British, Germans[190] and Poles,[182] down from 94.1% in 1991.[182] Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, about 7% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.[189][190] About 0.7% are Chinese,[189][190] 0.6% are Arabs.[189] 4.0% of the population are black, from Africa and the Caribbean, especially former British colonies,[189][190] and 2.9% identified as multiracial or mixed.[189]

In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families,[191] and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.[192] About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.[193]

England contains one indigenous national minority, the Cornish people, recognised by the UK government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2014.[194]

Language

English, today widely spoken around the world,[196] originated in what is now England, where it remains the principal tongue. According to a 2011 census, it is spoken well or very well by 98% of the population[197]

English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England,[198] but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents.

Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,[199] and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[200] It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall,[201] and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.[202]

State schools teach students a second language or third language from the ages of seven, most commonly French, Spanish or German.[203] It was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home,[191] the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.[204] In 2022, British Sign Language became an official language of England when the British Sign Language Act 2022 came into effect.[205]

Religion

In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they were Muslim, while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.[206] Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England. The established church of England is the Church of England,[207] which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The church regards itself as both Catholic and Protestant.[208]

There are High Church and Low Church traditions and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the supreme governor of the Church of England, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head.[209] Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.

Westminster Abbey is a notable example of English Gothic architecture. The coronation of the British monarch traditionally takes place at the Abbey.

The second-largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).[210] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV, while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.

A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.[211] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and among tin miners in Cornwall.[212] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.[213]

The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England.[214] There are many other English and associated saints, including Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.[215] They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, and were allowed back in 1656.[215]

Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.[216] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,[216] introduced from India and Southeast Asia.[216]

A small minority of the population practise ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Neopagan witchcraft, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,[g] including 11,026 Wiccans.[h] 24.7% of people in England declared no religion, compared with 14.6% in 2001.[217] Norwich had the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed by Brighton and Hove at 42.4%.

Education

The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.[218] State-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.[219] Education is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education.[220]

Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the National Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.[221]

The University of Oxford was founded in 1096, making it the world's second-oldest university.

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.[222]

Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake grammar schools to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven-plus exam. Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.[223] Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.[224]

After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education covers a wide curriculum of study and apprenticeships, including T-levels, BTEC, NVQ and others. Tertiary colleges provide both academic and vocational courses.[225]

Higher education

Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.[226] Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover tuition fees and living costs.[i] The first degree offered to undergraduates is the bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.[228]

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world. As of 2024, four England-based universities, the University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Imperial College London, and University College London, are ranked among the top ten in the 2024 QS World University Rankings. The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, and the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, are the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world.[229]

The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[230] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[231] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class, upper second class, lower second class, third, and unclassified.[228] The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.[232] Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions.[233]

Culture

Architecture

Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; among the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.[234] With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.[235] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.[235] Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.[235]

A castle of square plan surrounded by a water-filled moat. It has round corner towers and a forbidding appearance.
Bodiam Castle is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex.

Early medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of HibernoSaxon monasticism,[236][237] to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various castles were created; the best known include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.[238]

Throughout the Plantagenet era, an English Gothic architecture flourished, with prime examples including the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.[238] Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the English Baroque style of architect Christopher Wren being particularly championed.[239]

Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.[j]

Gardens

The landscape garden at Stourhead. Inspired by the great landscape artists of the seventeenth century, the landscape garden was described as a "living work of art" when first opened in the 1750s.[241]

Landscape gardening, as developed by Capability Brown, set an international trend for the English landscape garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.[242]

By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.[243] The English landscape garden was centred on the English country house and manor houses.[242]

English Heritage and the National Trust preserve great gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.[244] The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.[245]

Folklore

Robin Hood and Maid Marian with Richard I of England

English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith,[246] others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuring Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood, and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham, are among the best-known of these.[247]

During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth.[248][249][250] These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources,[249] featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).[k]

Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries.[252] On 5 November people celebrate Bonfire Night to commemorate the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.[253] There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.[254]

Cuisine

Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[255] During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with increasing urbanisation. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.[256]

English foods: clockwise from top left—tea cakes, cheeses, wines and cider

Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.[257] Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms and eggs).[258] Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold)[257] and the Cornish pasty.

Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester, Wensleydale, Double Gloucester and Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created, such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as sweet or spiced biscuits.

Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea[259] and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale.[260]

Visual arts

A horse-drawn wagon crossing a river towards a cottage, with trees and fields beyond
The Hay Wain by John Constable, 1821, is an archetypal English painting.
A painting of a red haired woman, sitting in a boat, surrounded by trees
The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse, 1888, in the Pre-Raphaelite style

The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.[261] With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough.[262] During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.[263] Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.[264]

The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court; portrait painting, which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, and natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this.[264] Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.[264] The 18th century saw the founding of the Royal Academy; a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed, with Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds becoming two of England's most treasured artists.[264]

In the 19th century, John Constable and J. M. W. Turner were major landscape artists. The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, led by artists such as Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais, revived the Early Renaissance style with their vivid and detailed style.[264] Prominent among 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.[265] The Royal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts.[266]

Literature, poetry, and philosophy

A man dressed in grey with a beard, holding a rosary, depicted next to a coat of arms.
Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales.

Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin.[267] The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,[268] along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies.[267] Following the Norman conquest Latin continued among the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.

Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.[269]

Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.[270] Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.[270] Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth,[271] while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.

This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.

William Shakespeare.[272]

Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.[273] The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.[274]

In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.[275] Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll.[276] Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.[277]

Performing arts

The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections.[278] Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies among others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, Roses Are Red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty.[279] Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships" and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen".

Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period and Thomas Arne who was well known for his patriotic song Rule, Britannia!. German-born George Frideric Handel spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios, The Messiah, Solomon, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks.[280]

The Beatles are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music.[281]

Classical music attracted much attention in the 18th century with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. The English Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the Royal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others.[282] Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.

In popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones and Def Leppard are among the highest-selling recording artists in the world.[283] Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.[284]

The Royal Albert Hall. Since the hall's opening in 1871, the world's leading artists from many performance genres have appeared on its stage.

Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. England was at the forefront of the illegal, free rave movement from the late 1980s, which inspired the pan-European culture of teknivals.[285] The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the UK, attracting over 80,000 visitors.

The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden.[286] The Proms is a major annual cultural event in the English calendar.[286] The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies. The Royal Academy of Music is the oldest conservatoire in the UK, founded in 1822, receiving its royal charter in 1830.[287] England is home to numerous major orchestras such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra.[288] Other forms of entertainment that originated in England include the circus[289][290][291] and the pantomime.[292]

Cinema

Peter O'Toole as T. E. Lawrence in David Lean's 1962 epic Lawrence of Arabia

England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.[293] Hitchcock's The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926) helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 Blackmail is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.[294]

Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[295] Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.[296] Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.[297] The Hammer Horror films starring Christopher Lee saw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.[298]

The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.[299] English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.[300] Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Richard Curtis. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch, Lena Headey, Felicity Jones, Emilia Clarke, Lashana Lynch, and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011.[301] The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.[302] Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh.[303]

Sites and institutions

A museum building entrance.
The Natural History Museum in London

English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. A non-governmental charity, the National Trust holds a complementary role, focussed on landscapes and country houses. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.[304] Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, the Tower of London, the Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Blenheim Palace and the Lake District.[305]

London's British Museum holds more than seven million objects,[306] one of the largest and most comprehensive collections in the world,[307] illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books.[308][309] The National Gallery in Trafalgar Square houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[310] The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the Turner Prize.[311]

The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage.[312][313] A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.[314] Entry to most museums and galleries is free.[315] London is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities in Europe. It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.[316]

Media

MediaCity in Manchester is the largest media-production facility in Europe.[317]

The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[318][319] It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.[320][321] The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.[322] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.[323][324]

London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[325] National newspapers produced in England include The Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, and the Financial Times.[326]

Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include Nature, New Scientist, The Spectator, Prospect, NME and The Economist. The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England.[327]

Sport

Queen Elizabeth II presenting the World Cup trophy to 1966 World Cup winning England captain Bobby Moore

England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,[328] cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash,[329] rounders,[330] hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One. England has been crowned world champion in several major sports including: Cricket, Rugby and Association Football.

Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first-ever international football match in 1872.[331] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted and won the 1966 FIFA World Cup.[332] With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.[333] England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football: Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, is the world's oldest club.[328] The England women's national football team won the UEFA Euro 2022, hosted by England.[334]

Wembley Stadium, home of the England football team, during the UEFA Women's Euro 2022 final. At 90,000 capacity, it is the biggest stadium in the UK and the second-largest stadium in Europe.

Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.[335] The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".[336] After winning the 2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union, and cricket.[337]

William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games.[338] London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.

Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.[339] The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.[340]

Golf has been prominent in England, due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland.[341] There are professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder.[342]

Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.[343] Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.[344]

Former Formula One world champion Nigel Mansell driving at Silverstone in 1990. The circuit hosted the first ever World Championship Formula One race in 1950.

In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.[345]

Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.[346]

The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship.[347][348] England has seen the manufacture some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations.[349] England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and has produced several world champions.[350]

Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditional pub game.[351][352] Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is snooker, and England has produced several world champions.

The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup.

National symbols

The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally, the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated with Saint George.[353] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.[214] During the English Civil War and Interregnum, the New Model Army's standards and the Commonwealth's Great Seal both incorporated the flag of Saint George.[354][355]

A red and white flower.
The Tudor rose, England's national floral emblem

There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[356] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians. It is also known as the Rose of England.[357] The oak tree is a symbol of England: the Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II after his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.

A red shield tapers to its bottom end; on it are three stylised golden lions with blue claws.
The Royal Arms of England

The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England. England does not have an official national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the King. However, Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games),[358] and I Vow to Thee, My Country are often considered unofficial English national anthems. England's National Day is 23 April which is Saint George's Day: Saint George is the patron saint of England.[359]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Englishman/Englishwoman
  2. ^ ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'
  3. ^ ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'total extent of the realm' (area to mean low water)
  4. ^ As Roger Scruton explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the "Reformation Parliament" of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."[52]
  5. ^ Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales.[77]
  6. ^ For instance, in 1980 around 50 million Americans claimed English ancestry.[183] In Canada there are around 6.5 million Canadians who claim English ancestry.[184] Around 70% of Australians in 1999 denoted their origins as Anglo-Celtic, a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.[185] Chileans of English descent are somewhat of an anomaly in that Chile itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.[186]
  7. ^ People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.[217]
  8. ^ People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.[217]
  9. ^ Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.[227]
  10. ^ While people such as Norman Foster and Richard Rogers represent the modernist movement, Prince Charles since the 1980s has voiced strong views against it in favour of traditional architecture and put his ideas into practice at his Poundbury development in Dorset.[240] Architects like Raymond Erith, Francis Johnson and Quinlan Terry continued to practise in the classical style.
  11. ^ These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, finding Anglo-Saxon history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposed House of Wessex, especially Edgar the Ætheling and his nephews of the Scottish House of Dunkeld, were still active in the isles.[249][251] Also Michael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."[248]

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Bibliography

External links

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