Маджапахит ( яванский : ꦩꦺꦴꦗꦺꦴꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀ , романизированный: Måjåpahit ; яванское произношение: [mɔd͡ʒɔpaɪt] (восточный и центральный диалект) или [mad͡ʒapaɪt] (западный диалект) ), также известный как Вилватикта [примечание 2] ( яванский : ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ ; яванское произношение: [wɪlwatɪkta] ), была яванской индуистско - буддийской талассократической империей в Юго-Восточной Азии , которая была основана на острове Ява (в современной Индонезии ). [4] Она существовала с 1292 по ок. 1527 и достигла своего пика в эпоху королевы Трибхуваны и ее сына Хайяма Вурука , чье правление в середине 14 века было отмечено завоеваниями, которые распространились по всей Юго-Восточной Азии. Это достижение также приписывают знаменитому премьер-министру Гадже Маде . Согласно Дешаварнане, написанной в 1365 году, Маджапахит был империей 98 данников, простирающейся от Суматры до Новой Гвинеи ; [5] [6] : 87 [7] включая территории в современной Индонезии , Сингапуре , Малайзии , Брунее , южном Таиланде , Тиморе-Лешти , юго-западных Филиппинах (в частности, архипелаге Сулу ), хотя масштаб сферы влияния Маджапахита до сих пор является предметом споров среди историков. [8] [9] Характер отношений Маджапахита и его влияние на его заморских вассалов, а также его статус как империи до сих пор вызывают дискуссии. [1]
Маджапахит был одной из последних крупных индуистско-буддийских империй региона и считается одной из величайших и самых могущественных империй в истории Индонезии и Юго-Восточной Азии. Иногда его рассматривают как прецедент для современных границ Индонезии. [10] : 19 [11] Его влияние распространялось за пределы современной территории Индонезии и было предметом многих исследований. [12] [13] [14] [15]
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Название Majapahit (иногда также пишется Mojopait , чтобы отразить яванское произношение) происходит от яванского , что означает «горькая maja ». Немецкий востоковед Бертольд Лауфер предположил, что элемент maja происходит от яванского названия Aegle marmelos , индонезийского дерева. [16] Majapahit также упоминается по синониму, происходящему от санскрита Wilwatikta ( санскрит : विल्वतिक्त , романизированный : vilvatikta , букв. «горькая maja »). Топонимы, содержащие слово maja, распространены в районе Тровулана и вокруг него (например, Mojokerto ), поскольку на Яве широко распространена практика называть область, деревню или поселение с наиболее заметными или распространенными видами деревьев или фруктов, встречающимися в этом регионе. В хронике XVI века «Параратон» записана легенда, связанная с основанием нового поселения в лесу Трик Раденом Виджаей в 1292 году. [17] : 23, 74, 92 Говорилось, что рабочие, расчищавшие лес Трик, наткнулись на несколько деревьев майя и съели их горькие на вкус плоды, которые впоследствии дали название деревне. [18]
Строго говоря, название Маджапахит относится к столице королевства, но сегодня принято называть королевство по названию его столицы. В яванских первоисточниках королевство как расширенная территория обычно упоминается не как Маджапахит, а скорее как bhūmi Jawa («земля Явы») на древнеяванском языке или yava-dvīpa- maṇḍala («страна острова Ява») на санскрите .
По сравнению с современными обществами в других частях Азии, осталось мало физических свидетельств Маджапахита, [19] Маджапахит предоставил физические доказательства: основные руины, датируемые периодом Маджапахита, сосредоточены в районе Тровулан , который был королевской столицей королевства. Этот район стал центром изучения истории Маджапахита. Археологический памятник Тровулан был впервые задокументирован в 19 веке сэром Томасом Стэмфордом Раффлзом , вице-губернатором Британской Явы Ост -Индской компании с 1811 по 1816 год. Он сообщил о существовании «руин храмов... разбросанных по стране на многие мили», и назвал Тровулан «этой гордостью Явы». [20] Аэрофотоснимки и спутниковые снимки выявили обширную сеть каналов, пересекающих столицу Маджапахита. [21] Результаты исследований, проведенных в апреле 2011 года, свидетельствуют о том, что столица Маджапахита была намного больше, чем считалось ранее после обнаружения некоторых артефактов. [22]
Хотя существенные подробности истории Маджапахита остаются неясными, [10] : 18 этот период яванской истории документирован более полно, чем любой другой. Наиболее надежными письменными источниками для этого периода являются древнеяванские надписи на камне и металле, которые современны описываемым ими событиям. Эти надписи предоставляют ценную информацию о династиях, религиозных делах, деревенских общинах, обществе, экономике и искусстве. [23] : 255–236
Династия Маджапахит описана в королевских надписях, таких как Кудаду (выпущена в 1294 году), Сукхамерта (1296 год), Туханьяру (1323 год), Гаджа Мада (1351 год), Варингин Питу (1447 год) и Трайлокьяпури (1486 год). Эти источники помогают нам прояснить семейные отношения и хронологию правителей Маджапахит, а также исправить некоторые ошибки, обнаруженные в Параратоне . Несколько надписей, найденных за пределами Явы, такие как надпись Пура Абанг С, обнаруженная на севере Бали, представляют собой убедительные доказательства того, что эти области находились под контролем Маджапахит в конце 14 века. [1]
Историкам Маджапахита доступны два важных источника летописей: Дешаварнана («Описание округов»), составленная в 1365 году, и Параратон («Монархи»), составленная где-то между 1481 и 1600 годами . [24] Обе эти хроники сохранились в виде рукописей на пальмовых листьях XIX или XX века. Дешаварнана (также известная как Нагаракретагама ) — древнеяванская хвалебная речь, написанная во время золотого века Маджапахита при правлении Хайяма Вурука , после чего некоторые события освещаются повествовательно. [10] : 18 Составленная Мпу Прапанчей , она содержит первичный исторический отчет о дворе Маджапахита во время правления короля Хайяма Вурука , а также подробную информацию о сельской местности Восточной Явы и краткое изложение истории Сингхасари . «Параратоне » фокусируется на Кене Ароке , основателе Сингхасари , но включает в себя ряд более коротких повествовательных фрагментов о формировании Маджапахита.
Яванские источники включают некоторые поэтические мифологические элементы в свои исторические отчеты. Эта сложность привела к различным подходам к интерпретации. Корнелис Христиан Берг, голландский историк, считал, что вся историческая запись не является записью прошлого, а сверхъестественным средством, с помощью которого можно определить будущее. [примечание 3] [8] Большинство ученых не принимают эту точку зрения, поскольку историческая запись частично соответствует китайским материалам, которые не могли иметь аналогичного намерения. Ссылки на правителей и детали государственной структуры не показывают никаких признаков того, что они были выдуманы. [10] : 18
Китайские исторические источники о Маджапахите в основном получены из хроник династии Юань и последующей династии Мин . Китайские отчеты о Маджапахите в основном обязаны отчетам минского адмирала Чжэн Хэ во время его визита в Маджапахит между 1405 и 1432 годами. Переводчик Чжэн Хэ Ма Хуань написал подробное описание Маджапахита и того, где жил король Явы. [26] Отчет был составлен и собран в Yingya Shenglan , который дает ценную информацию о культуре, обычаях, а также различных социальных и экономических аспектах Явы (爪哇, chao-wa ) в период Маджапахита. [27] Подлинные записи династии Мин ( Ming shi-lu ) предоставляют подтверждающие доказательства конкретных событий в истории Маджапахита, таких как война Регрег . [28]
После победы над королевством Мелаю [29] на Суматре в 1275 году, Сингасари стал самым могущественным королевством в регионе. Хубилай-хан , каган Монгольской империи и император возглавляемой монголами китайской династии Юань, бросил вызов Сингасари, отправив эмиссаров с требованием дани. Кертанегара из Сингасари отказался платить дань, оскорбил посланника Хубилая и вместо этого бросил вызов хану. В ответ Хубилай-хан отправил в 1293 году на Яву крупную экспедицию из 1000 кораблей .
К тому времени Джаякатванг , адипати (герцог) Кедири , вассального государства Сингасари, захватил и убил Кертанагару. После того, как Джаякатванг помиловал его с помощью регента Мадуры Арьи Вирараджи, зятю Кертанегары Радену Виджае были даны земли лесных угодий Тарик . Затем он открыл обширные лесные угодья и построил там новое поселение. Деревня была названа Маджапахит , что произошло от названия фрукта, который имел горький вкус ( maja — название фрукта, а pahit означает горький). Когда прибыла армия Юань, отправленная Хубилай-ханом, Виджая объединился с армией, чтобы сражаться против Джаякатванга. Как только Джаякатванг был разрушен, Раден Виджая заставил своих союзников отступить с Явы, начав внезапную атаку. [30] Армия Юань была вынуждена отступить в замешательстве, поскольку они находились на вражеской территории, а их корабли были атакованы яванским флотом. Это был также их последний шанс поймать муссонные ветры дома; в противном случае им пришлось бы ждать еще шесть месяцев. [31]
В 1293 году Раден Виджая основал крепость со столицей Маджапахит. [32] : 200–201 Точная дата, используемая в качестве рождения королевства Маджапахит, — день его коронации, 15-й день месяца Картика в 1215 году по яванской эре Шака , что соответствует 10 ноября 1293 года. [18] Во время коронации ему было дано официальное имя Кертараджаса Джаявардхана. Король Кертараджаса взял в жены всех четырех дочерей Кертанегары, свою первую жену и главную супругу-королеву Трибхуванешвари и ее сестер: Праджняпарамиту, Нарендрадухиту и Гаятри Раджапатни , младшую. Согласно Параратону, он также взял в жены суматранскую малайскую принцессу Дхармашрая по имени Дара Петак . [33] [34] : 454
Новое королевство столкнулось с трудностями. Некоторые из самых доверенных людей Кертараджасы, включая Ранггалаве, Сора и Намби, восстали против него, хотя и безуспешно. Подозревалось, что Махапати Халаюдха организовал заговор с целью свержения всех своих соперников при дворе, подтолкнул их к восстанию против короля, в то время как он получил благосклонность короля и достиг самого высокого положения в правительстве. Однако после смерти последнего мятежника Кути предательство Халаюдхи было раскрыто, впоследствии он был схвачен, заключен в тюрьму за свои военные действия, а затем приговорен к смерти. [30] Сам Виджая умер в 1309 году.
Кертараджасу Виджаю сменил его наследник Джаянегара . Правление Джаянегары было трудным и хаотичным, омраченным несколькими восстаниями бывших соратников его отца. Среди прочих - восстание Гаджи Биру в 1314 году и восстание Кути в 1319 году. Восстание Кути было самым опасным, так как Кути удалось взять под контроль столицу. С помощью Гаджи Мады и его дворцовой стражи Бхаянгкара [32] : 233 Джаянегара едва сбежал из столицы и благополучно спрятался в деревне Бадандер. Пока король скрывался, Гаджа Мада вернулся в столицу, чтобы оценить ситуацию. Узнав, что восстание Кути не было поддержано народом или знатью двора Маджапахита, Гаджа Мада собрал силы сопротивления, чтобы подавить восстание Кути.
После того, как силы Кути были побеждены, Джаянегара благополучно вернулся на свой трон. За свою преданность и превосходную службу Гаджа Мада был повышен до высокого поста, чтобы начать свою карьеру в политике королевского двора. [35]
Согласно традиции, сын и преемник Виджаи, Джаянегара, был известен своей безнравственностью. Одним из его отвратительных поступков было его желание взять в жены своих единокровных сестер, Гитарджу и Раджадеви. Поскольку яванская традиция отвергала практику браков между единокровными братьями и сестрами, совет королевских старейшин решительно выступил против желания короля. Было неясно, что мотивировало желание Джаянегары — возможно, это был его способ обеспечить свои права на трон, не давая соперникам стать женихами его единокровных сестер, хотя в более поздний период правления Маджапахита обычай браков между кузенами был довольно распространен. В Параратоне он был известен как Кала Гемет , или «слабый злодей». Примерно во время правления Джаянегары в начале XIV века итальянский монах Одорик из Порденоне посетил двор Маджапахита на Яве. Он упоминал, что Ява была густонаселена и полна гвоздики, мускатного ореха и многих других специй. Он также упоминал, что король Явы имел семь вассалов под своим началом и участвовал в нескольких войнах с «ханом Катая». [36] : 156
В 1328 году Джаянегара был убит своим врачом Танкой во время хирургической операции. В полном хаосе и ярости Гаджа Мада немедленно убил Танку. Мотив этого цареубийства так и не был ясен. Согласно Параратону , это была месть Танки за то, что король сексуально надругался над его женой. Однако, согласно балийской рукописи Бабад Далем , убийство было уловкой, придуманной самим Гаджой Мадой, чтобы избавить королевство от злого тирана. [37] Предание упоминает, что безнравственный, жестокий и жестокий король часто соблазнял и оскорблял женщин, даже жен своих собственных подчиненных. [38] Другая возможная причина включает защиту двух принцесс — Гитарджи и Раджадеви, дочерей Гаятри Раджапатни, от жестокости короля. [37] Поскольку убитый король был бездетным, он не оставил преемника.
Мачеха Джаянегары, Гаятри Раджапатни — самая почитаемая матриарх двора — должна была взять на себя управление страной. Однако Раджапатни отошла от мирских дел, чтобы стать буддийской монахиней . Раджапатни назначила свою дочь, Дьях Гитарджу , или известную по ее формальному королевскому имени как Трибхуванноттунгадеви Джаявишнувардхани, королевой Маджапахита под покровительством Раджапатни. Трибхувана назначил Гаджу Маду премьер-министром в 1336 году. Во время своей инаугурации Гаджу Мада объявил о своей клятве Палапа , раскрыв свой план по расширению царства Маджапахита и построению империи . [11]
Во время правления Трибхуваны королевство Маджапахит значительно разрослось и стало известным в округе. По инициативе ее способного и амбициозного премьер-министра Гаджи Мады Маджапахит отправил свою армаду завоевать соседний остров Бали . [32] : 234 Согласно рукописи Бабад Арья Табанан, в 1342 году войска Маджапахита во главе с Гаджах Мадой, при поддержке его генерала Арьи Дамара, регента Палембанга, высадились на Бали. После семи месяцев сражений войска Маджапахита победили балийского короля и захватили балийскую столицу Бедулу в 1343 году. После завоевания Бали Маджапахит распределил правящую власть на Бали между младшими братьями Арьи Дамара: Арьей Кенченгом, Арьей Кутавандирой, Арьей Сентонгом и Арьей Белогом. Арья Кенченг привел своих братьев управлять Бали под сюзеренитетом Маджапахита, и он стал прародителем балийских королей королевских домов Табанан и Бадунг. Благодаря этой кампании Маджапахит основал вассальную династию, которая правила королевством Бали в последующие столетия. Трибхувана правила Маджапахитом до смерти своей матери в 1350 году. Она отреклась от престола в пользу своего сына, Хаяма Вурука.
Ибн Баттута в своих путешествиях между 1332 и 1347 годами посетил место под названием «Мул Джава» (остров Ява или Маджапахит Джава, в отличие от «аль-Джава», которое относится к Суматре). Империя охватывала 2 месяца путешествия и правила страной Какула и Камара. Он прибыл в окруженный стеной город Какула/Какула и заметил, что в городе были военные джонки для пиратских набегов и сбора пошлин, и что слоны использовались для различных целей. Он встретился с правителем Мул Джавы и оставался у него в качестве гостя в течение трех дней. [39] : 96–97 [40] : 880–883 Ибн Баттута сказал, что женщины Явы ездят на лошадях, умеют стрелять из лука и сражаются как мужчины. Ибн Баттута записал историю о стране под названием Тавалиси , которая выступала против царя Китая (династия Юань) и вела с ним войну, используя многочисленные джонки, пока он не заключил мир на определенных условиях. [40] : 884–885 [41] : 3, 114–115
Хаям Вурук , также известный как Раджасанагара, правил Маджапахитом в 1350–1389 годах. В этот период Маджапахит достиг своего пика с помощью премьер-министра Гаджи Мады . Под командованием Гаджи Мады (1313–1364) Маджапахит завоевал больше территорий и стал региональной державой. [32] : 234 Согласно Нагаракретагаме , песни XIII и XIV упоминают несколько государств на Суматре , Малаккском полуострове , Борнео , Сулавеси , островах Нуса-Тенгара , Малуку , Новой Гвинее , Минданао , архипелаге Сулу , Лусоне и некоторых частях островов Висайи как находящихся под властью Маджапахита. Хикаят Раджа Пасаи , хроника Ачеха XIV века , описывает морское вторжение Маджапахита на Самудра Пасаи в 1350 году. [42] Атакующая сила состояла из 400 больших джонгов и неисчислимого числа малангбангов и келулусов . [43] Это расширение ознаменовало наибольшие размеры Маджапахита, сделав его одной из самых влиятельных империй в истории Индонезии. Он считается коммерческой торговой империей в цивилизации Азии.
В 1355 году [44] Хайям Вурук начал третье вторжение в королевство Даяк Мааньян Нан Сарунай, которое в то время возглавлял Раден Аньян или Дату Татуян Вулау Михараджа Папангкат Амас. Это вторжение возглавил Ампу Джатмика из Калингги, Кедири [45] со своим окружением, в которое, по словам Хикаята Банджара, входили его советник Ария Мегатсари, генерал Туменггунг Татах Джива, министр Вирамартас, пунокаван Патих Барас, Патих Баси, Патих Луху, дан Патих Дулу, и телохранители Санг Панимба Сегара, Санг Пембелах Батунг, Санг Джампанг Сасак и Санг Пенгерунтунг «Гарунтун» Манау. Произошло несколько сражений, первое из которых состоялось в апреле 1358 года; [46] убитых солдат Маджапахита были сожжены в Тамбак Васи. Капитан Нансарунаи Джамухала также был убит в этой битве. В то время как принц Джаранг и принц Идонг прятались в Мане около реки Табалонг-кива. Солдаты Нансарунаи были сосредоточены в Пулау Кадап перед тем, как вторая битва произошла в Декабрь 1362. Потери от этой второй битвы были похоронены в Тамбаке в Байю Хинранге. В этой войне Раден Аньян был убит, пронзён копьём Мпу Нала и похоронен в Бануа Лавас. [47] На его месте Ампу Джатмика основал индуистское королевство-государство Негара Дипа под данником Маджапахита, предшественника Банджара . В то время как выжившие яванцы, даяки, мадурцы и бугисы, солдаты, моряки и кузнецы этой войны поселились в Амонтае, Алабио и Нагаре. [44] [47] Эти вторжения были записаны в поэзии даяков мааньян как Nansarunai Usak Jawa . [48] [49]
Наряду с запуском морских и военных экспедиций, расширение империи Маджапахит включало дипломатию и союз. Хаям Вурук решил, вероятно, по политическим причинам, взять принцессу Читру Рашми (Дья Питалока) из соседнего королевства Сунда в качестве своей супруги . [50] : 279 Сунданы восприняли это предложение как соглашение о союзе. В 1357 году король Сунда и его королевская семья прибыли в Маджапахит, чтобы сопровождать и выдать замуж его дочь за Хаяма Вурука. [32] : 239 Однако Гаджа Мада увидел в этом событии возможность потребовать подчинения Сунды господству Маджапахита. Стычка между королевской семьей Сунда и войсками Маджапахита на площади Бубат была неизбежна. Несмотря на мужественное сопротивление, королевская семья была подавлена и уничтожена. Почти вся королевская партия Сунды была убита. [51] Предание гласит, что убитая горем принцесса покончила жизнь самоубийством , чтобы защитить честь своей страны. [52] Битва при Бубате , или трагедия Пасунда Бубат, стала главной темой Кидунг Сунда , также упоминаемой в Карита Парахьянган и Параратон , но никогда не упоминавшейся в Нагаракретагаме .
Нагаракретагама , написанная в 1365 году , описывает изысканный двор с утонченным вкусом в искусстве и литературе и сложной системой религиозных ритуалов. Поэт описывает Маджапахит как центр огромной мандалы , простирающейся от Новой Гвинеи и Малуку до Суматры и Малаккского полуострова . Местные традиции во многих частях Индонезии сохраняют рассказы о власти Маджапахита 14-го века в более или менее легендарной форме. Прямое управление Маджапахитом не распространялось за пределы восточной Явы и Бали , но вызовы притязаниям Маджапахита на верховенство на внешних островах вызвали решительные ответы. [53] : 106
Чтобы возродить состояние Малайю на Суматре, в 1370-х годах малайский правитель Палембанга отправил посланника ко двору первого императора недавно созданной династии Мин . Он пригласил Китай возобновить систему данников, как это сделал Шривиджая несколькими столетиями ранее. Узнав об этом дипломатическом маневре, король Хайям Вурук немедленно отправил посланника в Нанкин, убедив императора, что Малайю является их вассалом и не является независимой страной. [9] Впоследствии, в 1377 году, [примечание 5] через несколько лет после смерти Гаджи Мады, Маджапахит отправил карательную морскую атаку против восстания в Палембанге, [10] : 19 способствуя концу королевства-преемника Шривиджая. Помимо Гаджи Мады, другим известным военачальником был Адитьяварман , известный своей хроникой в Минангкабау . [55]
Природа империи Маджапахит и ее масштабы являются предметом споров. Она могла иметь ограниченное или полностью условное влияние на некоторые из подчиненных государств , включая Суматру, Малайский полуостров, Калимантан и восточную Индонезию, над которыми была заявлена власть в Нагаракретагаме . [56] Географические и экономические ограничения предполагают, что вместо регулярной централизованной власти внешние государства, скорее всего, были связаны в основном торговыми связями, которые, вероятно, были королевской монополией. [10] : 19 Она также заявляла о связях с Чампой , Камбоджей , Сиамом , южной Бирмой и Вьетнамом и даже отправляла миссии в Китай. [10] : 19 Хотя правители Маджапахит распространили свою власть на другие острова и разрушили соседние королевства, их внимание, по-видимому, было сосредоточено на контроле и получении большей доли коммерческой торговли, которая проходила через архипелаг.
Примерно в то время, когда был основан Маджапахит, мусульманские торговцы и прозелиты начали прибывать в этот район. Гробница Тролойо/Тралайя, остаток исламского кладбищенского комплекса, была обнаружена в районе Тровулан, королевской столицы Маджапахита. Эксперты предполагают, что кладбище использовалось между 1368 и 1611 годами нашей эры, что означает, что мусульманские торговцы проживали в столице еще в середине XIV века во время правления Хаяма Вурука. [57] : 185, 196 Два мусульманских надгробия в Тролойо датируются XIV веком (1368 г. н.э., 1376 г. н.э.). Непосредственная близость места к кратону означает, что там были мусульмане, находящиеся в тесных отношениях с двором. [58] : 6
После смерти Хаяма Вурука в 1389 году власть Маджапахита вступила в период упадка из-за конфликта по поводу престолонаследия. [32] : 241 Хаям Вуруку наследовала наследная принцесса Кусумавардхани, которая вышла замуж за своего родственника, принца Викрамавардхана . У Хаяма Вурука также был сын от предыдущего брака, наследный принц Вирабхуми, который также претендовал на трон.
К моменту смерти Хаяма Вурука Маджапахит утратил власть над своими вассальными государствами на северном побережье Суматры и Малайского полуострова, последний из которых, согласно китайским источникам, стал государством-данником королевства Аютия до возвышения Малаккского султаната , поддерживаемого династией Мин . [59]
В 14 веке было основано Малайское королевство Сингапур , и оно быстро привлекло флот Маджапахита, который считал его Тумасиком , мятежной колонией. Сингапур был окончательно разграблен Маджапахитом в 1398 году, [60] [61] [62] после примерно месячной осады 300 джонгами и 200 000 мужчин. [63] [64] : 69 [65] [66] Последний король, Парамешвара , бежал на западное побережье Малаккского полуострова, чтобы основать Малаккский султанат в 1400 году.
Война за престолонаследие, называемая войной Регрег , как полагают, произошла с 1405 по 1406 год. [10] : 18 Война велась как спор за престолонаследие между западным двором во главе с Викрамавардханой и восточным двором во главе с Бхре Вирабхуми. Викрамавардхана одержал победу. Вирабхуми был пойман и обезглавлен. Однако гражданская война истощила финансовые ресурсы, истощила королевство и ослабила власть Маджапахита над его внешними вассалами и колониями. [67]
Во время правления Викрамавардханы серия морских экспедиций минской армады под руководством Чжэн Хэ , [32] : 241–242 мусульманского китайского адмирала, прибывала на Яву несколько раз в период с 1405 по 1433 год. Эти китайские плавания посетили ряд портов в Азии вплоть до Африки, включая порты Маджапахита. Было сказано, что Чжэн Хэ нанес визит ко двору Маджапахита на Яве.
Эти масштабные китайские плавания были не просто военно-морской разведкой, но и демонстрацией силы и геополитического влияния. Китайская династия Мин недавно свергла монгольскую династию Юань и стремилась установить свою гегемонию в мире, что изменило геополитический баланс в Азии. [68] Китайцы вмешались в политику южных морей, поддержав тайцев против приходящей в упадок Кхмерской империи, поддержав и установив союзные фракции в Индии, Шри-Ланке и других местах на побережьях Индийского океана . Однако, возможно, наиболее значительным вмешательством Китая была его поддержка недавно созданного султаната Малакка в качестве соперника и противовеса влиянию Маджапахита на Яве. [68]
Ранее Маджапахит преуспел в утверждении своего влияния в Малаккском проливе, сдерживая стремление малайских политий Суматры и Малайского полуострова когда-либо достичь геополитической мощи, подобной мощи Шривиджаи. Индуистский Маджапахит был самой могущественной морской державой в морях Юго-Восточной Азии того времени и выступал против китайской экспансии в свою сферу влияния. Поддержка Малакки со стороны Мин и распространение ислама, пропагандируемое как Малаккой, так и флотом сокровищ Чжэн Хэ, ослабили морское влияние Маджапахита на Суматре, что привело к тому, что северная часть острова все больше обращалась в ислам и обрела независимость от Маджапахита, оставив Индрагири , Джамби и Палембанг , остатки старого Шривиджая , единственного сюзеренитета Маджапахита на Суматре, [примечание 6] граничащего с королевством Пагаруюнг на западе и независимыми мусульманскими королевствами на севере.
Эти путешествия династии Мин чрезвычайно важны для историографии Маджапахита, поскольку переводчик Чжэн Хэ Ма Хуань написал «Инъя Шэнлань» , подробное описание Маджапахита, [26] которое дает ценную информацию о культуре, обычаях, а также различных социальных и экономических аспектах Явы в период Маджапахита. [27]
Китайцы оказывали систематическую поддержку Малакке, и ее султан совершил по крайней мере одну поездку, чтобы лично выразить почтение императору династии Мин. Малакка активно поощряла обращение в ислам в регионе, в то время как флот династии Мин активно создавал китайско-малайскую мусульманскую общину в прибрежной северной части Явы, тем самым создавая постоянную оппозицию индуистам Явы. К 1430 году экспедиции создали мусульманские китайские, арабские и малайские общины в северных портах Явы, таких как Семаранг , Демак , Тубан и Ампел ; таким образом, ислам начал укрепляться на северном побережье Явы. Малакка процветала под защитой китайской династии Мин, в то время как Маджапахит неуклонно отступал. [68]
Викрамавардхана правил до 1429 года, и ему наследовала его дочь Сухита , [32] : 242, которая правила с 1429 по 1447 год. Она была вторым ребенком Викрамавардханы от наложницы, которая была дочерью Вирабхуми. Она вышла замуж за будущего короля Келантана Искандара Шаха или Кемаса Дживы в 1427 году. У них обоих была общая дочь, и он остался с ней на Яве. Келантаном правил его брат, султан Садик Мухаммад Шах, до своей смерти в 1429 году. Это заставило Кемаса Дживу вернуться и занять трон как Искандар, где он объявил Келантана Маджапахитом II в Махлигае. [69] [ сомнительно – обсудить ] Хотя Параратон указал ее мужа как Бхра Хьянга Парамешвару Ратнапангкаджа, это предполагает, что она снова вышла замуж после возвращения Кемаса Дживы. [ сомнительный – обсудить ]
Правление Сухиты было вторым разом, когда Маджапахит правился королевой, правившей после ее прабабушки Трибхуваны Виджаятунгадеви. Ее правление увековечено в яванской легенде о Дамарвулане , поскольку в ней фигурирует королева-дева по имени Прабу Кения, а во время правления Сухиты была война с Бламбанганом , как указано в легенде. [70]
В 1447 году Сухита умерла, и ее сменил Кертавиджая , ее брат. [32] : 242 Он правил до 1451 года. После смерти Кертавиджая, Бхре Памотан стал королем с формальным именем Раджасавардхана. Он умер в 1453 году. Трехлетний период без короля, возможно, был результатом кризиса престолонаследия. Гирисавардхана, сын Кертавиджая, пришел к власти в 1456 году. Он умер в 1466 году, и его преемником стал Сингхавикрамавардхана.
In 1468 Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against Singhawikramawardhana, promoting himself as the king of Majapahit. Deposed Singhawikramawardhana retreated upstream of Brantas River, moved the kingdom's capital further inland to Daha (the former capital of Kediri kingdom), effectively splitting Majapahit, under Bhre Kertabumi in Trowulan and Singhawikramawardhana in Daha. Singhawikramawardhana continued his rule until he was succeeded by his son Girindrawardhana (Ranawijaya) in 1474.
And in between this period of the dividing court of Majapahit, the kingdom found itself unable to control its western part of the already crumbling empire. The rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca began to gain effective control of the Malacca Strait in the mid-15th century and expanding its influence to Sumatra. And amidst these events, Indragiri and Siantan, according to Malay Annals were given to Malacca as a dowry for the marriage of a Majapahit princess and the sultan of Malacca,[71] further weakening Majapahit's influence on the western part of the archipelago. Kertabhumi managed to stabilize this situation by allying with Muslim merchants, giving them trading rights on the north coast of Java, with Demak as its centre and in return asked for their loyalty to Majapahit. This policy boosted the Majapahit treasury and power but weakened Hindu-Buddhism as its main religion because Islamic proselytizing spread faster, especially in Javanese coastal principalities. Hindu-Buddhist followers' grievances later paved the way for Ranawijaya to defeat Kertabumi.
Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478, traditionally described in sinengkalan or chandrasengkala (chronogram) Sirna ilang kertaning bhumi that is correspond to 1400 Saka, to 1527.[note 7][72]: 36 The year 1478 was the year of Sudarma Wisuta war, when Ranawijaya's army under general Udara (who later became vice-regent) breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his palace,[73][74] but not the actual fall of Majapahit itself as a whole.
Demak sent reinforcements under Sunan Ngudung, who later died in battle and was replaced by Sunan Kudus, but they came too late to save Kertabumi although they managed to repel the Ranawijaya army. This event is mentioned in Trailokyapuri (Jiyu) and Petak inscription, where Ranawijaya claimed that he already defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom.[75] Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1498 with the formal name Girindrawardhana, with Udara as his vice-regent. This event led to the war between the Sultanate of Demak and Daha since Demak rulers were descendants of Kertabhumi.[dubious – discuss]
During this period, Demak, being the dominant ruler of the Javanese coastal lands and Java as a whole, seized the region of Jambi and Palembang in Sumatra from Majapahit.[76]: 154–155
In 1498, there was a turning point when Girindrawardhana was deposed by his vice-regent, Udara. After this coup, the war between Demak and Majapahit receded, since Raden Patah, Sultan of Demak, left Majapahit alone like his father had done before, some source said Udara agreed to become a vassal of Demak, even marrying Raden Patah's youngest daughter.
Meanwhile, in the west, Malacca was captured by Portuguese in 1511. The delicate balance between Demak and Majapahit ended when Udara, seeing an opportunity to eliminate Demak, asked for Portuguese help in Malacca, forcing Demak to attack both Malacca and Majapahit under Adipati Yunus to end this alliance.[note 8]
With the fall of Majapahit, crushed by Demak in 1527,[72]: 54–55 the Muslim emerging forces finally defeated the remnants of the Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century;[79] and with the fall of Majapahit, a large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali. The refugees fled to the east to avoid Demak retribution for their support for Ranawijaya against Kertabhumi.
Demak came under the leadership of Raden (later crowned as Sultan) Patah, who was acknowledged as the legitimate successor of Majapahit. According to Babad Tanah Jawi and Demak tradition, the source of Patah's legitimacy was because their first sultan, Raden Patah, was the son of Majapahit king Brawijaya V with a Chinese concubine. Another argument supports Demak as the successor of Majapahit; the rising Demak sultanate was easily accepted as the nominal regional ruler, as Demak was the former Majapahit vassal and located near the former Majapahit realm in eastern Java.
Demak established itself as the regional power and the first Islamic sultanate in Java. After the fall of Majapahit, the Hindu kingdoms in Java only remained in Pasuruan, Panarukan, and Blambangan[80]: 7 on the eastern edge and Sunda Kingdom Pajajaran in the western part. Gradually Hindu communities began to retreat to the mountain ranges in East Java and also to the neighbouring island of Bali. A small enclave of Hindu communities remain in the Tengger mountain range.
The capital Trowulan, was grand and known for its great annual festivities. The main event of the administrative calendar took place on the first day of the month of Caitra (March–April) when representatives from all territories paying tax or tribute to Majapahit came to the capital to pay court. Majapahit's territories were roughly divided into three types: the palace and its vicinity; the areas of east Java and Bali which were directly administered by officials appointed by the king; and the outer dependencies which enjoyed substantial internal autonomy.[53]: 107 [81]
The first European record about Majapahit came from the travel log of the Italian Mattiussi, a Franciscan friar. In his book Travels of Friar Odoric of Pordenone, he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java, and Banjarmasin in Borneo, between 1318 and 1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a mission into the Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua, crossed the Black Sea into Persia, all the way across Calcutta, Madras, and Sri Lanka. He then headed to Nicobar island to Sumatra, before visiting Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land through Vietnam, China, all the way through the silkroad to Europe in 1330.
In his book, he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals).[note 9] He described the richness of this island, and recorded that the Mongol emperors had repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and managed to be sent back to the mainland.[note 10] His full account is as follows:[82]: 87–89
In the neighbourhood of that realm (Sumatra) is a great island, Java by name, which hath a compass of a good three thousand miles. And the king of it hath subject to himself seven crowned kings. Now this island is populous exceedingly, and is the second best of all islands that exist. For in it grow camphor, cubebs, cardamoms, nutmegs, and many other precious spices. It hath also very great store of all victuals save wine.
The king of this island hath a palace which is truly marvellous. For it is very great, and hath very great staircases, broad and lofty, and the steps thereof are of gold and silver alternately. Likewise the pavement of the palace hath one tile of gold and the other of silver, and the wall of the same is on the inside plated all over with plates of gold, on which are sculptured knights all of gold, which have great golden circles round their heads, such as we give in these parts to the figures of saints. And these circles are all beset with precious stones. Moreover, the ceiling is all of pure gold, and to speak briefly, this palace is richer and finer than any existing at this day in the world.
Now the Great Khan of Cathay many a time engaged in war with this king; but this king always vanquished and got the better of him. And many other things there be which I write not.
The Javanese kingdom mentioned in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit was in 1321 during the reign of Jayanegara (1309–1328).[82]: 87 [80]: 459 [83]: 322
In Yingya Shenglan—a record about Zheng He's expedition (1405–1433)—Ma Huan describes the culture, customs, various social and economic aspects of Chao-Wa (Java) during Majapahit period.[27] Ma Huan visited Java during Zheng He's 4th expedition in 1413, during the reign of Majapahit king Wikramawardhana. He describes his travel to Majapahit capital, first, he arrived at the port of Tu-pan (Tuban) where he saw large numbers of Chinese settlers migrated from Guangdong and Chou Chang. Then he sailed east to thriving new trading town of Ko-erh-hsi (Gresik), Su-pa-erh-ya (Surabaya), and then sailing inland into the river by smaller boat to the southwest until reached the river port of Chang-ku (Changgu).[27] Continued travel by land to the southwest he arrived in Man-che-po-I (Majapahit), where the king stay. There are about 200 or 300 foreign families resides in this place, with seven or eight leaders to serve the king. The climate is constantly hot, like summer.[26]He describes the king's costumes; wearing a crown of gold leaves and flowers or sometimes without any headgear; bare-chested without wearing a robe, the bottom parts wears two sashes of embroidered silk. Additional silk rope is looped around the waist as a belt, and the belt is inserted with one or two short blades, called pu-la-t'ou (belati or more precisely kris dagger), walking barefoot. When travelling outside, the king rides an elephant or an ox-drawn carriage.[26]
Commoners' clothing for men is without headgear and women arrange their hair like a bun secured with a hairpin. They wore clothing on the upper body and wrapped unstitched fabrics around the bottom part,[note 11] Men from a boy aged three to elders slipped pu-la-t'ou (dagger) in their belt. The dagger, made entirely of steel with intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, rhino's horn or ivory carved with a depiction of human or demon, the carving works are exquisite and skilfully made.[26][27]
Majapahit people, men and women, favoured their head.[note 12] If someone was touched on his head, or if there is a misunderstanding or argument when drunk, they will instantly draw their knives and stab each other.[26]
The population of the country did not have a bed or chair to sit and to eat they do not use a spoon or chopsticks. Men and women enjoy chewing betel nut mixed with, betel leaves, and white chalk made from ground mussels shells.[27] They eat rice for the meal, first, they took a scoop of water and soak betel in their mouth, then wash their hands and sit down to make a circle; getting a plate of rice soaked in butter (probably coconut milk) and gravy, and eat using hands to lift the rice and put it in their mouth. When receiving guests, they will offer the guests, not the tea, but with betel nut.[26]
The population consisted of Muslim merchants from the west (Arab and Muslim Indians, but mostly those from Muslim states in Sumatra), Chinese (claimed to be descendants of Tang dynasty), and unrefined locals. The king held annual jousting tournaments.[26]: 45 About the marriage rituals; the groom pays a visit to the house of the bride's family, the marriage union is consummated. Three days later, the groom escorts his bride back to his home, where the man's family beat drums and brass gongs, blowing pipes made from coconut shells (senterewe), beating a drum made from bamboo tubes (probably a kind of bamboo gamelan or kolintang), and light fireworks.[27] Escorted in front, behind, and around by men holding short blades and shields. While the bride is a matted-hair woman, with an uncovered body and barefooted. She wraps herself in embroidered silk, wears a necklace around her neck adorned with gold beads, and bracelets on her wrist with ornaments of gold, silver and other precious ornaments. Family, friends and neighbours decorate a decorative boat with betel leaf, areca nut, reeds and flowers are sewn, and arrange a party to welcome the couple on such a festive occasion. When the groom arrives home, the gong and drum are sounded, they will drink wine (possibly arrack or tuak) and play music. After a few days, the festivities end.[26]
About the burial rituals, the dead body was left on the beach or empty land to be devoured by dogs (for lower-class), cremated, or committed into the waters (Javanese: Larung). The upper-class performed sati, a suicide ritual by widowed wives, concubines or female servants, through self immolation by throwing themselves into flaming cremation fire.[26][27]
In this record, Ma Huan also describes a musical troupe travelling during full moon nights. Numbers of people holding shoulders creating an unbroken line while singing and chanting in unison, while the families whose houses being visited would give them copper coins or gifts. He also describes a class of artisans that draws various images on paper and give a theatrical performance. The narrator tells the story of legends, tales and romance drawn upon a screen of rolled paper.[26] This kind of performance is identified as wayang bébér, an art of story-telling that has survived for many centuries in Java.[27]
Portuguese diplomat Tomé Pires, who visited the archipelago in 1512, recorded the culture of Java in the late Majapahit era, after his visit to the island between March and June 1513.[76]: xxv Pires' account tells about the lords and nobles in Java. They are described as:
...tall and handsome, lavishly adorned, and they have richly caparisoned horses. They use krises, swords, and lances of many kinds, all inlaid with gold. They are great hunters and horsemen—the horse had stirrups all inlaid with gold and inlaid saddles, which are not to be found anywhere else in the world. The Javanese lords are so noble and exalted that there is no nation to compare with them over a wide area in these parts. They have their head shorn—half tonsured—as a mark of beauty, and they always run their hands over their hair from the forehead upwards unlike what European did. The lords of Java are revered like gods, with great respect and deep reverence.
The lords go out hunting or pleasure-seeking in such exalted style. They spend all their time in pleasures, the retinues had so many lances in holders of gold and silver, so richly inlaid, with so many harriers, greyhounds and other dogs; and they have so many pictures painted with images and hunting scenes. Their clothes are adorned with gold, their krises, swords, knives, cutlasses are all inlaid with gold; they have numbers of concubines, jennets, elephants, oxen to draw the wagons of gilt and painted woodwork. The nobilities go out in triumphal cars, and if they go by sea they go in painted and ornamented kelulus; there are beautiful apartments for their women, other places for the nobles who accompanied him.[76]: 174–175, 200
Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism were all practised: the king was regarded as the incarnation of the three. The Nagarakretagama however, does not mention Islam, but there were certainly Muslim courtiers by this time.[10]: 19
Hinduism and Buddhism already shaped the Javanese civilisation, religion, and spiritualism since the earlier era, from the 9th century Mataram Kingdom, Kahuripan, Kadiri, to Singhasari kingdom. It seems that both Hinduism and Buddhism are widely practised by Majapahit subjects. Nevertheless, native Javanese shamanism possibly still exist and practised in peripheral rural regions.
The monarch and most of the royal family adhered to Hinduism, with certain emphasis on the cult of their own preferred main deity, either Shiva, Vishnu, Durga or other deities. The first king of Majapahit, Kertarajasa Jayawardhana was posthumously portrayed as Harihara, the god combination of Shiva and Vishnu, in his mortuary temple in Candi Simping. Mahayana Buddhism however, was also favoured by the royal family and officials of Majapahit. For example, the queen of Majapahit Gayatri Rajapatni and Gajah Mada are known as Buddhists.[84] Gayatri later posthumously portrayed as Prajnaparamita.
The state religion however, was possibly the Siwa Buddha, the Javanese syncretism of Shaivism and Buddhism, which emphasise the similarity between Shiva and Buddha which both described as ascetics and spiritual teacher. The spiritual circumstances of Majapahit, seems to promote the harmony between the adherents of Shiva and Buddha. As demonstrated in the manuscript Sutasoma written in the 14th century by Mpu Tantular which promotes the religious tolerance between the Hinduism and Buddhism, specifically promote the syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.[85]
During the Majapahit period, religious teaching played an important role in the society. The religious education could be done individually within households of kshatriya nobles and brahmana religious elites, or in a centre for religious teaching which resembles ashram or boarding school called Mandala or Kadewaguruan. A Kadewaguruan was usually located in remote areas far from habitation places, such as quiet forest, on hills or mountainous region. A Kadewaguruan is led by a mahāresi or high priest, who is also known as śiddharesi or dewaguru; hence the education centre is called Kadewaguruan.[86]
The literature of Majapahit was the continuation of Javanese Kawi Hindu-Buddhist scholarly tradition that produces kakawin poem that has been developed in Java since the 9th century Medang Mataram era, all the way through Kadiri and Singhasari periods. Notable Javanese literary works dated from an earlier period, such as Kadiri's 11th century Kanwa's Arjunawiwaha, 12th-century Dharmaja's Smaradahana, Sedah's Bharatayuddha, Panuluh's Hariwangsa also popular Panji cycles are continuously preserved and rewritten by Rakawi (Hindu-Buddhist poet or scholar) in Majapahit era. Notable literary works that were produced in the Majapahit period among others are Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, Tantular's Sutasoma, and Tantu Pagelaran. Popular tale of Sri Tanjung and Damarwulan also dated from Majapahit period. These Old Javanese kakawins were written and composed by Rakawis (poets) to worship the king of the gods whose incarnation the king represented.[85]
Nagarakretagama composed by Prapanca in 1365 is a vital source of the premier historical account of Majapahit historiography. While Sutasoma is an important literature for modern Indonesian nationhood, since the national motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, which is usually translated as Unity in Diversity, was taken from a pupuh (canto) of this manuscript.[87]
This quotation comes from Sutasoma canto 139, stanza 5. The full stanza reads as follows:
Rwâneka dhâtu winuwus Buddha Wiswa,
Bhinnêki rakwa ring apan kena parwanosen,
Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan Siwatatwa tunggal,
Bhinnêka tunggal ika tan hana dharma mangrwa.
Originally, the poem was meant to promote the religious tolerance between the Hindu and Buddhist religions, specifically promote the syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.[85]
In Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan describes the writing system used in Majapahit. For the writing, they had known the alphabet using So-li (Chola — Coromandel/Southern India) letters. There is no paper or pen, they use Chiao-chang (kajang) or palm leaf (lontar), written by scraping it with a sharp knife. They also have a developed language system and grammar.[26]
The Pala school of art of the Indian Pala Empire influenced the art and architecture of Majapahit.[88]Majapahit art was the continuation of East Javanese art, style and aesthetically developed since the 11th century during the Kediri and Singhasari period. Unlike the earlier naturalistic, relaxed and flowing figures of classical Central Java-style (Sailendra art c. 8th to 10th century), this East Javanese style demonstrates a stiffer pose, stylised and rendered in wayang-like figures, such as those carved on East Javanese temple's bas-reliefs. The bas-reliefs were projected rather flat from the background. This style was later preserved in Balinese art, especially in its Kamasan style classical paintings and Balinese wayang.
The statues of Hindu gods and Buddhist deities in Majapahit art were also the continuations of its previous Singhasari art. The statues of East Javanese period tends to be a stiffer and frontal-formal pose, compared to the statues of Central Javanese art (c. 9th century) that are more Indianized style, relaxed in tribhanga pose. The stiffer pose of Majapahit gods statues is probably in accordance with the statue's function as the deified portrayal self of the dead Majapahit monarch. The carving, however, is richly decorated, especially with a fine floral carving of lotus plants carved on the stela behind the statue. Examples of Majapahit statues are the Harihara statue from Simping temple, believed to be the deified portrayal of King Kertarajasa, the statue of Parwati believed to be the portrayal of Queen Tribhuwana, and a statue of the queen Suhita discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java.
Clay pottery and brick masonry are a popular feature in Majapahit art and architecture. The Majapahit Terracotta art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of terracotta artefacts were discovered in Trowulan. The artefacts range from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels, water containers, piggy banks, bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to pipes and roof tiles.
One of the most interesting findings is the Majapahit piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks have been discovered in Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer for saving or money container. The word celengan in Javanese and Indonesian means both "savings" and "piggy bank". It was derived from the word celeng which means "wild boar", the suffix "-an" was added to denote its likeness. One important specimen is stored in the National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since this large piggy bank has been found broken to pieces.
Terracotta money boxes also have been found in different shapes, such as tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important terracotta artefact is the head figurine of a man popularly thought to be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was depicted in these figurines.
In his book Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan also describes the Majapahit cities: most of them do not have walls surrounding the city or the suburbs. He describes the king's palace in Majapahit. The king's residence is surrounded with thick red brick walls more than three chang high (about 30 feet 7 inches or 9.32 metres), with length of more than 200 paces (340 yards or 310 metres) and on the wall there are two layers of gates, the palace is very well guarded and clean. The king's palace was a two-storey building, each of them 3 or 4 chang high (9.32–12.42 metres or 30.6–40.7 feet). It had wooden plank floors and exposed mats made from rattan or reeds (presumably palm leaves), where people sat cross-legged. The roof was made of hardwood shingles (Javanese: sirap) laid as tiles.[26] This description of the palace is very different than that of Odoric of Pordenone, who visited Majapahit in the previous century during the reign of Jayanegara (1309–1328).[83]: 332 The reason of this was because Ma Huan likely stayed at a special area reserved for envoys, which was still 1.5 days' journey away from the real Majapahit palace.[89]
Odoric described the palace in more detail: The palace was described as being richer and finer than any existing palace at that time in the world. It had grand, broad, and lofty staircases; which the steps alternately made of gold and silver. The pavement of the palace was made alternately with one tile of gold and the other of silver, and the inside wall plated all over with gold, with knight sculptures of gold ornamented with precious stones. The ceiling of Majapahit palace was made of pure gold.[82]: 87
According to Ma Huan, the houses of commoners had thatched roofs (nipa palm leaves). Every family has a storage shed made of bricks, about 3 or 4 chi (48.9 inches or 124 centimetres) above the ground, where they kept the family property, and they lived on top of this building, to sit and sleep.[26] Not every house in Java looked like this: According to the History of the Song dynasty, houses in Java are grand and handsome — they are decorated with gold and jade. The chronicle also noted that when Chinese merchants arrive there they are received as guests in a public building.[59]: 16 [90] This indicates that Ma Huan had not yet arrived at the center of Majapahit capital, and was only observing the outskirts.[91][89]
The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles, in contrast to earlier central Javanese style. This east Javanese temple style is also dated back from Kediri period c. 11th century. The shapes of Majapahit temples tend to be slender and tall, with a roof constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the perspective illusion that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although some of the temples dated from Majapahit period used andesite or sandstone, the red bricks is also a popular construction material.
Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.[92] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo, and Surawana temple near Kediri. Jabung temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Bajrajinaparamitapura, despite some parts of its roof and pinnacles are now missing, it is one of the most well-preserved Majapahit temple architecture. Another example includes Gunung Gangsir temple near Pasuruan. Some of the temples are dated from the earlier period but renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to Kediri era. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. Another notable temple of Eastern Javanese style is Jawi temple in Pandaan — also visited by King Hayam Wuruk, the temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Jajawa, and was dedicated as a mortuary temple for his great-grandfather, King Kertanegara of Singhasari.
Some of the typical architectural styles are believed to be developed during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate commonly called as kori agung or paduraksa, and also split gate of candi bentar. The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest surviving candi bentar dated from Majapahit era. The candi bentar took shape of typical Majapahit temple structure — consists of three parts; foot, body and tall roof — evenly split into two mirroring structures to make a passage in the centre for people to walk through. This type of split gate has no doors and provides no real defensive purpose but narrowing the passage. It probably only served the ceremonial and aesthetic purpose, to create the sense of grandeur, before entering the next compound through tall roof paduraksa gate with enclosed door. The example of kori agung or paduraksa style gate is the elegant Bajang Ratu gate richly decorated with Kala demon, cyclops and also the bas-relief telling the story of Sri Tanjung. Those typical Majapahit architectural style has deeply influenced the Javanese and Balinese architecture of later period. The current prevalence of Majapahit style pendopo pavilion, candi bentar and paduraksa gates was owed to the influence of Majapahit aesthetics on Javanese and Balinese architecture.[93]
In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and architecture of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian megalithic architectural elements, such as Sukuh and Cetho temples on western slopes of Mount Lawu. Unlike previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Hindu architecture of high-rise towering structure, the shape of these temples are step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican pyramids. The stepped pyramid structure called Punden Berundak (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.
The Daoyi Zhi, which was written ca. 1339 CE, mentioned about Java's wealth and prosperity of the period:
"The fields of Java are rich and its soil is level and well watered, therefore grain and rice are abundant, twice as much as in other countries. The people do not steal, and what is dropped on the road is not taken up. The common saying: "prosperous Java" means this country. Men and women wrap up their head and wear long clothes."[94]: 124
Also in Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan reported the Javanese economy and market. Rice is harvested twice a year, and its grain is small. They also harvest white sesame and lentils, but there is no wheat. This land produces sapan wood (useful to produce red dye), diamonds, sandalwood, incense, puyang pepper, cantharides (green beetles used for medicine), steel, turtles, tortoiseshell, strange and rare birds; such as a large parrot as big as a hen, red and green parrots, five-colored parrots, (all of them can imitate the human voice), also guinea fowl, ' bird hanging upside down ', five-coloured pigeon, peacock, 'betel tree bird', pearl bird, and green pigeons. The beasts here are strange: there are white deer, white monkey, and various other animals. Pigs, goats, cattle, horses, poultries, and there are all types of ducks, however donkeys and geese are not found.[26]
For the fruits, there are all kinds of bananas, coconut, sugarcane, pomegranate, lotus, mang-chi-shi (manggis or mangosteen), watermelon and lang Ch'a (langsat or lanzones). Mang-chi-shi — is something like a pomegranate, peel it like an orange, it has four lumps of white flesh, sweet and sour taste and very delicious. Lang-ch'a is a fruit similar to Loquat, but larger contained three blocky white flesh with a sweet and sour taste. Sugarcane has white stems, large and coarse, with roots reaching 3 chang (30 feet 7 inches). In addition, all types of squash and vegetables are there, just a shortage of peach, plum and leek.[26]
Taxes and fines were paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly monetised since the late 8th century, using gold and silver coins. Previously, the 9th-century Wonoboyo hoard discovered in Central Java shows that ancient Javan gold coins were seed-shaped, similar to corn, while the silver coins were similar to buttons. In about the year 1300, in the reign of Majapahit's first king, an important change took place: the indigenous coinage was completely replaced by imported Chinese copper cash. About 10,388 ancient Chinese coins weighing about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a local commoner in Sidoarjo in November 2008. Indonesian Ancient Relics Conservation Bureau (BP3) of East Java verified that those coins dated as early as Majapahit era.[95] The reason for using the foreign currency is not given in any source, but most scholars assume it was due to the increasing complexity of Javanese economy and a desire for a currency system that used much smaller denominations suitable for use in everyday market transactions. This was a role for which gold and silver are not well suited.[53]: 107 These kepeng Chinese coins were thin rounded copper coins with a square hole in the centre of it. The hole was meant to tie together the money in a string of coins. These small changes—the imported Chinese copper coins—enabled Majapahit further invention, a method of savings by using a slitted earthenware coin container. These are commonly found in Majapahit ruins, the slit in the small opening to put the coins in. The most popular shape is boar-shaped celengan (piggy bank).
Some idea of the scale of the internal economy can be gathered from scattered data in inscriptions. The Canggu inscriptions dated 1358 mentions 78 ferry crossings in the country (mandala Java).[53]: 107 Majapahit inscriptions mention a large number of occupational specialities, ranging from gold and silversmiths to drink vendors and butchers. Although many of these occupations had existed in earlier times, the proportion of the population earning an income from non-agrarian pursuits seems to have become even greater during the Majapahit era.
The great prosperity of Majapahit was probably due to two factors. Firstly, the northeast lowlands of Java were suitable for rice cultivation, and during Majapahit's prime numerous irrigation projects were undertaken, some with government assistance. Secondly, Majapahit's ports on the north coast were probably significant stations along the route to obtain the spices of Maluku, and as the spices passed through Java they would have provided an important source of income for Majapahit.[53]: 107
The Nagarakretagama states that the fame of the ruler of Wilwatikta (a synonym for Majapahit) attracted foreign merchants from far and wide, including Indians, Khmers, Siamese, and Chinese among others. While in the later period, Yingya Shenglan mentioned that large numbers of Chinese traders and Muslim merchants from the west (from Arab and India, but mostly from Muslim states in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula) are settling in Majapahit port cities, such as Tuban, Gresik and Hujung Galuh (Surabaya). A special tax was levied against some foreigners, possibly those who had taken up semi-permanent residence in Java and conducted some type of enterprise other than foreign trade. The Majapahit Empire had trading links with Chinese Ming dynasty, Đại Việt and Champa in today Vietnam, Cambodia, Siamese Ayutthayan, Burmese Martaban and the south Indian Vijayanagara Empire.[96]
During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java. This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places.[97] Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.[98]
During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit employed a well-organised bureaucratic structure for administrative purposes. The hierarchy and structure relatively remain intact and unchanged throughout Majapahit history.[99] The king is the paramount ruler, as the chakravartin he is considered the universal ruler and believed to be the living god on earth. The king holds the highest political authority and legitimacy.
The law and order of Majapahit kingdom follows the regulations related to the criminal code of law which became the guidelines for people's lives at that time. This rule of law can be found in a manuscript called Kutaramanawa Dharmashastra or translated as "the Book of Religious Legislation". According to the historian Slamet Muljana's notes in the book Perundang-undangan Madjapahit (1967), there is no definite record regarding the time when this criminal law was drafted. However, based on some evidence, it can be concluded that this book of law written in old Javanese was originated from the Majapahit period during the reign of King Rajasanagara.[100]
In Majapahit, the punishment for the crime of murder was death. According to the manuscript Kidung Sorandaka, it was said that Demung Sora, a minister of Majapahit court, was sentenced to death penalty under the Astadusta provisions for his crime on killing Mahisa Anabrang. Astadusta is a part of the Kutaramanawa Dharmashastra which regulates the punishment for murder.[100] Overall, this criminal code consists of 19 sections that regulate various aspects of life. In addition to the punishment for the crime of murders which are summarised in the Astadusta section, there are also rules regarding buying and selling, debts, marriage, and pawnbroker. The punishments handed down included the death penalty, mutilation of the guilty body parts, fines and compensation. Additional penalties included ransom, confiscation, and money compensation for medication and drugs.[100]
According to the Chinese description in Yingya Shenglan, when the one being stabbed was wounded and dead, the murderer will flee and hide for three days, then he will not lose his life. But if he was caught during the fight, he will instantly be stabbed to death (execution by stabbing). The country of Majapahit knows no caning for major or minor punishment. They tied the guilty men on his hands in the back with rattan rope and paraded them, and then stabbed the offender in the back where there is a floating rib which resulted in instant death.[26] Judicial executions of this kind were frequent.
During his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic state officials that also included the close relatives of the kings that hold certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually transmitted from the king to the high officials well to their subordinates. The officials in Majapahit courts are:
Within the ministers of Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran there is the most important and the highest minister titled Rakryan Mapatih or Patih Hamangkubhumi. This position is analogous to prime minister, and together with the king, they determine the important state policies, including war or peace. Among the Dharmmadhyaksa officials, there is Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan (State's highest Hindu Shivaist priest) and Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan (State's highest Buddhist priest), both are the authorities of the religious law of each dharmic faiths.
There is also the board of advisors which consists of the elders within the royal family called Bhattara Saptaprabhu. This council consists of seven influential elders—mostly directly related to the king. They are the Bhres (Duke or Duchess) acted as regional kings, the rulers of Majapahit provinces. This council congregates, offers advice, considered the king, and often formed an assembly to judge a certain important case in the court. Example of their office was, their sentence to temporarily suspend Mahamantri Gajah Mada, as a punishment since he was held responsible for the shamefully disastrous Bubat incident. The council also sentenced the execution of Raden Gajah (Narapati) for decapitating Bhre Wirabhumi in Regreg war.[101]: 481
Majapahit recognise the hierarchy classifications of lands within its realm:
During its formation, Majapahit traditional realm only consists of lesser vassal kingdoms (provinces) in eastern and central Java. This region is ruled by provincial kings called Paduka Bhattara with the title Bhre, shortened form of Bhatara i (Bhatara of). This title is the highest position below the monarch and similar to duke or duchess. Usually, this position reserved for the close relatives of the king. They have to administer their provinces, collect taxes, send annual tributes to the capital, and manage the defences of their borders.
During the reign of Dyah Hayam Wuruk (formally King Rajasanagara; 1350–1389) there were 12 provinces of Majapahit, administered by king's close relatives:
[102] List of Majapahit provinces administered by the king's relatives based on Waringin Pitu inscription (1447) written during the reign of Dyah Kertawijaya (formally King Wijayaparakramawardhana).
When Majapahit entered the thalassocracy imperial phase during the administration of Gajah Mada, several overseas vassal states were included within the Majapahit sphere of influence, as a result, the new larger territorial concept was defined:
Nagarakretagama mentioned more than 80 places in the archipelago described as the vassal states.[9] In Canto 13, several lands on Sumatra are mentioned, and some possibly correspond to contemporary areas: Jambi, Palembang, Teba (either Tebo in Jambi or Toba areas by Lake Toba), and Dharmasraya. Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar and Pane, Kampe, Haru (coastal North Sumatra, today around Medan) and Mandailing. Tamiyang (Aceh Tamiang Regency), negara Perlak (Peureulak) and Padang Lawas, are noted in the west, together with Samudra (Samudra Pasai) and Lamuri, Batan (Bintan), Lampung, and Barus. Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara (believed to be on Borneo): Kapuas Katingan, Sampit, Kota Lingga, Kotawaringin, Sambas, and Lawas.
In Nagarakretagama Canto 14 more lands are noted: Kadandangan, Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu (Sibu in Sarawak), Barune (Brunei), Kalka, Saludung (either Serudong River in Sabah or Seludong in Manila), Solot (Sulu), Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, and Tanjung Kutei. In Hujung Medini (Malay Peninsula), Pahang is mentioned first. Next Langkasuka, Saimwang, Kelantan and Trengganu, Johor, Paka, Muar, Dungun, Tumasik (Temasek, where Singapore is today), Kelang (Klang Valley) and Kedah, Jerai (Gunung Jerai), Kanjapiniran, all are united.
Also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java: Badahulu and Lo Gajah (part of today's Bali). Gurun and Sukun, Taliwang, Sapi (Sape town, east end of Sumbawa island, by the Sape Strait) and Dompo, Sang Hyang Api, Bima. Sheran and Hutan Kadali (Buru island). Gurun island, and Lombok Merah. Together with prosperous Sasak (central, north and east Lombok) are already ruled. Bantayan with Luwu. Further east are Udamakatraya (Sangir and Talaud). Also mentioned are Makassar, Buton, Banggai, Kunir, Galiao with Selayar, Sumba, Solot, Muar. Also Wanda(n) (Banda island), Ambon or Maluku islands, Kai Islands, Wanin (Onin Peninsula, today Fakfak Regency, West Papua), Sran, Timor and other islands.
The true nature of Majapahit suzerainty is still a subject of study and even has sparked controversy. Nagarakretagama describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala consists of 98 tributaries stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea. Some scholars have discounted this claim as merely a sphere of limited influence, or even just a statement of geographical knowledge.[6]: 87
Nevertheless, the Javanese overseas prestige and influence during the lifetime of Hayam Wuruk was undoubtedly considerable.[9] Majapahit fleets must have periodically visited many places in the archipelago to acquire formal submission, or the splendour of Majapahit court might have attracted regional rulers to send a tribute, without any intention to submit to Majapahit's order.[6]: 87
All of those three categories—the Negara Agung, Mancanegara and Nusantara, were within the sphere of influence of the Majapahit empire.
The model of political formations and power diffusion from its core in the Majapahit capital city that radiates through its overseas possessions was later identified by historians as "mandala" model. The term mandala derived from Sanskrit "circle" to explain the typical ancient Southeast Asian polity that was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration.[104] The territories belongs within Majapahit Mandala sphere of influence were those categorised as Mancanegara and Nusantara. These areas usually have their indigenous rulers, enjoy substantial autonomy and have their political institution intact without further integration into Majapahit administration. The same mandala model also applied to previous empires; Srivijaya and Angkor, and also Majapahit's neighbouring mandalas; Ayutthaya and Champa.
Foreign or overseas territories are mentioned in Nagarakretagama canto 15 stanza 1. These territories include Syangka (Siam), Ayodyapura (Ayutthaya), Dharmmanagari (Ligor), Marutma (Martaban or Mergui), Rajapura (Rajpuri in the south of Siam), Singhanagari (Singhapuri on the branch of the river Menam), Campa, and Kamboja (Cambodia).[105]: 35–36 The relationship between Majapahit and these territories is called kachaya, which means "to be exposed to light". It is interpreted as protected or sheltered. The term "protected area" in the modern state system is referred to as a protectorate.[106]: 234–235
In addition, in canto 83 stanza 4 and 93 stanza 1 are mentioned the places that became the origin of merchants and scholars. The regions are Jambudwipa (India), Cina, Karnataka (South India), and Goda (Gauḍa).[107]: 35–36 What is different is Yawana (Arabs, see explanation), as mentioned anyat i yawana mitreka satata (different is Yawana who is a permanent ally).[106]: 234 [108]
The question whether Majapahit is considered an empire or not is actually depends on the definition of the word and concept of "empire" itself. Majapahit did not performed direct administration of its overseas possessions, they did not maintain permanent military occupation, and did not imposes its political and cultural norms over a wide area; thus it is not sufficiently considered an empire in a traditional sense. However, if being an empire means the projection of military power at will, formal acknowledgement of overlordship by vassals, and the regular tribute delivery to the capital, then Java's relationship to the rest of archipelagic realm can well be considered an imperial one; thus Majapahit can be considered an empire.[1]
In later period, Majapahit's hold on its overseas possessions began to wane. According to Waringin Pitu inscription (dated 1447) it was mentioned that Majapahit's core realm was consisted of 14 provinces, that administrated by the ruler titled Bhre.[109] The provinces written in the inscription are:
The inscription, however, did not mention Majapahit's vassals in other areas around the period, such as:
The book Suma Oriental by Tomé Pires written in 1515 records that Java (Majapahit) ruled as far as the Moluccas on the east side and most of the west side of the archipelago; and almost the whole island of Sumatra was under its control and also controlled all the islands known to the Javanese. Majapahit ruled over these for a long time until about a hundred years earlier, when its power began to wane until it became similar to that during the year of Pires' visit to Java (March–June 1513).[76]: 174
The army of Majapahit was divided into 2 main types, namely prajurit (professional soldier) and levy taken up from peasants. The main weapon used was the spear.[110]: 84–85, 130 Initially, cavalry only existed in limited numbers. They were mainly used for scouting and patrol, and were most likely armed with lances.[110]: 90, 94 After the Mongol invasion, the use of horses became more widespread in Java, especially for war.[111]: 12–13 Chariots are used for transporting soldiers to the battlefield and were "parked" before the battle. Some chariots were indeed used in battle, for example, the prime minister Nambi rode a chariot and served as an archer in the Rangga Lawe rebellion (1295 CE). Gajah Mada also rode in a chariot when attacking Sundanese troops in the Bubat battle (1357). Chariots were carved at the Penataran Temple, seemingly modeled from the real world.[110]: 96, 98 [112]: 64, 76 [113]: 141, 142 War elephants were used mainly for transport, or as a mount for nobility and soldiers of higher rank.[110]: 101
Majapahit had 30,000 full-time professional troops, whose soldiers and commanders were paid in gold. This shows the existence of a standing army, an achievement that only a handful of Southeast Asian empires could hope to achieve.[114]: 185 [115]: 467 In addition to these professional soldiers, Majapahit was strengthened by troops from subordinate countries and regional leaders.[50]: 277 From the records of Suma Oriental and Malay Annals, the total number of Majapahit troops could reach 200,000 people.[116]: 175–176 [117] The Majapahit troops were multiethnic, similar to the Yogyakarta Sultanate military which had Bugis and Dhaeng (Makassar) troops. As noted in Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai:
So the two parties returned to their respective places. That was how the war went on every day, for about three months, the war was unrelenting, because the Javanese kingdom also received help from foreign lands.[118]
Gunpowder technology entered Java in the Mongol invasion of Java (1293 A.D.).[119][120]: 220 Majapahit under Mahapatih (prime minister) Gajah Mada utilized gunpowder technology obtained from the Yuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet.[121]: 57 During the following years, the Majapahit army have begun producing cannons known as cetbang. Early cetbang (also called eastern-style cetbang) resembled Chinese cannons and hand cannons. Eastern-style cetbangs were mostly made of bronze and were front-loaded cannons. It fires arrow-like projectiles, but round bullets and co-viative projectiles[note 15] can also be used. These arrows can be solid-tipped without explosives, or with explosives and incendiary materials placed behind the tip. Near the rear, there is a combustion chamber or room, which refers to the bulging part near the rear of the gun, where the gunpowder is placed. The cetbang is mounted on a fixed mount, or as a hand cannon mounted on the end of a pole. There is a tube-like section on the back of the cannon. In the hand cannon-type cetbang, this tube is used as a socket for a pole.[123]: 94
Because of the close maritime relations of the Nusantara archipelago with the territory of west India, after 1460 new types of gunpowder weapons entered the archipelago through Arab intermediaries. This weapon seems to be cannon and gun of Ottoman tradition, for example the prangi, which is a breech-loading swivel gun.[123]: 94–95 It resulted in a new type of cetbang, called "western-style cetbang". It can be mounted as a fixed or swivel gun, small-sized ones can be easily installed on small vessels. In naval combat, this gun is used as an anti-personnel weapon, not anti-ship. In this age, even to the 17th century, Nusantaran soldiers fought on a platform called balai and performed boarding actions. Loaded with scatter shots (grapeshot, case shot, or nails and stones) and fired at close range, the cetbang would have been effective at this type of fighting.[124]: 241 [125]: 162
Majapahit had elite troops called Bhayangkara. The main task of these troops is for protecting the king and nobilities, but they may also be deployed to the battlefield if required. The Hikayat Banjar noted the Bhayangkara equipments in the Majapahit palace:
Maka kaluar dangan parhiasannya orang barbaju-rantai ampat puluh sarta padangnya barkupiah taranggos sakhlat merah, orang mambawa astenggar ampat puluh, orang mambawa parisai sarta padangnya ampat puluh, orang mambawa dadap sarta sodoknya sapuluh, orang mambawa panah sarta anaknya sapuluh, yang mambawa tumbak parampukan barsulam amas ampat puluh, yang mambawa tameng Bali bartulis air mas ampat puluh.
So came out with their ornaments men with chain mail numbered forty alongside their swords and red kopiah [skull cap], men carrying astengger [arquebus] numbered forty, men carrying shield and swords numbered forty, men carrying dadap [a type of shield][note 16] and sodok [broad-bladed spear-like weapon][note 17] numbered ten, men carrying bows and arrows numbered ten, (men) who carried parampukan spears[note 18] embroidered with gold numbered forty, (men) who carried Balinese shields with golden water engraving numbered forty.
— Hikayat Banjar, 6.3[131]: Line 1209–1214 [132]
Military forces in various parts of Southeast Asia were lightly armored. As was common in Southeast Asia, most of the Javanese forces were composed of temporarily conscripted commoners (levy) led by the warrior and noble castes. The "peasant army" was usually bare-chested wearing a sarung, armed with spear, short sword, or bow and arrows.[133]: 111–113 The richer (higher rank) soldiers wore armor called kawaca.[note 19][110]: 78 Irawan Djoko Nugroho argues that it may be shaped like a long tube and was made of cast copper.[135] In contrast, the regular infantry (professional soldiers, not the levy) wore a scale armor called siping-siping.[110]: 75, 78, 79 There is also a kind of steel helmet called rukuh.[136][110]: 20, 78, 80 Other kinds of armor used in Majapahit-era Java was waju rante (chain mail armor) and karambalangan (a layer of metal worn in front of the chest).[137][138][139] In Kidung Sunda canto 2 stanza 85 it is explained that the mantris (ministers or officers) of Gajah Mada wore armor in the form of chain mail or breastplate with gold decoration and dressed in yellow attire,[140]: 103 while Kidung Sundayana canto 1 stanza 95 mentioned that Gajah Mada wore golden embossed karambalangan, armed with gold-layered spear, and with a shield full of diamond decoration.[139][138]
Majapahit also pioneered the use of firearms in the archipelago. Even though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons has been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded by Ma Huan in his Yingya Shenlan as being used by the Javanese for marriage ceremony in 1413,[141][124]: 245 the knowledge of making "true" firearms came much later, after the middle of the 15th century. It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs. The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.[142]: 23
Xingcha Shenglan (星槎勝覽) written by Fei Xin ca. 1436 stated that Java (Majapahit) is equipped with armored soldiers and equipment, and it is the center of the Eastern people.[143][144] Haiguo Guangji (海国广记) and Shuyu zhouzi lu (殊域周咨錄) recorded that Java is vast and densely populated, and their armored soldiers and hand cannons (火銃—huǒ chòng) dominated the Eastern Seas.[145]: 755 [146][147]
Tomé Pires' 1513 account tells the army of Gusti Pati (Patih Udara), viceroy of Batara Vojyaya (probably Brawijaya or Ranawijaya), numbered 200,000 men, 2,000 of which are horsemen and 4,000 musketeers.[76]: 175–176 Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 recorded that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works.[148]: 198 [149]: 224 Every place is considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.[150]: 254 [148]: 198
The first true cavalry (organized units of cooperative horsemen) in Java may have appeared during the 12th century CE.[151] The old Javanese manuscript kakawin Bhomāntaka mentioned early Javanese horse lore and horsemanship.[152]: 436 The manuscript may reflect the conflict (allegorically) between the newly formed Javanese cavalry and the well-established elite infantry of Javanese armies.[153]: 113 In the 14th century CE, Java became an important horse breeder and the island was even listed among horse suppliers to China.[154]: 208 During the Majapahit period, the quantity and quality of Javanese horse breeds steadily grew. In 1513 CE Tomé Pires praised the highly decorated horses of Javanese nobility, complemented by gold-studded stirrups and lavishly decorated saddles that were "not found anywhere else in the world".[76]: 174–175 [155]: 196–197 The Sumbawa pony seems to have been derived from the Javanese domesticated horse introduced by Majapahit in the 14th century CE.[156]: 52–53
Majapahit had a naval troops that was distinguished from ground troop units, which was called wwang jaladhi. Naval troops get preferential treatment in terms of facilities. Majapahit navy personnel were large, as noted Nagarakretagama canto 16 stanza 5:[157][158]: 17, 148, 281 [159]
irika tang anyabhumi sakhahemban ing Yawapuri, (Then 'Anyabhumi' [other lands] everywhere were all united in the Javanese kingdom,)
amateh i sajna sang nrpati khapwa satya ring ulah, (obey every command of the king. All are faithful in attitude,)
pituwi sing ajñalanghyana dinon wiśirnna sahana, (even though there were treaty violators, they were attacked by expeditionary forces and were all destroyed,)
tekap ikang watek jaladhi mantry aneka suyaśa. (by the activity of the group of 'mantri jaladhi' [naval officers] who were numerous, glorious.)
The main warship of the Majapahit navy was the jong. The jongs were large transport ships that could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people. They are about 26.36–80.51 m in LOD (deck length) and 28.99–88.56 m in LOA (overall length). A jong from 1420 nearly crossed the Atlantic Ocean.[160][better source needed] A type of large nine-decked jong that was recorded in Kidung Panji Wijayakrama-Rangga Lawe (c. 1334) was called jong sasangawangunan, it carried 1000 fighting men with red sails.[113]: 91 The exact number of jongs fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jongs deployed in an expedition was about 400 jongs when Majapahit attacked Pasai.[43] The average jong used by Majapahit would be about 76.18–79.81 m LOA, carrying 600–700 men, with 1200–1400 tons deadweight.[161]: 60–62 Before the Battle of Bubat in 1357, the Sunda king and the royal family arrived in Majapahit after sailing across the Java Sea in a fleet of 200 large ships and 2000 smaller vessels.[140]: 16–17, 76–77 The royal family boarded a nine-decked hybrid Sino-Southeast Asian junk (Old Javanese: Jong sasanga wangunan ring Tatarnagari tiniru). This hybrid junk incorporated Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkheads, and the addition of a central rudder.[162]: 270 [163]: 272–276 Besides that, other types of vessels used by Majapahit navy are malangbang, kelulus, pelang, jongkong, cerucuh, and tongkang.[43][63][164] In the 16th century lancaran and penjajap are also used.[76]: 195 [165]: 282 Modern depictions of the Majapahit navy often depict outrigger ships, in reality, these ships were from 8th-century Borobudur ship bas relief. Research by Nugroho concluded that the main vessels used by Majapahit did not use outriggers, and using Borobudur engraving as the basis for reconstructing the Majapahit ship is wrong and misleading.[166][167]
During the Majapahit era, Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania.[168]: 248–251
The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.[169]: 10 In the Majapahit era, compasses and magnets were used, and cartography (mapping science) was developed. In 1293 CE Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader, suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affairs in Java.[36]: 53 The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.[168]: 249 [76]: lxxix [170][171][172][173]
When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca (1511), the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:[174][170]: 98–99
"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of nutmeg and mace, and the land of the King of Siam, and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese, the direction it takes, and how they do not navigate farther."
- — Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, 1 April 1512.
Duarte Barbosa mention places and route which the Majapahit ships visited, which include Maluku Islands, Timor, Banda, Sumatra, Malacca, China, Tenasserim, Pegu (Bago), Bengal, Pulicat, Coromandel, Malabar, Cambay (Khambat), and Aden. From the notes of other authors, it is known that there were also those who went to the Maldives, Calicut (Kozhikode), Oman, Aden, and the Red Sea. The passenger brought their wives and children, even some of them never leave the ship to go on shore, nor have any other dwelling, for they are born and die in the ship.[148]: 191–193 [175]: 199 [176][50]: 278
For several centuries — since the era of Srivijaya and Medang Mataram (circa 10th century), the classic rivalry between Sumatran Malay states and Javanese kingdoms has shaped the dynamics of geopolitics in the region. Their activities in guarding the sea in pursuit of their economic interest, plus their military activities to safeguard this interests, has led to conflicts between Malays and Javanese.[177] Since early of its formation, Majapahit inherited the foreign outlook of its predecessor entity – Singhasari kingdom, in which its last king Kertanegara projected his influence abroad by launching Pamalayu expedition (1275–1293) to incorporate Malay polities in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula within Javanese sphere of influence. Previously, Singhasari seeks to dominate trade route, especially Malacca strait, and also saw the outreach of Mongolian-Chinese Yuan influence into Southeast Asia as the threat to their interest. During its formation, the returning Pamalayu expedition in 1293 has brought Malayu Kingdoms in Jambi and Dharmasraya under Javanese suzerainty. Therefore, Java often considers itself as the overlord of most of the polities in the Indonesian archipelago.
During the reign of Majapahit's first two monarch — Wijaya and Jayanegara, the kingdom struggled to consolidate its rule, plagued by several rebellions. However, it was not until the reign of its third monarch — Queen Tribhuwana Tunggadewi, and her son, Hayam Wuruk — that the kingdom began to project its power overseas. Majapahit's confidence for dominance was stemmed for their economic and demographic comparative advantage; agrarian as well as a maritime nation; their large rice production, immense human resources, well-organized society, also their mastery in shipbuilding, navigation and military technology; are excellent relatively compared to their neighbours. These strengths were used by Gajah Mada to expand the kingdom's influence and building a maritime empire. This rather imperialistic outlook has projected in the way he forcefully dealt with Majapahit's neighbours; the Pabali (conquest of Bali, 1342–1343) and the Pasunda Bubat (1356). Majapahit pulled Bali into their orbit as a vassal state. While the disastrous diplomacy with the Sunda kingdom has led to the enmity among them.
Majapahit overlordship upon Malay states of Sumatra was demonstrated by the rule of Adityawarman of Malayupura. Adityawarman, the cousin of King Jayanegara, was raised within Majapahit palace and rose to become a senior minister in Majapahit court. He was sent to led Majapahit military expansion to conquer east coast region in Sumatra. Adityawarman then founded the royal dynasty of Minangkabau in Pagarruyung and presided over the central Sumatra region to take control of the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.
Within Indonesian archipelago, Majapahit saw itself as the centre of a huge mandala. This notion is demonstrated by its three-tier administrative hierarchy; Nagara Agung, Mancanegara, and Nusantara.
In Sumatran front, Majapahit did capture Palembang, Jambi and Dharmasraya, invade Pasai, and it also saw the settlement of Tumasik, that later become Kingdom of Singapura, as its rebellious colony, and thus deal with them accordingly.
In later years after the era of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit has lost their grips on some of their overseas possessions. This led to the thrive and the rise of several polities previously held under Majapahit domination, such as Brunei and Malacca. The rise of Malacca in the 15th century, in particular, is important, because it represents Majapahit eventual failure to control Malacca strait. Previously Majapahit tried to contain the rise of a potential regional rival; a Malay polity in par with Srivijaya, by punishing a rebellion in Palembang and capturing Singapura. In this sense, Malacca was indeed the rival of Majapahit in the competition to dominate the archipelagic realm. Despite this perceived rivalry, in practice, however, the two kingdoms had some close and intense economic and cultural relations. At that time, the trade link between Majapahit ports of Hujung Galuh and Tuban with the port of Melaka must have thrived.
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Majapahit true rival for domination, however, was the powerful Ming Chinese. After the fall of Yuan, the Ming Emperor eager to project his power into Southeast Asia. On the other hand, Majapahit saw this archipelagic realm as theirs and unwelcome to any perceived Chinese interference. After Majapahit was weakened by Paregreg civil war, and incessant conflicts among its nobles, the arrival of the formidable Ming treasure voyages led by Zheng He upon Majapahit shores has pushed Majapahit prestige and power to the side. Ming on the other hand, actively support the rise of Malacca. This Ming protection has made Majapahit unwilling and unable to push Malacca anymore.[68]
Majapahit ultimate nemesis, however, was located very close at home; the Demak Sultanate on the northern coast of Central Java. Ming support to Malacca, and Malacca active proselytizing of Islam, has led to the thriving and rise of Muslim traders community in the archipelago, including in Majapahit ports on the north coast of Java. This in turn gradually corroded the prestige of Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingship, and after several generations, led to the fall of once-mighty Majapahit empire.[178]
Majapahit was the largest empire ever to form in Southeast Asia.[53]: 107 Although its political power beyond the core area in east Java was diffuse, constituting mainly ceremonial recognition of suzerainty, Majapahit society developed a high degree of sophistication in both commercial and artistic activities. Its capital was inhabited by a cosmopolitan population among whom literature and art flourished.[53]: 107
Numbers of local legends and folklores in the region had mentioned about the Majapahit kingdom. Other than Javanese sources, some regional legends mentioning Majapahit kingdom or its general Gajah Mada also can be found; from Aceh, Minangkabau, Palembang, the Malay Peninsula, Sunda, Brunei, Bali to Sumbawa. Most of them mentioned about the incoming Javanese forces to their land, which was probably a local testament of the empire's expansive nature that once dominating the archipelago. The Hikayat Raja Pasai, a 14th-century Aceh chronicle tell a Majapahit naval invasion against Samudra Pasai in 1350. The chronicle described that the Majapahit invasion was a punishment for Sultan Ahmad Malik Az-Zahir's crime on ruining a royal marriage between Pasai Prince Tun Abdul Jalil and Raden Galuh Gemerencang, a Majapahit princess — that led to the death of the royal couple.[42]
In West Sumatra, the legend of Minangkabau mentioned an invading foreign prince — associated with Javanese Majapahit kingdom — being defeated in a buffalo fight.[179] In West Java, the Pasunda Bubat tragedy caused a myth to revolve around Indonesians, which forbids marriage between a Sundanese and a Javanese, as it would be unsustainable and only bring misery to the couple.[180] In Malay Peninsula, the Malay Annals mentioned the legend of the fall of Singapura to Majapahit forces in 1398 was due to the betrayal of Sang Rajuna Tapa that opened the fortified city gate.[181] In Brunei, the folk legend of Lumut Lunting and Pilong-Pilongan islands in Brunei Bay also connected to Majapahit.[182]
Several Javanese legends were originated or become popular during the Majapahit period. The Panji cycles, the tale of Sri Tanjung, and the epic of Damarwulan, are popular tales in Javanese and Balinese literatures. The tales of Panji was dated from the older period during Kediri kingdom, while the tale of Sri Tanjung and the epic of Damarwulan took place during the Majapahit period. These tales remained a popular theme in Javanese culture of later period during Mataram Sultanate, and often became the source of inspiration for wayang shadow puppet performance, ketoprak and topeng dance drama. The Panji tales, in particular, have spread from East Java to become a source of inspiration for literature and dance drama throughout the region, as far as the Malay Peninsula, Cambodia and Siam where he is known as Raden Inao or Enau (Thai: อิเหนา) of Kurepan.[183]
Majapahit had a momentous and lasting influence on Indonesian art and architecture. The empire's expansion circa 14th-century contributed to the diffusion Javanese cultural influence throughout the archipelago, which can be seen as a form of Javanisation. It was probably during this period that some of the Javanese cultural elements, such as gamelan[184] and kris, being expanded and introduced to islands outside of Java. The descriptions of the architecture of the capital's pavilions (pendopo) in the Nagarakretagama evoke the Javanese Kraton also the Balinese temples and palace compounds of today. The Majapahit architectural style that often employs terracotta and red brick heavily influenced the architecture of Java and Bali in the later period. The Majapahit style candi bentar split gate, the kori or paduraksa towering red-brick gate, and also pendopo pavilion have become ubiquitous in Javanese and Balinese architectural features, as seen in Menara Kudus Mosque, Keraton Kasepuhan and Sunyaragi park in Cirebon, Mataram Sultanate royal cemetery in Kota Gede, Yogyakarta, and various palaces and temples in Bali.[93]
The vivid, rich and festive Balinese culture is considered one of Majapahit's legacy. The Javanese Hindu civilisation since the era of Airlangga to the era of Majapahit kings has profoundly influenced and shaped the Balinese culture and history.[185] The ancient links and Majapahit legacy is observable in many ways; architecture, literature, religious rituals, dance-drama and artforms. The aesthetics and style of bas-reliefs in Majapahit East Javanese temples were preserved and copied in Balinese temples. It is also because, after the fall of the empire, many Majapahit nobles, artisans and priests had taken refuge either in the interior mountainous region of East Java or across the narrow strait to Bali. Indeed, in some ways, the Kingdom of Bali was the successor of Majapahit. Large numbers of Majapahit manuscripts, such as Nagarakretagama, Sutasoma, Pararaton and Tantu Pagelaran, were being well-kept in royal libraries of Bali and Lombok and provides the glimpse and valuable historical records on Majapahit. The Majapahit Hindu-Javanese culture has shaped the culture of Bali, that led to popular expression; "without Java, there is no Bali". Yet in return, Bali is credited as the last stronghold to safeguard and preserve the ancient Hindu Javanese civilisation.
In weaponry, the Majapahit expansion is believed to be responsible for the widespread use of the keris dagger in Southeast Asia; from Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malaysia, Brunei to Southern Thailand. Although it has been suggested that the keris, and native daggers similar to it, predate Majapahit, nevertheless the empire expansion contributed to its popularity and diffusion in the region around the year 1492.[186] For example, Kris of Knaud, one of the oldest surviving kris is dated to 1264 Saka (which correspondents to 1342). The Malay legend of Kris Taming Sari is also attributed to Majapahit origin.
For Indonesians in later centuries, Majapahit became a symbol of past greatness. The Islamic sultanates of Demak, Pajang, and Mataram sought to establish their legitimacy to the Majapahit.[10]: 40 The Demak claimed a line of succession through Kertabumi, as its founder Raden Patah, in court chronicles was said to be the son of Kertabumi with Putri Cina, a Chinese princess, who had been sent away before her son was born.[10]: 36–37 Sultan Agung's conquest of Wirasaba (present-day Mojoagung) in 1615—during that time just a small town without significant strategic and economic value—led by the sultan himself, may probably have had such symbolic importance as it was the location of the former Majapahit capital.[10]: 43 Central Javanese palaces have traditions and genealogy that attempt to prove links back to the Majapahit royal lines—usually in the form of a grave as a vital link in Java – where legitimacy is enhanced by such a connection.[citation needed] Bali, in particular, was heavily influenced by Majapahit and the Balinese consider themselves to be the true heirs of the kingdom.[92]
Modern Indonesian nationalists, including those of the early 20th-century Indonesian National Revival, have invoked the Majapahit Empire.[8] Indonesian founding fathers—especially Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin, built a historical construct around Majapahit to argue for the ancient unified realm, as a predecessor of modern Indonesia.[187] The memory of its greatness remains in Indonesia and is sometimes seen as a precedent for the current political boundaries of the Republic.[10]: 19 Many of modern Indonesian national symbols derived from Majapahit Hindu-Buddhist elements. The Indonesian national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", is a quotation from an Old Javanese poem "Kakawin Sutasoma", written by a Majapahit poet, Mpu Tantular.[188]
The Indonesian coat of arms, Garuda Pancasila, also derives from Javanese Hindu elements. The statue and relief of Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as Prambanan from the ancient Mataram era, and the Panataran as well as the Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the king Airlangga depicted as Vishnu riding Garuda.
In its propaganda from the 1920s, the Communist Party of Indonesia presented its vision of a classless society as a reincarnation of a romanticised Majapahit.[10]: 174 It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the New Order as an expression of state expansion and consolidation.[189] Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast territory and is politically centred on Java.
Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom Indonesia, an Indonesian telecommunication company, was named after Sumpah Palapa, the famous oath taken by Gajah Mada, who swore that he would not taste any spice as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient oath of unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of telecommunication. The name was chosen by the president Suharto, and the program was started in February 1975.
Pura Kawitan Majapahit was built in 1995 as a homage to honour the empire that inspires the nation. Majapahit is often regarded as the antecedent of the modern state of Indonesia. This Hindu temple complex is located within Trowulan just north of Segaran pool.[190]
During the last half-year of 2008, the Indonesian government sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is believed to be the place where the palace of Majapahit once stood. Jero Wacik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture and Tourism stated that the Majapahit Park would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, to prevent further damage caused by home-made brick industries that developed in the surrounding area.[191] Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians, since constructing the park's foundation in Segaran site located in south side of Trowulan Museum will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which are historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government then argued that the method they were applying were less destructive since digging method were used instead of drilling.[192]
The rulers of Majapahit was the dynastic continuity of the Singhasari kings, which started by Sri Ranggah Rajasa, the founder of Rajasa dynasty in the late 13th century.
Celebrated as 'the golden era of the archipelago', the Majapahit empire has inspired many writers and artists (and continues to do so) to create their works based on this era or to describe and mention it. The impact of the Majapahit theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:
Setelah Betara Majapahit mendengar bunyi surat bendahari Singapura itu, maka baginda pun segera menyuruhkan berlengkap tiga ratus jong, lain daripada banting dan jongkong, kelulos, tiada berbilang lagi; dua keti rakyat Jawa yang pergi itu.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Cortesão, Armando (1944). The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires : an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515; and, the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume I. London: The Hakluyt Society. ISBN 9784000085052. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.费信《星栏胜览》称爪哇"古名阁婆,地广人稠,实甲兵器械,乃为东洋诸蓄之冲要"。[16]严从简《殊域周咨录》则谓"其国地广人稠,甲兵火统为东洋诸善之雄"。[17]明末张堂《东西洋考》亦说下港(爪哇)"甲兵为诸番之雄"。[18]
25 爪哇國（自占城起程，順風二十晝夜可至其國）26 古名闍婆，地廣人稠，實甲兵器械，乃為東洋諸番之衝要。舊傳鬼子魔天，正於此地，與一罔象青面紅身赤髮相合。凡生子百餘，常食啖人血肉。佛書所云鬼國，其中只此地也。人被啖幾盡，忽一曰雷震石裂，中坐一人，眾稱異之，遂為國主，即領兵驅逐罔象，而不為害。後複生齒而安業，乃至今國之移文，後書一千三百七十六年。考之肇啟漢初，傳至我宣德七年。
《海国广记·爪哇制度》有文字,知星历。其国地广人稠,甲兵火铳为东洋诸番之雄。其俗尚气好斗,生子一岁,便以匕首佩之。刀极精巧,名日扒刺头,以金银象牙雕琢人鬼为靶。男子无老幼贫富皆佩,若有争置,即拔刀相刺,盖杀人当时拿获者抵死,逃三日而出,则不抵死矣。
其國地廣人稠，甲兵火銃，為東洋諸番之雄。其俗尚氣好鬥。
《海國廣記》記載,爪哇「甲兵火銃為東洋諸蕃之冠」。
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Cortesão, Armando (1944). The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires : an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515; and, the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume II. London: The Hakluyt Society.
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