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Испаноязычные и латиноамериканцы

Шаблон:Испаноязычные, ибероамериканцы и латиноамериканцы

Испаноязычные, ибероамериканские американцы и латиноамериканцы ( исп . Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos ; португальский Estadunidenses hispânicos e latinos ) — американцы полного или частичного испанского и/или латиноамериканского происхождения, культуры или происхождения. [3] [4] [5] [6] Эти демографические данные включают всех американцев, которые идентифицируют себя как испаноязычные или латиноамериканцы , независимо от расы. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] По оценкам Бюро переписи населения, по состоянию на 2020 год в Соединенных Штатах и ​​на их территориях проживало почти 65,3 миллиона испаноязычных и латиноамериканцев .

«Происхождение» можно рассматривать как происхождение, национальную группу, родословную или страну рождения человека или его родителей или предков до прибытия в Соединенные Штаты Америки. Люди, которые идентифицируют себя как испаноязычные или латиноамериканцы, могут быть любой расы, потому что, подобно тому, что происходило во время колонизации и после обретения независимости Соединенными Штатами, население стран Латинской Америки состояло из потомков белых европейских колонизаторов ( в данном случае португальцев и испанцев), коренных народов Америки , потомков африканских рабов , иммигрантов после обретения независимости из Европы , Ближнего Востока и Восточной Азии , а также потомков многорасовых союзов между этими различными этническими группами. [13] [14] [15] [16] Как одна из двух специально обозначенных категорий этнической принадлежности в Соединенных Штатах , испаноязычные и латиноамериканцы образуют панэтничность, включающую разнообразие взаимосвязанных культурных и языковых наследий, причем использование испанского и португальского языков является наиболее важным из всех. Большинство испаноязычных и латиноамериканцев имеют мексиканское , пуэрториканское , кубинское , сальвадорское , доминиканское , колумбийское , гватемальское , гондурасское , эквадорское , перуанское , венесуэльское или никарагуанское происхождение. Преобладающее происхождение регионального испаноязычного и латиноамериканского населения широко варьируется в разных местах по всей стране. [14] [17] [18] [19] [20] В 2012 году испаноязычные американцы были второй самой быстрорастущей этнической группой по процентному росту в Соединенных Штатах после азиатских американцев . [21]

Многорасовые латиноамериканцы ( метисы ) коренного и испанского происхождения являются второй старейшей этнической группой (после коренных американцев ), населяющей большую часть того, что сегодня является Соединенными Штатами. [22] [23] [24] [25] Испания колонизировала большие территории того, что сегодня является американским Юго-Западом и Западным побережьем , а также Флоридой. Ее владения включали современные Калифорнию, Техас, Нью-Мексико, Неваду, Юту, Аризону и Флориду, все из которых составляли часть вице-королевства Новая Испания , базирующегося в Мехико . Позже эта обширная территория стала частью Мексики после обретения ею независимости от Испании в 1821 году и до конца американо-мексиканской войны в 1848 году. Испаноязычные иммигранты в столичном районе Нью-Йорка / Нью-Джерси происходят из широкого спектра испаноязычных стран. [26]

Терминология

Испанский Гарлемский оркестр в Манхэттене . В Нью-Йорке проживает около 3 миллионов латиноамериканцев, это самая большая испаноязычная популяция среди городов за пределами Латинской Америки и Испании . Испаноязычные и латиноамериканские иммигранты в Нью-Йорке происходят из широкого спектра стран Латинской Америки.

Термины « испаноязычный » и « латиноамериканец » относятся к этнической принадлежности . Термин «испаноязычный» впервые стал широко использоваться для обозначения лиц, имеющих происхождение из испаноязычных стран, после того, как Управление по управлению и бюджету создало классификацию в 1977 году по предложению подкомитета, состоящего из трех государственных служащих, кубинца, мексиканца и пуэрториканца. [27] Бюро переписи населения США определяет принадлежность к испаноязычному населению как принадлежность к этнической группе, а не к определенной расе , и, таким образом, люди, являющиеся членами этой группы, могут также быть представителями любой расы. [14] [28] [29] В общенациональном опросе 2015 года среди самоидентифицирующих себя испаноязычных 56% заявили, что принадлежность к испаноязычному населению является частью как их расового, так и этнического происхождения, в то время как меньшее число считало это частью только своего этнического происхождения (19%) или только расового происхождения (11%). [28] Испаноязычные могут иметь любое языковое происхождение; В опросе 2015 года 71% американских испаноговорящих согласились, что «человеку не обязательно говорить по-испански, чтобы считаться испаноговорящим/латиноамериканцем». [30] Испаноговорящие и латиноамериканцы могут иметь некоторые общие черты в языке, культуре, истории и наследии. По данным Смитсоновского института , термин «латиноамериканец» включает в себя людей с португальскими корнями, таких как бразильцы , а также людей испаноязычного происхождения. [31] [32] Разница между терминами испаноговорящий и латиноамериканец неоднозначна для некоторых людей. [33] Бюро переписи населения США приравнивает эти два термина и определяет их как относящихся к любому человеку из Испании или испаноговорящих или португалоговорящих стран Америки. После завершения мексикано-американской войны в 1848 году термин испаноговорящий или испанский американец в основном использовался для описания испаноговорящих жителей Нью-Мексико на американском Юго-Западе . Перепись населения США 1970 года спорно расширила определение до «лица мексиканской, пуэрториканской, кубинской, доминиканской, южно- или центральноамериканской или другой испанской культуры или происхождения, независимо от расы». Теперь это общепринятое формальное и разговорное определение термина в Соединенных Штатах, за исключением Нью-Мексико. [34] [35] Это определение соответствует использованию в 21 веке Бюро переписи населения США и Административно-бюджетного управления , поскольку оба агентства используют оба термина Hispanic и Latino взаимозаменяемо.Исследовательский центр Пью полагает, что термин «испаноязычный» строго ограниченИспания , Пуэрто-Рико и все страны, где испанский язык является единственным официальным языком, тогда как «латиноамериканцы» включают все страны Латинской Америки (даже Бразилию, несмотря на то, что португальский язык является ее единственным официальным языком), но не включают Испанию и Португалию. [3]

Витрины магазинов на Лексингтон-авеню и 116-й улице в Восточном Гарлеме , Манхэттен , также известном как Испанский Гарлем или «Эль-Баррио»

Термины Latino и Latina являются заимствованными словами из Италии и в конечном итоге происходят из Древнего Рима . В английском языке термин Latino является сжатой формой "latinoamericano" , испанского термина для латиноамериканца или человека, приехавшего из Латинской Америки. Термин Latino разработал ряд определений. Это определение, как "мужчина латиноамериканского происхождения, проживающий в Соединенных Штатах", [36] является старейшим определением, которое используется в Соединенных Штатах, оно было впервые использовано в 1946 году. [36] Согласно этому определению, мексиканский американец или пуэрториканец , например, является как испаноговорящим, так и латиноамериканцем. Бразильский американец также является латиноамериканцем по этому определению, которое включает в себя тех, кто имеет португалоязычное происхождение из Латинской Америки. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] В английском языке италоамериканцы не считаются «латиноамериканцами», поскольку они в большинстве своем являются потомками иммигрантов из Европы, а не из Латинской Америки, если только у них не было недавней истории проживания в латиноамериканских странах.

Предпочтение использования терминов среди испаноговорящих в Соединенных Штатах часто зависит от того, где проживают пользователи соответствующих терминов. Те, кто находится в восточной части Соединенных Штатов, как правило, предпочитают термин Hispanic , тогда как те, кто находится на Западе, как правило, предпочитают Latino . [13]

Этническое обозначение в США Latino произошло от более длинной формы latinoamericano . [43] Элемент latino- на самом деле является несклоняемой составной формой на -o (т. е. elemento compositivo ), которая используется для создания сложных образований (похоже на franc o- в franc o canadiense «франко-канадский» или ibero- в iberorrománico [44] и т. д.).

Церковь Богоматери Гваделупской в ​​районе Маленькая Испания на 14-й улице в Манхэттене , на протяжении многих десятилетий являющаяся важным ядром испанской общины Нью-Йорка [45]

Термин Latinx (и похожий неологизм Xicanx ) получил некоторое распространение. [46] [47] Принятие X будет «[р]еализировать новое сознание, вдохновленное более поздними работами ЛГБТКИ и феминистских движений, некоторые испаноязычные активисты все чаще используют еще более инклюзивный «x» вместо «a» и «o», что полностью разрывает гендерную бинарность . [48] Среди сторонников термина LatinX одной из наиболее часто упоминаемых жалоб на гендерную предвзятость в испанском языке является то, что группа смешанного или неизвестного пола будет называться Latinos , тогда как Latinas относится только к группе женщин (но это немедленно меняется на Latinos , если хотя бы один мужчина присоединяется к этой женской группе). [49] Опрос Pew Research Center 2020 года показал, что около 3% латиноамериканцев используют этот термин (в основном женщины), и только около 23% даже слышали о нем. Из них 65% заявили, что его не следует использовать для описания их этнической группы. [50]

Некоторые отмечают, что термин «испаноязычный» относится к общеэтнической идентичности, которая охватывает ряд рас, национальных происхождений и языковых традиций. «Термины типа «испаноязычный» и «латиноамериканец» не полностью отражают то, как мы видим себя», — говорит Джеральдо Кадава, доцент кафедры истории и испаноязычных исследований Северо-Западного университета . [51]

По данным Американского опроса населения 2017 года , небольшое меньшинство иммигрантов из Бразилии (2%), Португалии (2%) и Филиппин (1%) идентифицировали себя как латиноамериканцев. [11]

История

16-й и 17-й века

Кастильо-де-Сан-Маркос в Сент-Огастине, Флорида . Построенный в 1672 году испанцами, он является старейшим каменным фортом в Соединенных Штатах.

Испанские исследователи были пионерами на территории современных Соединенных Штатов. Первая подтвержденная высадка европейцев на континентальной части Соединенных Штатов была сделана Хуаном Понсе де Леоном , который высадился в 1513 году на пышном берегу, который он окрестил Ла Флорида . В течение следующих трех десятилетий испанцы стали первыми европейцами, достигшими Аппалачских гор , реки Миссисипи , Большого каньона и Великих равнин . Испанские корабли плыли вдоль Атлантического побережья , проникая в современный Бангор, штат Мэн , и вверх по Тихоокеанскому побережью до Орегона . С 1528 по 1536 год Альвар Нуньес Кабеса де Вака и три товарища (включая африканца по имени Эстеванико ) из испанской экспедиции, которая потерпела крушение, отправились из Флориды в Калифорнийский залив . В 1540 году Эрнандо де Сото предпринял обширное исследование современных Соединенных Штатов.

Часовня Сан-Мигель , построенная в 1610 году в Санта-Фе, штат Нью-Мексико , является старейшим церковным сооружением в Соединенных Штатах.

Также в 1540 году Франсиско Васкес де Коронадо повел 2000 испанцев и мексиканских туземцев через сегодняшнюю границу Аризоны и Мексики и дошел до центрального Канзаса , недалеко от точного географического центра того, что сейчас является континентальной частью Соединенных Штатов. Среди других испанских исследователей территории США: Алонсо Альварес де Пинеда , Лукас Васкес де Айльон , Панфило де Нарваес , Себастьян Вискайно , Гаспар де Портола , Педро Менендес де Авилес , Альвар Нуньес Кабеса де Вака , Тристан де Луна и Арельяно , и Хуан де Оньяте , а также неиспанские исследователи, работающие на испанскую корону, такие как Хуан Родригес Кабрильо . В 1565 году испанцы создали первое постоянное европейское поселение на континентальной части Соединенных Штатов, в Сент-Огастине, Флорида . Испанские миссионеры и колонисты основали поселения, в том числе в современных Санта-Фе, Нью-Мексико , Эль-Пасо , Сан-Антонио , Тусоне , Альбукерке , Сан-Диего , Лос-Анджелес и Сан-Франциско . [52]

Испанские поселения в Америке были частью более широкой сети торговых путей, которые соединяли Европу, Африку и Америку. Испанцы установили торговые связи с коренными народами, обмениваясь такими товарами, как меха , шкуры , сельскохозяйственная продукция и промышленные товары. Эти торговые сети способствовали экономическому развитию испанских колоний и способствовали культурному обмену между различными группами.

18-й и 19-й века

Картина Бернардо де Гальвеса при осаде Пенсаколы работы Аугусто Феррера-Далмау

Еще в 1783 году, в конце Американской войны за независимость (конфликта, в котором Испания помогала и сражалась вместе с повстанцами), Испания претендовала примерно на половину территории сегодняшних континентальных Соединенных Штатов. С 1819 по 1848 год Соединенные Штаты увеличили свою площадь примерно на треть за счет Испании и Мексики, приобретя современные американские штаты Калифорния , Техас , Невада , Юта , большую часть Колорадо , Нью-Мексико и Аризона , а также части Оклахомы , Канзаса и Вайоминга по Договору Гваделупе-Идальго после Мексикано-американской войны [53] , а также Флориду по договору Адамса-Ониса [54] и территорию США Пуэрто -Рико по испано-американской войне в 1898 году [55]. Многие латиноамериканцы, проживавшие в этих регионах в тот период, получили гражданство США. Тем не менее, многие давние латиноамериканские жители столкнулись со значительными трудностями после получения гражданства. С прибытием англо-американцев в эти недавно присоединенные районы, латиноамериканские жители боролись за сохранение своих земельных владений, политического влияния и культурных традиций. [56] [57]

Открытие золота в Калифорнии в 1848 году привлекло людей из разных слоев общества, включая испаноязычных и латиноамериканских шахтеров, торговцев и поселенцев. Золотая лихорадка привела к росту населения и быстрому экономическому росту в Калифорнии, изменив социальный и политический ландшафт региона.

Многие испаноговорящие коренные жители жили в районах, которые приобрели Соединенные Штаты, и новая волна мексиканских, центральноамериканских, карибских и южноамериканских иммигрантов переехала в Соединенные Штаты в поисках новых возможностей. Это было начало демографической группы, которая резко выросла за эти годы. [58]

20-й и 21-й века

Долорес Уэрта в 2009 году. Уэрта получила множество наград за свою общественную работу и защиту прав трудящихся и женщин. Она была первой испаноговорящей женщиной, включенной в Национальный женский зал славы в 1993 году. [59] [60]

В течение 20-го и 21-го веков иммиграция испаноговорящих в Соединенные Штаты заметно возросла после изменений в иммиграционном законодательстве в 1965 году. [61] Во время мировых войн испаноговорящие американцы и иммигранты помогли стабилизировать американскую экономику от падения из-за промышленного бума на Среднем Западе в таких штатах, как Мичиган, Огайо, Индиана, Иллинойс, Айова, Висконсин и Миннесота. В то время как процент американцев покинул свои рабочие места ради войны, испаноговорящие заняли свои рабочие места в индустриальном мире. Это может объяснить, почему существует такая высокая концентрация испаноговорящих американцев в таких городских районах, как Чикаго-Элджин-Нейпервилл, Детройт-Уоррен-Дирборн и Кливленд-Элирия. [58]

Испаноязычные и латиноамериканские американцы активно участвовали в более широком движении за гражданские права 20-го века, выступая за равные права, социальную справедливость и прекращение дискриминации и сегрегации. Такие организации, как Лига объединенных латиноамериканских граждан (LULAC) и Объединенные сельскохозяйственные рабочие (UFW) боролись за права испаноязычных и латиноамериканских рабочих и общин.

Вклад испаноязычных в историческое прошлое и настоящее Соединенных Штатов рассматривается более подробно ниже (см. Известные личности и их вклад). Чтобы признать текущий и исторический вклад испаноязычных американцев, 17 сентября 1968 года президент Линдон Б. Джонсон назначил неделю в середине сентября Национальной неделей испаноязычного наследия с разрешения Конгресса. В 1988 году президент Рональд Рейган продлил празднование до месяца, назвав его Национальным месяцем испаноязычного наследия . [62] [63] Испаноязычные американцы стали крупнейшей группой меньшинства в 2004 году. [64]

Испаноязычные и латиноамериканские американцы все больше стремились к политическому представительству и расширению прав и возможностей в течение 20-го века. Избрание таких людей, как Эдвард Ройбал , Генри Б. Гонсалес и Деннис Чавес в Конгресс ознаменовало важные вехи в политическом представительстве испаноязычных. Кроме того, назначение таких людей, как Лауро Кавасос и Билл Ричардсон на должности в кабинете министров, подчеркнуло растущее влияние испаноязычных и латиноамериканских лидеров в правительстве.

Испаноязычные и латиноамериканские американцы стали крупнейшей группой меньшинств в Соединенных Штатах, внося значительный вклад в рост населения страны. Усилия по сохранению и продвижению испаноязычной и латиноамериканской культуры и наследия продолжались в 21 веке, включая инициативы по поддержке двуязычного образования, празднованию культурных традиций и фестивалей и признанию вклада испаноязычных и латиноамериканских людей и сообществ в американское общество.

Демография

Пирамида населения испаноязычных американцев в 2020 году
Доля американцев латиноамериканского происхождения в каждом штате США, округе Колумбия и Пуэрто-Рико по данным переписи населения США 2020 года

По состоянию на 2020 год латиноамериканцы составляли 19–20% населения США, или 62–65 миллионов человек. [65] Бюро переписи населения США позже подсчитало, что латиноамериканцы были недоучеты на 5,0% или на 3,3 миллиона человек в переписи населения США, что объясняет диапазон в 3 миллиона в приведенном выше числе. Напротив, белые были переучеты примерно на 3 миллиона. [66] Темпы роста латиноамериканцев за период с 1 апреля 2000 года по 1 июля 2007 года составили 28,7%, что примерно в четыре раза превышает темпы общего прироста населения страны (7,2%). [67] Темпы роста только с 1 июля 2005 года по 1 июля 2006 года составили 3,4% [68] — примерно в три с половиной раза превышает темпы общего прироста населения страны (1,0%). [67] Согласно переписи 2010 года, латиноамериканцы в настоящее время являются крупнейшей группой меньшинства в 191 из 366 мегаполисов в Соединенных Штатах. [69] Прогнозируемая численность латиноамериканского населения Соединенных Штатов на 1 июля 2050 года составляет 132,8 миллиона человек, или 30,2% от общей прогнозируемой численности населения страны на эту дату. [70]

Географическое распределение

Доля испаноязычных американцев в каждом округе из пятидесяти штатов , округе Колумбия и Пуэрто-Рико по данным переписи населения США 2020 года

Статистические данные по столичным районам США с численностью населения более 1 миллиона латиноамериканцев (2014) [71]

Штаты и территории с самой высокой долей латиноамериканцев (2021) [72]

Из общей численности испаноязычного населения страны 49% (21,5 миллиона) проживают в Калифорнии или Техасе . [73] В 2022 году Нью-Йорк и Вашингтон, округ Колумбия, начали принимать значительное количество латиноамериканских мигрантов из штата Техас, в основном из Венесуэлы , Эквадора , Колумбии и Гондураса . [74]

Более половины испаноязычного населения сосредоточено в юго-западном регионе, в основном состоящем из мексиканских американцев. В Калифорнии и Техасе проживает одно из самых больших популяций мексиканцев и выходцев из Центральной Америки в Соединенных Штатах. В северо-восточном регионе преобладают доминиканцы и пуэрториканцы , имея самую высокую концентрацию и тех, и других в стране. В регионе Средней Атлантики, сосредоточенном в районе метрополитена округа Колумбия , сальвадорские американцы являются самой большой из испаноязычных групп. Во Флориде преобладают кубинские американцы и пуэрториканцы. В штатах Великих озер и Южной Атлантики преобладают мексиканцы и пуэрториканцы. Мексиканцы преобладают в остальной части страны, включая Запад , Южный Центральный и Великие равнины .

Национальное происхождение

Средний уровень международных латиноамериканских танцев на конкурсе бальных танцев Массачусетского технологического института 2006 года . Судья стоит на переднем плане.

По состоянию на 2022 год примерно 60,1% испаноязычного населения страны имели мексиканское происхождение (см. таблицу). Еще 9,6% имели пуэрториканское происхождение, около 3,9% имели кубинское и сальвадорское происхождение и около 3,7% имели доминиканское происхождение. [75] Остальные имели другое центральноамериканское или южноамериканское происхождение, или были выходцами непосредственно из Испании. В 2017 году две трети всех испаноязычных американцев родились в Соединенных Штатах. [77]

Иммигрантов напрямую из Испании немного, поскольку испанцы исторически эмигрировали в испаноязычную Америку, а не в англоязычные страны. Из-за этого большинство испаноговорящих, которые идентифицируют себя как испанцы или испанцы, также идентифицируют себя с испаноамериканским национальным происхождением. По оценкам переписи 2017 года, около 1,76 миллиона американцев указали некоторую форму « испанского » происхождения в качестве своего происхождения, будь то напрямую из Испании или нет. [75]

В северной части Нью-Мексико и южной части Колорадо проживает большая часть латиноамериканцев, которые ведут свою родословную от поселенцев из Новой Испании (Мексика), а иногда и самой Испании , в конце 16-го века по 17-й век. Люди с таким происхождением часто идентифицируют себя как «испано», «испанцы» или «латиноамериканцы». Многие из этих поселенцев также вступали в браки с местными коренными американцами, создавая метисное население. [78] Аналогичным образом, южная Луизиана является домом для общин людей с Канарских островов , известных как исленьос , в дополнение к другим людям испанского происхождения. Калифорнийцы , нуэвомексиканцы и теханос — американцы испанского и/или мексиканского происхождения с подгруппами, которые иногда называют себя чиканос . Нуэвомексиканцы и теханос — это отдельные юго-западные испаноязычные культуры со своими собственными кухнями, диалектами и музыкальными традициями.

Нуйориканцы — американцы пуэрториканского происхождения из района Нью-Йорка . В США проживает около двух миллионов нуйориканцев. Среди известных нуйориканцев — конгрессмен Александрия Окасио-Кортес , судья Верховного суда США Соня Сотомайор и певица Дженнифер Лопес .

Раса и этническая принадлежность

По часовой стрелке сверху слева:
Ева Лонгория , Розарио Доусон , Даниэлла Алонсо , Майкл Пенья

Латиноамериканцы происходят из многорасовых и многоэтнических стран с разнообразным происхождением; поэтому латиноамериканец может быть из любой расы или смеси рас. Наиболее распространенные предки: коренные американцы, европейцы и африканцы. Многие также имеют колониальное происхождение от новых христиан- сефардов-евреев. [79] В результате своего расового разнообразия латиноамериканцы образуют этническую группу, разделяющую язык ( испанский ) и культурное наследие, а не расу .

Испаноязычное происхождение не зависит от расы и в Бюро переписи населения США называется «этнической принадлежностью» .

В переписи населения США 2020 года 20,3% латиноамериканцев выбрали «белую» расу. Это стало большим падением по сравнению с переписью населения США 2010 года , в которой 53,0% латиноамериканцев идентифицировали себя как «белых». [80] Эти латиноамериканцы составляют 12 579 626 человек или 3,8% населения.

Более 42% испаноязычных американцев идентифицируют себя как « представителей другой расы ». [81] Из всех американцев, отметивших галочкой пункт «Другая раса», 97% были испаноязычными. [82] Эти испаноязычные составляют 26 225 882 человека или 42,2% испаноязычного населения.

Более половины респондентов « двух или более рас » были латиноамериканцами. [83] Эти латиноамериканцы составляют 20 299 960 человек или 32,7% испаноязычного населения.

Наибольшее число чернокожих латиноамериканцев проживает на испанских островах Карибского моря, включая кубинскую, доминиканскую , панамскую и пуэрториканскую общины.

В Пуэрто-Рико люди имеют некоторое коренное американское происхождение, а также европейское и канарское происхождение. Также есть население преимущественно африканского происхождения, а также население коренного американского происхождения и люди со смешанным происхождением. Кубинцы в основном имеют иберийское и канарское происхождение, с некоторым наследием от коренных карибских народов. Также есть население чернокожего происхождения к югу от Сахары и многорасовые люди. [84] [85] [86] Раса и культура каждой испаноязычной страны и их диаспоры в Соединенных Штатах отличаются историей и географией.

Уэлч и Сигельман обнаружили, что по состоянию на 2000 год взаимодействие между латиноамериканцами разных национальностей (например, между кубинцами и мексиканцами) было ниже, чем между латиноамериканцами и нелатиноамериканцами. [87] Это напоминание о том, что, хотя к ним часто относятся как к таковым, латиноамериканцы в Соединенных Штатах не являются монолитом и часто рассматривают свою собственную этническую или национальную идентичность как сильно отличающуюся от идентичности других латиноамериканцев. [87]

Генетика

Исследование аутомозной ДНК, опубликованное в 2019 году, сосредоточенное конкретно на происхождении коренных американцев в различных этнических/расовых группах в США, показало, что самоидентифицированные испаноязычные американцы имели более высокое среднее количество индейского происхождения по сравнению с чернокожими и неиспаноязычными белыми американцами. В среднем испаноязычные американцы оказались чуть более чем наполовину европейцами, около 38% коренными американцами и менее 10% африканцами. [93] [94] Однако эти результаты, являющиеся средним показателем для всего испаноязычного населения, резко различаются между отдельными лицами и между регионами. Испаноязычные участники из регионов Западного побережья и Западного юга центрального региона, где испаноязычное население преимущественно мексикано-американского происхождения , [95] имели в среднем 43% индейского происхождения. [94] С другой стороны, участники из Среднеатлантического региона, где испаноязычное население преимущественно имеет пуэрториканское или доминиканское происхождение, [96] в среднем имели только 11% индейского происхождения. [94]

Возраст

По состоянию на 2014 год треть, или 17,9 млн, испаноязычного населения были моложе 18 лет, а четверть, 14,6 млн, были миллениалами . Это делает их более чем половиной испаноязычного населения в Соединенных Штатах. [97]

Образование

Испаноязычное образование K–12

Здание театра «Уэстлейк» , фреска на боковой стене с изображением Хайме Эскаланте и Эдварда Джеймса Олмоса

С ростом испаноязычного населения в Соединенных Штатах, испаноязычные оказали значительное влияние на систему K–12. В 2011–12 годах испаноязычные составляли 24% всех учащихся в Соединенных Штатах, включая 52% и 51% учащихся в Калифорнии и Техасе соответственно. [98] Дальнейшие исследования показывают, что испаноязычное население будет продолжать расти в Соединенных Штатах, подразумевая, что больше испаноязычных будут заполнять школы США.

Лауро Кавасос , министр образования США с августа 1988 года по декабрь 1990 года

Состояние испаноязычного образования подает некоторые надежды. Во-первых, испаноязычные ученики, посещающие дошкольные учреждения или детский сад, с большей вероятностью посещали программы полного дня. [98] Во-вторых, испаноязычные в начальном образовании были второй по величине группой, представленной в программах для одаренных и талантливых. [98] В-третьих, средние баллы испаноязычных по математике и чтению NAEP постоянно росли в течение последних 10 лет. [98] Наконец, испаноязычные с большей вероятностью, чем другие группы, включая белых, поступали в колледж. [98]

Однако их академические достижения в раннем детстве, начальном и среднем образовании отстают от других групп. [98] Например, их средние баллы NAEP по математике и чтению были ниже, чем у любой другой группы, за исключением афроамериканцев, и у них самый высокий процент отсева среди всех групп, 13%, несмотря на снижение с 24%. [98]

Чтобы объяснить эти различия, некоторые ученые предположили, что существует «кризис образования» среди испаноязычных из-за провальной школьной и социальной политики. [99] С этой целью ученые также предложили несколько потенциальных причин, включая языковые барьеры, бедность и статус иммигранта/коренного жителя, в результате чего испаноязычные не преуспевают в учебе. [100] [101]

Изучающие английский язык

Испаноговорящие в США по округам в 2000 г.

В настоящее время испаноязычные студенты составляют 80% изучающих английский язык в Соединенных Штатах. [102] В 2008–2009 годах 5,3 миллиона студентов были классифицированы как изучающие английский язык (ELL) в дошкольном учреждении до 12-го класса. [103] Это является результатом того, что многие студенты поступают в систему образования в разном возрасте, хотя большинство ELL не являются иностранцами. [103] Для того чтобы обеспечить обучение английскому языку для испаноязычных студентов, было создано множество программ английского языка. Школы предъявляют требования, когда дело касается беглости английского языка. Существуют требования к тестированию для сертификации студентов, которые не являются носителями английского языка, например, по письму, говорению, чтению и аудированию. Они сдают тест ELPAC, который оценивает их эффективность английского языка. Эта оценка определяет, считаются ли они студентами ELL или нет. Для испаноязычных студентов быть студентом ELL будет иметь большое влияние, потому что это дополнительное давление, чтобы сдать дополнительный экзамен помимо их собственных основных занятий. Более того, если экзамен не сдан до поступления в старшую школу, ученик отстанет по предметам из-за дополнительных курсов ELD вместо посещения обычных занятий в этом году. [104] Однако подавляющее большинство этих программ — это программы погружения в английский язык, что, как утверждается, подрывает культуру и знание учениками своего родного языка. [101] Таким образом, в школах продолжаются жаркие дебаты о том, какая программа может устранить эти языковые различия.

Иммиграционный статус

Более пяти миллионов учащихся ELL со всего мира посещают государственные школы в Соединенных Штатах и ​​говорят по крайней мере на 460 различных языках . [104] Нелегальные иммигранты не всегда имели доступ к обязательному образованию в Соединенных Штатах. Однако после знаменательного дела Верховного суда Plyler v. Doe в 1982 году иммигранты получили доступ к образованию от K до 12. Это существенно повлияло на все группы иммигрантов, включая латиноамериканцев. Однако их академические достижения зависят от нескольких факторов, включая, помимо прочего, время прибытия и обучение в стране происхождения. [105] Когда неносители языка приезжают в Соединенные Штаты, ученик не только попадает в новую страну, язык или культуру, но и попадает в культуру тестирования, которая определяет все, от их размещения до перехода на следующий уровень образования. [104] Более того, иммиграционный/уроженец латиноамериканцев играет важную роль в отношении их академических достижений. Например, латиноамериканцы первого и второго поколения превосходят своих коллег более поздних поколений. [106] Кроме того, их стремления, по-видимому, также снижаются. [107] Это имеет серьезные последствия для их будущего после окончания школы.

Синхронное двуязычие

Существует термин «одновременные билингвы», он появился в результате исследования Гваделупе Вальдес [108]. Она утверждает, что его используют люди, которые усваивают два языка в качестве «первого» языка; большинство американских ситуативных билингвов сначала усваивают свой этнический или иммигрантский язык, а затем усваивают английский. Период усвоения второго языка известен как начальное двуязычие.

Высшее образование для латиноамериканцев

В 2007 году Техасский университет в Эль-Пасо был признан лучшим вузом по подготовке инженеров для латиноамериканцев. [109]

Степень бакалавра или выше имеют 50% венесуэльцев по сравнению с 18% эквадорцев в возрасте 25 лет и старше. Среди крупнейших испаноязычных групп степень бакалавра или выше имеют 25% кубинцев, 16% пуэрториканцев, 15% доминиканцев и 11% мексиканцев. Более 21% всех доминиканских американцев второго поколения имеют высшее образование, что немного ниже среднего показателя по стране (28%), но значительно выше, чем у мексиканских американцев, родившихся в США (13%) и пуэрториканских американцев, родившихся в США (12%). [110]

Латиноамериканцы составляют вторую или третью по величине этническую группу в университетах Лиги плюща , которые считаются самыми престижными в Соединенных Штатах. Число студентов-латиноамериканцев в университетах Лиги плюща постепенно увеличивалось с годами. Сегодня латиноамериканцы составляют от 8% студентов Йельского университета до 15% в Колумбийском университете . [111] Например, 18% студентов Гарвардского университета 2018 года являются латиноамериканцами. [112]

Латиноамериканцы имеют значительную численность студентов во многих других ведущих университетах, таких как Техасский университет в Эль-Пасо (70% студентов), Международный университет Флориды (63%), Университет Майами (27%) и Массачусетский технологический институт , Калифорнийский университет в Лос- Анджелесе и Калифорнийский университет в Беркли по 15% в каждом. В Стэнфордском университете латиноамериканцы являются третьей по величине этнической группой после неиспаноязычных белых людей и азиатов, составляя 18% от общего числа студентов. [113]

Число студентов испаноязычных вузов

В то время как латиноамериканцы учатся в колледжах и университетах по всей стране, некоторые предпочитают посещать федерально назначенные испаноязычные учреждения , учреждения, которые аккредитованы, выдают степени, государственные или частные некоммерческие учреждения высшего образования с 25 процентами или более от общего числа студентов бакалавриата, обучающихся на полной ставке (FTE) для испаноязычных студентов. Существует более 270 учреждений высшего образования, которые были назначены как HSI. [115]

Здоровье

Долголетие

Пассажиры в международном аэропорту Хартсфилд-Джексон Атланта в масках 6 марта 2020 года, в то время как коронавирус COVID-19 распространяется по всем Соединенным Штатам. Непропорционально большое количество случаев заболевания было отмечено среди чернокожего и испаноязычного населения. [127] [128] [129]

По состоянию на 2016 год ожидаемая продолжительность жизни испаноязычных американцев составляет 81,8 года, что выше ожидаемой продолжительности жизни белых американцев (78,6 года). [130] Исследования « испаноязычного парадокса » — общепризнанного очевидного преимущества испаноязычных американцев в плане смертности по сравнению с белыми американцами, несмотря на более благоприятный социально-экономический статус последних — в основном объясняются «(1) миграцией в США и из США по соображениям здоровья; и (2) социальными и культурными механизмами защиты, такими как поддержание здорового образа жизни и поведения, принятого в странах происхождения, а также наличием обширных социальных сетей в США». [131] Гипотеза «лососьего смещения», которая предполагает, что преимущество испаноязычных в плане здоровья объясняется более высокими показателями обратной миграции среди менее здоровых мигрантов, получила некоторую поддержку в научной литературе. [132] Исследование 2019 года, изучавшее сравнительно лучшее здоровье американских латиноамериканцев, родившихся за границей, поставило под сомнение гипотезу о том, что более сильная ориентация на семью ( фамилизм ) способствовала этому преимуществу. [133] Некоторые ученые предположили, что преимущество латиноамериканцев в смертности, вероятно, исчезнет из-за более высоких показателей ожирения и диабета среди латиноамериканцев по сравнению с белыми людьми, хотя более низкие показатели курения (и, следовательно, смертности, связанной с курением ) среди латиноамериканцев могут в некоторой степени противодействовать этому. [131]

Здравоохранение

По состоянию на 2017 год около 19% испаноязычных американцев не имеют медицинской страховки , что является самым высоким показателем среди всех этнических групп, за исключением коренных американцев и коренных жителей Аляски. [134] С точки зрения расширения медицинской страховки, испаноязычные получили наибольшую выгоду среди этнических групп США от Закона о доступном медицинском обслуживании (ACA); среди не пожилых испаноязычных уровень незастрахованности снизился с 26,7% в 2013 году до 14,2% в 2017 году. [134] Среди не пожилых испаноязычных незастрахованных в 2017 году около 53% были негражданами, около 39% были гражданами США, родившимися в США, и около 9% были натурализованными гражданами. [134] (ACA не помогает нелегальным иммигрантам или легальным иммигрантам, проживающим в Соединенных Штатах менее пяти лет, получить страховку). [134]

Согласно исследованию 2013 года, мексиканские женщины имеют самый высокий уровень незастрахованности (54,6%) по сравнению с другими иммигрантами (26,2%), черными (22,5%) и белыми (13,9%). [135] Согласно исследованию, мексиканские женщины являются самой большой группой женщин-иммигрантов в Соединенных Штатах, а также наиболее подвержены риску развития предотвратимых заболеваний. [135] Множество факторов, таких как ограниченный доступ к медицинской помощи, правовой статус и доход, увеличивают риск развития предотвратимых заболеваний, поскольку многие нелегальные иммигранты откладывают плановые визиты к врачу до тех пор, пока не заболеют серьезно.

Психическое здоровье

Разделение семьи

Митинг за прекращение разлучения семей в Кливленде, штат Огайо

Некоторые семьи, которые находятся в процессе незаконного пересечения границы, могут пострадать от поимки и разлучения агентами пограничного патруля. Мигранты также подвергаются опасности разлучения, если они не приносят с собой достаточно ресурсов, таких как вода, для всех членов семьи, чтобы продолжить пересечение. После прибытия в новую страну нелегальные мигранты могут опасаться рейдов на рабочих местах, где нелегальных иммигрантов задерживают и депортируют.

Разделение семьи подвергает детей, родившихся в США, детей без документов и их родителей-нелегальных иммигрантов риску депрессии и синдрома семейной неадаптивности. Последствия часто долгосрочные, и влияние распространяется на уровень сообщества. Дети могут испытывать эмоциональные травмы и долгосрочные изменения в поведении. Кроме того, когда родителей насильно выселяют, у детей часто возникает чувство покинутости, и они могут винить себя за то, что случилось с их семьей. Некоторые дети, ставшие жертвами нелегального пересечения границы, которое приводит к разделению семьи, верят в возможность никогда больше не увидеть своих родителей. Эти последствия могут вызвать негативную привязанность между родителями и детьми. Воссоединение может быть затруднено из-за иммиграционных законов и ограничений на повторный въезд, которые еще больше влияют на психическое здоровье детей и родителей. [136] Родители, которые покидают свою родную страну, также испытывают негативные переживания в отношении психического здоровья. Согласно исследованию, опубликованному в 2013 году, 46% мексиканских мужчин-мигрантов, которые участвовали в исследовании, сообщили о повышенном уровне симптомов депрессии. [137] В последние годы продолжительность пребывания мигрантов увеличилась с 3 лет до почти десятилетия. [137] Мигранты, которые были разлучены со своими семьями, как женатые, так и одинокие, испытывали более сильную депрессию, чем женатые мужчины, сопровождаемые своими супругами. [137] Кроме того, исследование также показало, что мужчины, которые были разлучены со своими семьями, более склонны к более суровым условиям жизни, таким как переполненное жилье, и испытывают большее давление, чтобы отправлять денежные переводы для поддержки своих семей. Эти условия оказывают дополнительный стресс на мигрантов и часто усугубляют их депрессию. Семьи, которые мигрировали вместе, испытывают лучшие условия жизни, получают эмоциональную поддержку и мотивацию друг от друга и разделяют чувство солидарности. Они также с большей вероятностью успешно ориентируются в системах занятости и здравоохранения в новой стране и не испытывают давления, чтобы отправлять денежные переводы обратно домой.

Уязвимости

Ана Наварро — политический стратег и комментатор, иммигрировавшая в результате Сандинистской революции .

Закон о реформе нелегальной иммиграции и ответственности иммигрантов 1996 года существенно изменил то, как Соединенные Штаты решали проблему иммиграции. Согласно этому новому закону, иммигранты, просрочившие свои визы или оказавшиеся в Соединенных Штатах нелегально, подлежали задержанию и/или депортации без юридического представительства. Иммигрантам, нарушившим эти законы, может быть отказано в возвращении в страну. Аналогичным образом этот закон усложнил въезд в Соединенные Штаты другим иммигрантам или получение легального статуса. Эти законы также расширили типы правонарушений, которые могут считаться достойными депортации для зарегистрированных иммигрантов. [136] Политика, принятая будущими президентами, еще больше ограничивает количество иммигрантов, въезжающих в страну, и их ускоренную высылку.

Многие семьи нелегальных иммигрантов не могут наслаждаться повседневной деятельностью, не проявляя осторожности, поскольку они боятся встречи с иммиграционными офицерами, что ограничивает их участие в общественных мероприятиях. Семьи без документов также не доверяют государственным учреждениям и службам. Из-за своего страха встречи с иммиграционными офицерами нелегальные иммигранты часто чувствуют себя изгнанными и изолированными, что может привести к развитию проблем с психическим здоровьем, таких как депрессия и тревожность. [136] Пагубные последствия изгнания со стороны остального общества не ограничиваются только нелегальными иммигрантами, но и влияют на всю семью, даже если некоторые из ее членов имеют законный статус. Дети часто сообщали о том, что становились жертвами издевательств в школе со стороны одноклассников, потому что их родители не имеют документов. [138] Это может привести к тому, что они будут чувствовать себя изолированными и у них возникнет чувство неполноценности, что может негативно повлиять на их успеваемость.

Стресс

Начало Калле Очо (восьмой улицы) в районе Литл-Гавана в Майами, Флорида, США.

Несмотря на трудности, с которыми сталкиваются испаноязычные семьи, они нашли способы сохранять мотивацию. Многие иммигранты используют религию в качестве источника мотивации. Мексиканские иммигранты верили, что трудности, с которыми они сталкиваются, являются частью большего плана Бога, и верят, что их жизнь в конечном итоге станет лучше. Они сохраняли свою веру сильной и молились каждый день, надеясь, что Бог сохранит их семьи в безопасности. [138] Иммигранты участвуют в церковных службах и связываются с другими иммигрантами, которые разделяют тот же опыт. [136] Нелегальные испаноязычные также находят поддержку у друзей, семьи и сообщества, которые служат механизмами преодоления. Некоторые испаноязычные утверждают, что их дети являются причиной того, что у них есть силы продолжать идти. Они хотят, чтобы у их детей было будущее, и дают им то, чего они не могут иметь сами. [138] Сообщество может предоставить определенные ресурсы, в которых нуждаются семьи иммигрантов, такие как репетиторство для их детей, финансовая помощь и консультационные услуги. [136] Некоторые отметили, что поддержание позитивного психологического настроя помогло им справиться со стрессом, который они испытывают. Многие иммигранты отказываются жить в постоянном страхе, который приводит к депрессии, чтобы наслаждаться жизнью в Соединенных Штатах. [138] Поскольку многие иммигранты имеют нестабильные источники дохода, многие планируют заранее, чтобы предотвратить будущий финансовый стресс. Они откладывают деньги и находят способы сэкономить деньги вместо того, чтобы тратить их, например, учатся чинить бытовую технику самостоятельно. [138]

Бедность

Участок дороги Камино Реал де Тьерра Адентро , проходящий по территории США, общей протяженностью 646 километров (401 миля), был объявлен Национальным историческим маршрутом в октябре 2000 года.

Многие испаноязычные семьи мигрируют в поисках лучших экономических возможностей, чтобы отправлять денежные переводы домой. Отсутствие документов ограничивает возможности работы, которую берут на себя иммигранты, и многие испытывают трудности с поиском стабильной работы. Многие испаноязычные сообщают, что компании отказывают им, потому что у них нет номера социального страхования. Если им удается получить работу, иммигранты рискуют ее потерять, если работодатель узнает, что они не могут предоставить подтверждение проживания или гражданства. Многие обращаются в агентства, которые не требуют удостоверения личности, но такие работы часто ненадежны. Чтобы не быть задержанными и депортированными, многим приходится работать в условиях эксплуатации. В исследовании один из участников сообщил: «Если кто-то знает, что у вас нет документов... этот человек представляет опасность. Многие люди обманут их... если они знают, что у вас нет документов, они говорят: «Эй, я собираюсь вызвать иммиграционную службу». [138] Эти условия снижают доход, который испаноязычные семьи приносят в свою семью, и некоторым из них очень трудно жить каждый день. Когда нелегального родителя депортируют или задерживают, доход значительно снизится, если другой родитель также поддерживает семью финансово. Оставшийся родитель должен заботиться о семье и может столкнуться с трудностями в работе и других обязанностях. Даже если семьи не разделены, латиноамериканцы постоянно живут в страхе, что они потеряют свою экономическую опору.

Жизнь в бедности связана с депрессией, низкой самооценкой, одиночеством, преступной деятельностью и частым употреблением наркотиков среди молодежи. [136] Семьи с низким доходом не могут позволить себе адекватное жилье, и некоторые из них выселяются. Окружающая среда, в которой растут дети нелегальных иммигрантов, часто состоит из плохого качества воздуха, шума и токсинов, которые мешают здоровому развитию. [136] Кроме того, эти районы подвержены насилию и деятельности банд, заставляя семьи жить в постоянном страхе, что может способствовать развитию посттравматического стрессового расстройства, агрессии и депрессии.

Экономические перспективы

Средний доход

В 2017 году перепись населения США сообщила, что средний доход домохозяйства испаноязычных американцев составил $50 486. Это третий последовательный годовой рост среднего дохода домохозяйства испаноязычного происхождения. [90]

Бедность

По данным переписи населения США , уровень бедности среди латиноамериканцев составил 18,3 процента в 2017 году, что ниже 19,4 процента в 2016 году. Среди латиноамериканцев было 10,8 миллиона человек, живущих в бедности. [90] Для сравнения, средний уровень бедности в 2017 году среди неиспаноязычных белых американцев составил 8,7 процента, при этом 17 миллионов человек жили в бедности, среди американцев азиатского происхождения — 10,0 процента, при этом 2 миллиона человек жили в бедности, а среди афроамериканцев — 21,2 процента, при этом 9 миллионов человек жили в бедности. [90]

Среди крупнейших испаноязычных групп в 2015 году были: американцы гондурасского и доминиканского происхождения (27%), американцы гватемальского происхождения (26%), пуэрториканцы (24%), американцы мексиканского происхождения (23%), американцы сальвадорского происхождения (20%), американцы кубинского и венесуэльского происхождения (17%), американцы эквадорского происхождения (15%), американцы никарагуанского происхождения (14%), американцы колумбийского происхождения (13%), американцы аргентинского происхождения (11%) и американцы перуанского происхождения (10%). [140]

Бедность затрагивает многих недопредставленных учащихся, поскольку расовые/этнические меньшинства, как правило, остаются изолированными в анклавах малообеспеченных общин. Это приводит к нескольким неравенствам, таким как «предложения школ, качество учителей, учебная программа, консультирование и всевозможные вещи, которые как поддерживают интерес учащихся к учебе, так и готовят их к окончанию школы». [141] В случае с латиноамериканцами уровень бедности среди латиноамериканских детей в 2004 году составил 28,6 процента. [102] Более того, при таком недостатке ресурсов школы воспроизводят это неравенство для будущих поколений. Чтобы смягчить бедность, многие латиноамериканские семьи могут обратиться к социальным и общественным службам в качестве ресурсов.

Культурные вопросы

Музей латиноамериканского искусства .

Географическое, политическое, социальное, экономическое и расовое разнообразие испаноговорящих американцев делает всех испаноговорящих очень разными в зависимости от их семейного наследия и/или национального происхождения. Зачастую, существует много культурных сходств между испаноговорящими из соседних стран, чем из более отдаленных стран, например, испанских Карибских островов, Южного Конуса, Центральной Америки и т. д. Тем не менее, несколько черт, как правило, объединяют испаноговорящих из этих различных слоев общества.

Язык

испанский

Архитектура испанского возрождения в Санта-Барбаре, Калифорния .

As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanics adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish".[142][143] Given the United States' proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish.[144] Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States.[145][146]

Chicago Picasso as seen at Christkindlmarket.

Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States, first brought to North America during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.[147][148][149][150] Today, 90% of all Hispanics speak English, and at least 78% speak fluent Spanish.[151] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home for a total of 41.1 million.[92]

With 40% of Hispanic Americans being immigrants,[152] and with many of the 60% who are US-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.[151]

American Spanish dialects

The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. However, generally, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish or Chicano Spanish. A variety of Spanish native to the Southwest spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado is known as Traditional New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of Traditional New Mexican Spanish is its use of distinct vocabulary and grammatical forms that make New Mexican Spanish unique amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in the East Coast is generally Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Isleño Spanish, descended from Canarian Spanish, is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.[92][156]

Heritage Spanish speakers tend to speak Spanish with near-native level phonology, but a more limited command of morphosyntax.[157] Hispanics who speak Spanish as a second language often speak with English accents.

Spanglish and English dialects

National Hispanic Cultural Center

Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, a term for any mix of Spanish and English, is common in speaking. As they are fluent in both languages, speakers will often switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles and parts of New York City.[158]

Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English.[159] An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English; Jennifer Lopez and Cardi B are examples of people who speak with the New York Latino dialect.

When speaking in English, American Hispanics may often insert Spanish tag and filler items such as tú sabes, este, and órale, into sentences as a marker of ethnic identity and solidarity. The same often occurs with grammatical words like pero.[160]

Religion

San Antonio Missions National Historical Park in Texas a UNESCO World Heritage Site comprises four missions, Mission San José, Mission San Juan, and Mission Espada. These missions are renowned for their architectural and cultural significance, reflecting the Spanish colonial heritage of the region.

According to a Pew Center study which was conducted in 2019, the majority of Hispanic Americans are Christians (72%),[161] Among American Hispanics, as of 2018–19, 47% are Catholic, 24% are Protestant, 1% are Mormon, less than 1% are Orthodox Christian, 3% are members of non-Christian faiths, and 23% are unaffiliated.[161] The proportion of Hispanics who are Catholic has dropped from 2009 (when it was 57%), while the proportion of unaffiliated Hispanics has increased since 2009 (when it was 15%).[161] Among Hispanic Protestant community, most are evangelical, but some belong to mainline denominations.[162] Compared to Catholic, unaffiliated, and mainline Protestant Hispanics; Evangelical Protestant Hispanics are substantially more likely to attend services weekly, pray daily, and adhere to biblical liberalism.[162] As of 2014, about 67% of Hispanic Protestants and about 52% of Hispanic Catholics were renewalist, meaning that they described themselves as Pentecosal or charismatic Christians (in the Catholic tradition, called Catholic charismatic renewal).[163]

Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation Hispanic immigrants than it is among second and third-generation Hispanic immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of conversion to Protestantism or the unaffiliated camp.[164] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Hispanics leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year, and this figure is much higher in Texas and Florida.[165] Hispanic Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members.[166]

Hispanics make up a substantial proportion (almost 40%) of Catholics in the United States,[167] although the number of American Hispanic priests is low relative to Hispanic membership in the church.[168] In 2019, José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles and a naturalized American citizen born in Mexico, was elected as president of the US Conference of Catholic Bishops.[167]

Media

Latino Cultural Center

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting US Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.

Increased use of Spanish-language media leads to increased levels of group consciousness, according to survey data. The differences in attitudes are due to the diverging goals of Spanish-language and English-language media. The effect of using Spanish-language media serves to promote a sense of group consciousness among Hispanics by reinforcing roots in the Hispanic world and the commonalities among Hispanics of varying national origin.[170][171]

The first Hispanic-American owned major film studio in the United States is based in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2017, Ozzie and Will Areu purchased Tyler Perry's former studio to establish Areu Bros. Studios.[172][173]

Radio

Spanish language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media.[174] While other foreign language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s. The 1930s were boom years.[175] The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest.[176] American stations were close to Mexico which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians, and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968.[177] Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Hispanic discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration.[178]

Networks

Notable Hispanic-oriented media outlets include:

Print

Sports and music

Because of different cultures throughout the Hispanic world, there are various music forms throughout Hispanic countries, with different sounds and origins. Reggaeton and hip hop are genres that are most popular to Hispanic youth in the United States. Recently Latin trap, trap corridos, and Dominican dembow have gained popularity.[180][181][182]

Soccer is a common sport for Hispanics from outside of the Caribbean region, particularly immigrants. Baseball is a common among Caribbean Hispanics. Other popular sports include boxing, gridiron football, and basketball.

Cuisine

Mexican food has become part of the mainstream American market

Hispanic food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become mainstream in American culture. Across the United States, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines have continued to increase sales.[183] The avocado has been described as "America's new favorite fruit"; its largest market within the US is among Hispanic Americans.[184]

Due to the large Mexican-American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the United States. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had at one of the city's numerous coffee shops.[185] The Cuban sandwich, developed in Miami, is now a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture.[186]

Familial situations

Family life and values

Mexican American girls at a Quinceañera celebration in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Hispanic culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.[187]

Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, first Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.[188][189]

Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the United States among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.[190][191]

Hispanic youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.[192]

Intermarriage

Mariah Carey's father was of African-American and Afro-Venezuelan descent, while her mother is of Irish descent.
Anya Taylor-Joy is of Argentine of English and Scottish descent, the son of a British father and an Anglo-Argentine mother.[193][194][195] Her mother was born in Zambia to an English diplomat father, David Joy, and a Spanish mother from Barcelona.[196]

Hispanic Americans, like many immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages comprised 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008.[197] The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of White people, 17.1% of Black people, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics.[198] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.[197]

Rosa Salazar is of Peruvian and French descent.[199]

In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic White people, 9% married non-Hispanic Black people, 5% non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.[197]

Of approximately 275,500 new interracial or interethnic marriages in 2010, 43.3% were White-Hispanic (compared to White-Asian at 14.4%, White-Black at 11.9%, and other combinations at 30.4%; "other combinations" consists of pairings between different minority groups and multi-racial people).[198] Unlike those for marriage to Black people and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to White people do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White/Hispanic couples are lower than those of White/White couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.[198]

Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81% of White people, 76% of Asians and 73% of Black people "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13% of White people, 19% of Asians and 16% of Black people "being bothered but accepting of the marriage". Only 2% of White people, 4% of Asians, and 5% of Black people would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.[197]

Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 81% "being fine" with marriages to White people and 73% "being fine" with marriages to Black people. A further 13% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a White and 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 5% of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 2% to a non-Hispanic White.[197]

Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Black people varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with Black people, of all major Hispanic national groups, who also has the highest overall intermarriage rate among Hispanics.[190][200][201][202][203][204][205][206][207][208][excessive citations] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic White people, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture.[209][210]

Cultural adjustment

Camila Cabello was born in Cuba. She moved between Havana and Mexico City before locating to Miami at age 5.

As Hispanic migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin becomes most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed" because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them".[211] The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Hispanic in the global sphere.

Transnationalism

Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad" which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Hispanics perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States."[211] This unites Hispanics as one, creating cultural kin with other Hispanic ethnicities.

Gender roles

In a 1998 study of Mexican Americans it was found that males were more likely to endorse the notion than men should be the sole breadwinners of the family, while Mexican American women did not endorse this notion.[212]

Hispanic woman washing, doing household chores

Prior to the 1960s countercultural movement, Mexican men often felt an exaggerated need to be the sole breadwinner of their families.[213] There are two sides to machismo, the man who has a strong work ethic and lives up to his responsibilities, or the man who heavily drinks and therefore displays acts of unpleasant behavior towards his family.[212]

Natalie Morales interviewing Jill Biden at the White House in 2016.

The traditional roles of women in a Hispanic community are of housewife and mother, a woman's role is to cook, clean, and care for her children and husband; putting herself and her needs last.[214] The typical structure of a Hispanic family forces women to defer authority to her husband, allowing him to make the important decisions, that both the woman and children must abide by.[215] In traditional Hispanic households, women and young girls are homebodies or muchachas de la casa ("girls of the house"), showing that they abide "by the cultural norms ... [of] respectability, chastity, and family honor [as] valued by the [Hispanic] community".[216]

Migration to the United States can change the identity of Hispanic youth in various ways, including how they carry their gendered identities.[217] However, when Hispanic women come to the United States, they tend to adapt to the perceived social norms of this new country and their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners.[217] The unassimilated community views these adapting women as being de la calle ("of [or from] the street"), transgressive, and sexually promiscuous.[217] A women's motive for pursuing an education or career is to prove she can care and make someone of herself, breaking the traditional gender role that a Hispanic woman can only serve as a mother or housewife, thus changing a woman's role in society.[218] Some Hispanic families in the United States "deal with young women's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in ... [the sending country] with family members, regardless of whether or not ... [the young women] are sexually active".[219] Now there has been a rise in the Hispanic community where both men and women are known to work and split the household chores among themselves; women are encouraged to gain an education, degree, and pursue a career.[220]

Sexuality

Santa Fe Plaza

According to polling data released in 2022, 11% of Hispanic American adults identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender. This is more than twice the rate of White Americans or African Americans. Over 20% of Hispanic Millennials and Gen Z claimed an LGBT identity.[221] The growth of the young Hispanic population is driving an increase of the LGBT community in the United States.[222] Studies have shown that Hispanic Americans are over-represented among transgender people in the United States.[223][224]

According to Gattamorta, et al. (2018), the socially constructed notion of machismo reinforces male gender roles in Hispanic culture, which can lead to internalized homophobia in Hispanic gay men and increase mental health issues and suicidal ideation.[225] However, according to Reyes Salinas, more recent research shows that there has been an explosive growth of LGBT self-identification among young Hispanic Americans, which may signal that the Hispanic attitudes towards LGBT have broken down.[221] According to Marina Franco, polling conducted in 2022 suggests that the Hispanic community in America is largely accepting of LGBT people and gay marriage, which is significant in light of the rapid growth of LGBT self-identification among Hispanics.[226]

Relations with other minority groups

Sunny Hostin American lawyer, columnist, journalist, and television host. Hostin was born to a Puerto Rican mother and an African-American father, and her maternal grandfather was of Sephardic Jewish descent.

As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations, especially the African-American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas.[227][228] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.[229][230]

Politics

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus, circa 1984
Congressional Hispanic Conference members met with Attorney General Al Gonzales

Political affiliations

Delegate Joseph Marion Hernández of the Florida Territory, elected in 1822, the first Hispanic American to serve in the United States Congress in any capacity
Republican politician Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, elected in 1928, the first Mexican-American and first Latino United States senator.

Hispanics differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57%)[237] either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify as Republicans.[237] This 34-point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. While traditionally a key Democratic Party constituency at-large,[238] beginning in the early 2010s, Hispanics have begun to split[239] between the Democrats and the Republican Party.[240][241][242] In a 2022 study, it was found that 64% of Latinos surveyed had positive attitudes towards President Obama's executive actions on immigration, which was notably four percentage points lower than that of non-Hispanic Black respondents. It was also noted that support for undocumented immigrants was lowest among Latinos living in developing 'bedroom communities' or newly built suburbs designed for commuters. This was also the case for Latinos of affluent income levels, however they were still most likely to display a positive attitude towards undocumented immigrants, especially when compared to their non-Hispanic White counterparts.[243]

Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Chilean Americans, and Venezuelan Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor progressive political ideologies and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

Political impact

Democratic politician Henry B. González, elected in 1961, served 37 years in the House, the longest-serving Hispanic American in congressional history.

The United States has a population of over 60 million of Hispanic Americans, of whom 27 million are citizens eligible to vote (13% of total eligible voters); therefore, Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between two main parties is usually around 4%.[244][245][246][247]

Elections of 1986–1996

During the 1986 midterm elections, Hispanic voter turnout was increasing, although it remained lower compared to other demographic groups. The political concerns of Hispanic communities during this period included immigration reform and civil rights, with modest gains for Latino candidates at state and local levels. In the 1988 presidential election, George H.W. Bush (Republican) and Michael Dukakis (Democrat) were the main contenders, and although Hispanic voters were becoming more engaged, their influence was still emerging. The 1990 Census highlighted the substantial growth of Hispanic populations in the United States, leading to greater attention from political parties to Hispanic issues and concerns.

The 1992 presidential election marked a significant shift as Bill Clinton (Democrat) engaged actively with Hispanic voters, resulting in increased Latino support and signaling a broader Democratic outreach. Clinton's administration would further stimulate Hispanic political activity. The 1994 midterm elections saw Republican gains and were significantly impacted by debates over immigration and welfare reform, including California's Proposition 187, which sought to limit public services for undocumented immigrants and mobilized many Latino voters.

By the 1996 presidential election, Bill Clinton's successful re-election campaign reflected the growing influence of Hispanic voters. Key issues for the Latino community during this time included immigration, education, and healthcare. The period also witnessed an increase in Latino representation in Congress with figures such as Bob Menendez and Luis Gutiérrez emerging as prominent leaders. Overall, the period from 1986 to 1996 marked a critical phase in the evolving political influence and representation of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States.

Elections of 1996–2006

Barbara Vucanovich the first Hispanic woman elected to the United States House of Representatives, in which she served representing Nevada.

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000, the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 54–44 against Bush.[248] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Hispanics voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Hispanics by a smaller 56–43 margin. Texas Hispanics were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49 over their favorite son candidate and Florida Hispanics (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin.

In 1998, California Proposition 227, which sought to eliminate bilingual education in public schools, was passed. This initiative highlighted the political mobilization of Latino communities and their influence on educational policy in California.

U.S. President George W. Bush announces Alberto Gonzales nomination as the Attorney General.

The 2000 presidential election was notably close, with George W. Bush winning the presidency over Al Gore. Bush's outreach to Hispanic voters, particularly in battleground states such as Florida, was a significant factor in his narrow victory. Despite the growing visibility of Hispanic candidates, their representation at the national level remained limited. By the 2002 midterm elections, there was a notable increase in Hispanic representation in Congress, with more Latino candidates successfully winning seats in the House of Representatives. This trend continued to grow, reflecting the expanding political engagement of Hispanic Americans. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush was re-elected, with a notable increase in Hispanic support attributed to his campaign's targeted outreach efforts. Prominent Latino figures, including New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and U.S. Senators Ken Salazar, gained national recognition during this period.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Hispanics for the first time split evenly.

The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Hispanic politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Hispanic voters; majority-Hispanic counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez and majority European-American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.

Elections 2008–2012

Ileana Ros-Lehtinen became the first Cuban American Hispanic in congress and first Hispanic chair of the Congressional Hispanic Conference.

In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary, Hispanics participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support.[249] Pundits discussed whether Hispanics would not vote for Barack Obama because he was African-American.[229] Hispanics voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama.[250] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) White people.[250] Obama defeated Clinton.

In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain, Hispanics supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the June 30 Gallup tracking poll.[251] This was higher than expected, since McCain had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort (John McCain was born in Panama to parents who were serving in the US Navy, but raised in the United States).[252] However, McCain had retreated from reform during the Republican primary, damaging his standing among Hispanics.[253][better source needed] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish highlighting McCain's reversal.[254][better source needed]

Susana Martinez, first elected Hispanic woman Governor in the United States. She is of Mexican descent.

In the general election, 67% of Hispanics voted for Obama.[255][256] with a relatively strong turnout in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The relative growth of non-Cuban vs Cuban Hispanics also contributed to his carrying Florida's Hispanics with 57% of the vote.[255][257]

While employment and the economy were top concerns for Hispanics, almost 90% of Hispanic voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election.[258] Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 had damaged the party's appeal to Hispanics, especially in swing states such as Florida, Nevada and New Mexico.[258] In a Gallup poll of Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified as Republicans.[251] The 2010 midterm elections highlighted the growing influence of Hispanic Americans in U.S. politics. Marco Rubio, a Republican from Florida, won a Senate seat, enhancing the visibility of Latino politicians in national politics.

Hispanics voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71% and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27% of the vote.[259][260] Some Hispanic leaders were offended by remarks Romney made during a fundraiser, when he suggested that cultural differences[261] and "the hand of providence"[262][263] help explain why Israelis are more economically successful than Palestinians, and why similar economic disparities exist between other neighbors, such as the United States and Mexico, or Chile and Ecuador.[264] A senior aide to Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas called the remarks racist,[263][265] as did American political scientist Angelo Falcón, president of the National Institute of Latino Policy.[266] Mitt Romney's father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua, Mexico. The Hispanic vote was crucial to Obama's re-election, particularly in swing states such as Florida, Colorado, and Nevada. The Obama campaign's focus on issues important to Latino voters, including immigration reform and healthcare, helped secure substantial support from the Hispanic community.

Elections 2014–2022

"More convincing data" from the 2016 United States presidential election[267] from the polling firm Latino Decisions indicates that Clinton received a higher share of the Hispanic vote, and Trump a lower share, than the Edison exit polls showed. Using wider, more geographically and linguistically representative sampling, Latino Decisions concluded that Clinton won 79% of Hispanic voters (also an improvement over Obama's share in 2008 and 2012), while Trump won only 18% (lower than previous Republicans such as Romney and McCain).[268] Additionally, the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Clinton's share of the Hispanic vote was one percentage point higher than Obama's in 2012, while Trump's was seven percentage points lower than Romney's.[269] Trump's campaign was marked by controversial statements and policies regarding immigration, which galvanized Latino voters.

On June 26, 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a millennial, won the Democratic primary in New York's 14th congressional district covering parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City, defeating the incumbent, Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley, in what has been described as the biggest upset victory in the 2018 midterm election season and at the age of 29 years, became the youngest woman ever elected to Congress.[270][271] She is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America and has been endorsed by various politically progressive organizations and individuals.[272] According to a Pew Research Center report, the 2020 election will be the first one when Hispanics are the largest racial or ethnic minority group in the electorate. A record 32 million Hispanics were projected to be eligible to vote in the presidential election, many of them first-time voters. On September 15, 2020, President Donald J. Trump announced his intent to nominate and appoint Eduardo Verastegui, to be a member of the President's Advisory Commission on Hispanic Prosperity if re-elected after days of the Democratic convention.[273]

Hispanic communities across the United States were long held as a single voting bloc, but economic, geographic and cultural differences show stark divides in how Hispanic Americans have cast their ballots in 2020. Hispanics helped deliver Florida to Donald Trump in part because of Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (along with smaller populations such as Nicaraguan Americans and Chilean Americans); President Trump's reelection campaign ran pushing a strong anti-socialism message as a strategy in Florida, to their success. However the perceived anti-immigrant rhetoric resonated with Mexican Americans in Arizona and the COVID-19 pandemic (Arizona being one of the states hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States).[274] Many Latino voters in Nevada are members of the Culinary Union Local 226 and supported Biden based on Right-to-work standards.[275] The takeaway may be this may be the last election cycle that the "Hispanic vote" as a whole is more talked about instead of particular communities within it, such as Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and so on. In Texas like in Arizona and Nevada, the Hispanic community mainly being Mexican American; one in three Texan voters is now Hispanic. Biden did win the Hispanic vote in those states. But in Texas, 41 percent to 47 percent of Hispanic voters backed Trump in several heavily Hispanic border counties in the Rio Grande Valley region, a Democratic stronghold. In Florida, Trump won 45 percent of the Hispanic vote, an 11-point improvement from his 2016 performance reported NBC News.[276] Recognizing Hispanics as a population that can not only make a difference in swing states like Arizona, Nevada, Texas or Florida, but also really across the country, even in places like Georgia, North Carolina, Wisconsin, Michigan and Pennsylvania, the number of Hispanic eligible voters may be the reason for the thin margins. In 1984, 37 percent of Hispanics voted for Ronald Reagan and 40 percent voted for George W. Bush in 2004.

In Florida, even though Trump won Florida and gained Hispanic voters, Biden kept 53% of the Hispanic vote and Trump 45%. According to NBC News exit polls, 55% of Cuban Americans, 30% of Puerto Ricans and 48% of other Hispanics voted for Trump.[277]

Subsections of Hispanic voters have a range of historical influences vying to affect their votes. Cuban American voters, mostly concentrated in South Florida, tend to vote Republican in part because of their anathema for socialism, the party of Fidel Castro's government that many of their families fled. Mexican Americans, however, have no such historical relationship with either party. Puerto Rican voters who have left the island might be influenced by the territory's move towards statehood, as a referendum for Trump's relief effort after Hurricane Maria, or regarding how it is taxed.[51] The 2020 presidential election was a major event, with Joe Biden defeating incumbent President Donald Trump. Biden's campaign focused on issues such as immigration reform, healthcare, and economic recovery, which resonated with many Latino voters. Despite Biden's win, Trump made significant inroads with Hispanic voters compared to 2016, particularly in Florida and Texas. This election highlighted the diverse political preferences within the Latino community and the growing complexity of its electoral impact.

Nationwide, Hispanics cast 16.6 million votes in 2020, an increase of 30.9% over the 2016 presidential election.[278]

After representative Filemon Vela Jr. resigned, Mayra Flores won a special election to succeed him, she won the election to the United States House of Representatives in June 2022.[279][280] She was the first Mexican-born woman to serve in the House, but would go on to lose in the 2022 General election to Democrat Vicente Gonzalez.[280][281][282]

Notable contributions

Julie Chavez Rodriguez the granddaughter of American labor leader, Cesar Chavez and American labor activist Helen Fabela Chávez became the director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs in 2021.

Hispanic Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, film, literature, sports, business and finance, and science.[283]

Arts and entertainment

In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It is a distinction given to Hispanic performers (actors, film and television directors and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. The number of Latin nominees at the Grammy Awards lag behind. Talking to People magazine ahead of music's biggest night in 2021, Grammy nominees J Balvin and Ricky Martin reflected on what it is mean to continue to represent Hispanics at awards shows like the Grammys. Martin, who served as a pioneer for the "Latin crossover" in the '90s told "When you get nominated, it's the industry telling you, 'Hey Rick, you did a good job this year, congratulations.' Yes, I need that", the 49-year-old says. "When you walk into the studio, you say, 'This got a Grammy potential.' You hear the songs that do and the ones that don't. It's inevitable." Like Selena Gomez tapping into her roots, the influence Hispanics and reggaetón are having on the mainstream is undeniable.[284]

Music

Clockwise from top left:
Bad Bunny, Jennifer Lopez, Carlos Santana, Selena

There are many Hispanic American musicians that have made a significant impact on the music industry and achieved fame within the United States and internationally, such as Christopher Rios better known by his stage name Big Pun, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena Gomez, Demi Lovato, Fergie, Pitbull, Victoria Justice, Linda Ronstadt, Zack de la Rocha, Gloria Estefan, Héctor Lavoe, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Miguel, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Bruno Mars, Mariah Carey, Jerry García, Dave Navarro, Santaye, Elvis Crespo, Romeo Santos, Tom Araya, Sonny Sandoval, The Mars Volta, Los Lobos, Villano Antillano, South Park Mexican, Cuco, Malo, OhGeesy, Malu Trevejo, Ice Spice, Young M.A, Lloyd Banks, Exposé, Sweet Sensation, Jellybean, Immortal Technique, Brujeria, Fuerza Regida, Xavi, Aventura, Lunay, Myke Towers, Jay Wheeler, J.I., Amara La Negra, Joseline Hernandez, Lele Pons, Snow Tha Product, The Marías, Ángela Aguilar, Tego Calderón, Prince Royce, Don Omar, Eddie Palmieri, Wisin & Yandel, Melanie Martinez, Mariah Angeliq, That Mexican OT, MC Magic, TKA, La India, George Lamond, Sa-Fire, Cynthia, Lisa Lisa, Julieta Venegas, Intocable, Marisela, Pepe Aguilar, Jon Secada, Chayanne, DannyLux, Eslabon Armado, Iván Cornejo, Grupo Frontera, Yahritza y su Esencia, Herencia de Patrones, Omar Apollo, Eladio Carrión, Kid Frost, Cypress Hill, N.O.R.E., Fat Joe, Mellow Man Ace, Chicano Batman, Delinquent Habits, Lil Rob, Ritchie Valens, Ozomatli, BIA, Plan B, Chencho Corleone, Maye, Kap G, Tha Mexakinz, Brownside, Psycho Realm, A Lighter Shade of Brown, Gilberto Santa Rosa, Noriel, Baby Rasta, Brytiago, Farruko, J Álvarez, Darell, Ñengo Flow, Luis Fonsi, José Feliciano, Daddy Yankee, Lil Suzy, Judy Torres, Nayobe, Willie Colón, Jenni Rivera, Baby Bash, Frankie J, Larry Hernandez, Arcángel, De la Ghetto, Giselle Bellas, Juan Luis Guerra, Residente, Anuel AA, Ozuna, Lil Pump, 6ix9ine, Becky G, Ivy Queen, Cardi B, Kali Uchis, Bad Bunny, Rauw Alejandro, all of the members of all-female band Go Betty Go, Camila Cabello, two members of girl group Fifth Harmony: Lauren Jauregui and Ally Brooke, and two members of the nu metal band Nonpoint.

Hispanic music imported from Cuba (chachachá, mambo, and rhumba) and Mexico (ranchera and mariachi) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. Examples of artists include Celia Cruz, who was a Cuban-American singer and the most popular Latin artist of the 20th century, gaining twenty-three gold albums during her career. Bill Clinton awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 1994.

Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba" and Herman Santiago, who wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Songs that became popular in the United States and are heard during the holiday/Christmas season include "¿Dónde Está Santa Claus?", a novelty Christmas song with 12-year-old Augie Ríos which was a hit record in 1959 and featured the Mark Jeffrey Orchestra, "Feliz Navidad" by José Feliciano; and Mariah Carey’s 1994 song "All I Want for Christmas Is You", which is the best-selling holiday song by a female artist. Miguel del Aguila wrote 116 works and has three Latin Grammy nominations.

In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best-performing songs on Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top-selling Latin albums in the United States.[285] Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino" (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50% of its content recorded in Spanish.[286]

In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish-language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys".[287][288] In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish and Portuguese.[289] Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Hispanophone and Lusophone communities worldwide beyond the Americas, particularly the Iberian Peninsula.[290] Becky G won favorite female Latin artist, a brand new category at the AMAs in 2020.[291] For the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, the academy announced several changes for different categories and rules: the category Latin Pop Album has been renamed Best Latin Pop or Urban Album, while Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album has been renamed Best Latin Rock or Alternative Album.

Film, radio, television, and theatre

American cinema has often reflected and propagated negative stereotypes towards foreign nationals and ethnic minorities.[292] For example, Hispanics are largely depicted as sexualized figures such as the Hispanic macho or the Hispanic vixen, gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers.[293] However representation in Hollywood has enhanced in latter times of which it gained noticeable momentum in the 1990s and does not emphasize oppression, exploitation, or resistance as central themes. According to Ramírez Berg, third wave films "do not accentuate Chicano oppression or resistance; ethnicity in these films exists as one fact of several that shape characters' lives and stamps their personalities".[294] Filmmakers like Edward James Olmos and Robert Rodriguez were able to represent the Hispanic American experience like none had on screen before, and actors like Hilary Swank, Michael Peña, Jordana Brewster, Ana de Armas, Jessica Alba, Natalie Martinez and Jenna Ortega have become successful. In the last decade, minority filmmakers like Chris Weitz, Alfonso Gomez-Rejon and Patricia Riggen have been given applier narratives. Portrayal in films of them include La Bamba (1987), Selena (1997), The Mask of Zorro (1998), Nothing like the Holidays (2008), Dora and the Lost City of Gold (2019), Being the Ricardos (2001), Father of the Bride (2022) and Josefina López's Real Women Have Curves, originally a play which premiered in 1990 and was later released as a film in 2002.[294]

Hispanics have also contributed some prominent actors and others to the film industry. Of Puerto Rican origin: José Ferrer (the first Hispanic actor to win an acting Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac), Auliʻi Cravalho, Rita Moreno, Chita Rivera, Raul Julia, Rosie Perez, Rosario Dawson, Esai Morales, Aubrey Plaza, Jennifer Lopez, Joaquin Phoenix and Benicio del Toro. Of Mexican origin: Emile Kuri (the first Hispanic to win an Academy Award – for Best Production Design – in 1949), Ramon Novarro, Dolores del Río, Lupe Vélez, Anthony Quinn, Ricardo Montalbán, Katy Jurado, Adrian Grenier, Jay Hernandez, Salma Hayek, Danny Trejo, Jessica Alba, Tessa Thompson, and Kate del Castillo. Of Cuban origin: Cesar Romero, Mel Ferrer, Andy García, Cameron Diaz, María Conchita Alonso, William Levy, and Eva Mendes. Of Dominican origin: Maria Montez and Zoe Saldana. Of partial Spanish origin: Rita Hayworth, Martin Sheen. Other outstanding figures are: Anita Page (of Salvadoran origin), Fernando Lamas, Carlos Thompson, Alejandro Rey and Linda Cristal (of Argentine origin), Raquel Welch (of Bolivian origin), John Leguizamo (of Colombian origin), Oscar Isaac (of Guatemalan origin), John Gavin and Pedro Pascal (both of Chilean origin).

In stand-up comedy, Cristela Alonzo, Anjelah Johnson, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, Gabriel Iglesias and others are prominent.

Mario Lopez actor, television host, and entertainment personality known for his roles in "Saved by the Bell" and as a host on various television programs.

Some of the Hispanic actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Charo, Jencarlos Canela, Christian Serratos, Carlos Pena Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Ricardo Antonio Chavira, Jacob Vargas, America Ferrera, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, Hector Elizondo, Mario Lopez, America Ferrera, Karla Souza, Diego Boneta, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, Isabella Gomez, Justina Machado, Tony Plana Stacey Dash, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award-winning producer, director and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards and Michael Jackson's memorial service.

Hispanics are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986.[295] Together with numerous Hispanic civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Hispanic on any of their new prime time series that year.[296] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic talent and other staff in all of the networks.

Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.

The 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards was criticized by Hispanics; there were no major nominations for Hispanic performers, despite the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences publicizing their improved diversity in 2020. While there was a record number of Black nominees, there was only one individual Hispanic nomination. Hispanic representation groups said the greater diversity referred only to more African American nominees.[297][298] When the Los Angeles Times reported the criticism using the term "Black", it was itself criticized for erasing Afro-Hispanics, a discussion that then prompted more investigation into this under-represented minority ethnic group in Hollywood.[299] John Leguizamo boycotted the Emmys because of its lack of Hispanic nominees.[300]

Fashion

In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, Narciso Rodriguez, Manuel Cuevas, Maria Cornejo,[301] among others. Christy Turlington, Lais Ribeiro, Adriana Lima, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.

Artists

Rita de Acosta Lydig.

Notable Hispanic artists include Jean-Michel Basquiat, Judith Baca, Carmen Herrera, Patssi Valdez, Gronk, Luis Jiménez, Félix González-Torres, Ana Mendieta, Ester Hernandez, Joe Shannon, Richard Serra, Abelardo Morell, Bill Melendez, María Magdalena Campos Pons, Sandra Ramos, Myrna Báez, Soraida Martinez and Yolanda Gonzalez.

Business and finance

Real estate developer Jorge M. Pérez.

The total number of Hispanic-owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.[62]

Hispanic business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company.[302] Advertising Mexican-American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club.[303] Also a major sports team owner is Mexican-American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc. and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.

There are several Hispanics on the Forbes 400 list of richest Americans. Alejandro Santo Domingo and his brother Andres Santo Domingo inherited their fathers stake in SABMiller, now merged with Anheuser-Busch InBev. The brothers are ranked No. 132 and are each worth $4.8bn.[304] Jorge Perez founded and runs The Related Group. He built his career developing and operating low-income multifamily apartments across Miami.[305][306] He is ranked No. 264 and is worth $3bn.[304]

The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the United States is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.[307] Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station[308] and now the second largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co.[309][310] Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest-profile Hispanic in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.

Since 2021, magazine Hispanic Executive has released a list of 30 under 30 executives in the United States.[311] Members include financial analyst Stephanie Nuesi, fashion entrepreneur Zino Haro, and Obama scholar Josue de Paz.[312]

Government and politics

As of 2007, there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Hispanic origin.[313]

In the House of Representatives, Hispanic representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco and Manuel Lujan Jr., out of almost two dozen former representatives. Current representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Jose E. Serrano, Luis Gutiérrez, Nydia Velázquez, Xavier Becerra, Lucille Roybal-Allard, Loretta Sanchez, Rubén Hinojosa, Mario Díaz-Balart, Raul Grijalva, Ben R. Lujan, Jaime Herrera Beutler, Raul Labrador and Alex Mooney—in all, they number thirty. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.[314]

Numerous Hispanics hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States.[315] Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Hispanic woman governor in the history of the United States.[316] Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco and Bob Martinez.

Secretary Julian Castro candidate for US President and his twin brother Representative Joaquin Castro.

Since 1988,[317] when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women.

In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic origin.

In 2022, Robert Santos became the first Director of the U.S. Census Bureau of Hispanic origin (Mexican American).[318]

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.

Groups like the United States Hispanic Leadership Institute (USHLI) work to achieve the promises and principles of the United States by "promoting education, research, and leadership development, and empowering Hispanics and similarly disenfranchised groups by maximizing their civic awareness, engagement, and participation".[319]

Literature and journalism

George Santayana was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist.
Jorge Majfud is a professor, essayist, and novelist
Jorge Ramos has won eight Emmy Awards.
José Díaz-Balart.

Writers and their works

Journalists

Political strategists

Military

Major General Luis R. Esteves, the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point")

Hispanics have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward.[322][323][324] 11% to 13% military personnel now are Hispanics and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere.[325] Hispanics have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics in the military:

American Revolution

American Civil War

David Farragut, first full admiral in the US Navy
Diego Archuleta, first Hispanic to reach the military rank of Brigadier General

World War I

World War II

Pedro del Valle – first Hispanic to reach the rank of lieutenant general.
Carmen Contreras-Bozak – first Hispanic women to serve in the Women's Army Corps.

Korean War

Modesto Cartagena, most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in history.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Vietnam War

After the Vietnam War

Richard E. Cavazos, first Hispanic four-star general.
Antonia Novello, first woman and first Hispanic to serve as Surgeon General.

Medal of Honor

The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor:Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy" Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago-Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace and Maximo Yabes.

National intelligence

Science and technology

Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist of Spanish descent, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1", a galactic cluster.[348] F. J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer.[349] Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa is the director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian-American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian-American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.

Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.[350] Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.[351] Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Hispanic president of the American Public Health Association.

Franklin Chang-Diaz NASA astronaut and physicist known for his expertise in plasma propulsion systems.

Some Hispanics have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts:[352] Franklin Chang-Diaz, the first Hispanic NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and director of Mars exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández-Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

Olga D. González-Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, José M. Hernández, Michael López-Alegría, John Olivas and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.

Sports

Hispanic and Latino American women in sports

Monica Puig at the 2013 French Open

Hispanic and Latino American women have left an indelible mark on sports in the US, showcasing exceptional talent, resilience, and cultural diversity. Some notable figures include Monica Puig, tennis player hailing from Puerto Rico, Monica Puig achieved historic success by winning the gold medal in women's singles at the 2016 Rio Olympics, marking Puerto Rico's first-ever Olympic gold medal in any sport. Laurie Hernandez, gymnastics athlete also of Puerto Rican descent, Laurie Hernandez secured a gold medal with the US gymnastics team at the 2016 Rio Olympics and added a silver medal on the balance beam, captivating audiences with her grace and skill. Jessica Mendoza, softball/baseball] of Mexican heritage, is celebrated as a former professional softball player and Olympic gold medalist (2004). She continues to inspire as a groundbreaking baseball analyst for ESPN, breaking barriers in sports broadcasting. Giselle Juarez, softball player of Mexican descent, emerged as a standout pitcher, leading the University of Oklahoma to victory in the 2021 NCAA Women's College World Series championship, showcasing her dominance on the mound. Linda Alvarado, made history as the first Hispanic woman to co-own a Major League Baseball team, the Colorado Rockies, breaking barriers and paving the way for diversity in professional sports ownership. Brenda Villa, water polo of Mexican descent, is a trailblazer in women's water polo, earning four Olympic medals (gold in 2012, silver in 2000 and 2008, bronze in 2004) and inspiring a generation with her leadership and achievements. Nancy Lopez, golf a Hall of Fame golfer of Mexican heritage, amassed an impressive 48 LPGA Tour victories, including three major championships, during her illustrious career, solidifying her legacy as one of golf's all-time greats. Sofia Huerta, player of Mexican and American descent, has excelled in professional soccer, showcasing her versatility and skill as a midfielder and forward in the NWSL and internationally with Mexico's national team, inspiring young athletes with her talent and determination.

Hispanic and Latino American men in sports

Football

Tony Romo, NFL quarterback known for his career with the Dallas Cowboys and current role as a popular football analyst for CBS Sports.

There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked No. 17 on Sporting News's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest-ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Ted Hendricks, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics in the National Football League (NFL).

Baseball

Alex Rodriguez baseball player who achieved iconic status in the MLB, notably with the Seattle Mariners and New York Yankees, before becoming a prominent television analyst.

Hispanics have played in the Major Leagues since the very beginning of organized baseball, with Cuban player Esteban Bellán being the first (1873).[353][354] The large number of Hispanic American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Sammy Sosa, Alex Rodriguez, Alex Rios, Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Adolfo Luque, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrián González, Jose Fernandez, David Ortiz, Juan Marichal, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Miguel Angel Gonzalez (the first Hispanic Major League manager),[355][356] Al López, Ozzie Guillén and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya. Hispanics in the MLB Hall of Fame include Roberto Alomar, Luis Aparicio, Rod Carew, Orlando Cepeda, Juan Marichal, Pedro Martínez, Tony Pérez, Iván Rodríguez, Ted Williams, Reggie Jackson, Mariano Rivera, Edgar Martinez and Roberto Clemente. Afro-Hispanic players Martin Dihigo, Jose Mendez and Cristóbal Torriente are Hispanic Hall of Famers who played in the Negro leagues.[357]

Basketball

Puerto Rican NBA All-star Carmelo Anthony.

Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginóbili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-Black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.

Tennis

Notable Hispanic and Latino American tennis players include legendary player Pancho Gonzales, as well as Olympic tennis champions Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández. Monica Puig, a Puerto Rican-born player, achieved significant recognition by winning the gold medal in women's singles at the 2016 Rio Olympics.[358]

Soccer

Carlos Bocanegra soccer player who served as the captain of the United States national team and played professionally in Major League Soccer and Europe.

Hispanics have made significant contributions to all major American sports and leagues, with a particularly notable impact on the growth of soccer in the United States. Soccer, being the most popular sport in the Spanish-speaking world, has been profoundly influenced by Hispanic heritage. This influence is evident in Major League Soccer (MLS), where teams such as LA Galaxy, Los Angeles FC, Houston Dynamo and Columbus Crew have substantial fan bases comprising primarily Mexican Americans.[359][360][361] Notable Hispanic players in MLS include Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa, Roger Espinoza, and Carlos Bocanegra.

Swimming

Swimmers Ryan Lochte (the second-most decorated swimmer in Olympic history measured by total number of medals)[362] and Dara Torres (one of three women with the most Olympic women's swimming medals), both of Cuban ancestry,[363] have won multiple medals at various Olympic Games over the years. Torres is also the first American swimmer to appear in five Olympic Games.[364] Maya DiRado, of Argentine ancestry, won four medals at the 2016 games, including two gold medals.[358]

Other sports

De La Hoya "The Golden Boy," is a former professional boxer and Olympic gold medalist who became a prominent figure in boxing both inside the ring and as a promoter

Boxing's first Hispanic American world champion was Solly Smith. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Brandon Ríos, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, Andy Ruiz Jr. and Mikey Garcia.

Lee Trevino retired professional golfer who won numerous PGA Tour events, including several major championships

Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nate Diaz, Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Tony Ferguson, Jorge Masvidal, Kelvin Gastelum, Henry Cejudo and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.

In 1991, Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All-Star Games. In 1999, Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.[365]

Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.

In gymnastics, Laurie Hernandez, who is of Puerto Rican ancestry, was a gold medalist at the 2016 Games.[358]

In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Hulk Hogan, Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez and executive Vickie Guerrero.

Anti-Latino sentiment

President Trump and Senator John Cornyn while they are visiting survivors of the 2019 El Paso shooting, which was an anti-Latino terrorist attack in El Paso, Texas

In countries where the majority of the population is descended from immigrants, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the forms of nativism, racism, religious intolerance and xenophobia.[366]Throughout US history, anti-Latino sentiment has existed to varying degrees at different times, and it was largely based on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism (see Anti-Catholicism in the United States), xenophobia (see Xenophobia in the United States), economic and social conditions in Hispanic America, and opposition to the use of the Spanish language.[367][368][369][370] In 2006, Time magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily as a result of anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[371] According to Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) statistics, the number of anti-Hispanic hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Hispanic population, the number of hate crimes which were committed against Hispanics almost doubled.[372]

In 2009, the FBI reported that 4,622 of the 6,604 hate crimes which were recorded in the United States were anti-Hispanic, comprising 70.3% of all recorded hate crimes, the highest percentage of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009. This percentage is contrasted by the fact that 34.6% of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009 were anti-Black, 17.9% of them were anti-homosexual, 14.1% of them were anti-Jewish, and 8.3% of them were anti-White.[373]

Discrimination

The story of Mendez v. Westminster book monument.

It is reported that 31% of Hispanics have reported personal experiences with discrimination whilst 82% of Hispanics believe that discrimination plays a crucial role in whether or not they will find success while they are living in the United States.[136] The current legislation on immigration policies also plays a crucial role in creating a hostile and discriminatory environment for immigrants. In order to measure the discrimination which immigrants are being subjected to, researchers must take into account the immigrants' perception that they are being targeted for discrimination and they must also be aware that instances of discrimination can also vary based on: personal experiences, social attitudes and ethnic group barriers. The immigrant experience is associated with lower self-esteem, internalized symptoms and behavioral problems amongst Mexican youth. It is also known that more time which is spent living in the United States is associated with increased feelings of distress, depression and anxiety.[136] Like many other Hispanic groups that migrate to the United States, these groups are often stigmatized. An example of this stigmatization occurred after 9/11, when people who were considered threats to national security were frequently described with terms like migrant and the "Hispanic Other" along with other terms like refugee and asylum seeker.[374]

Immigration reform

1965: Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart-Celler Act)

The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), enacted in 1952, serves as a foundational piece of U.S. immigration law by consolidating and reorganizing various provisions into a unified framework. Since its enactment, the INA has undergone numerous amendments, reflecting its evolving role in immigration policy. It is codified in Title 8 of the United States Code (U.S.C.), which is the comprehensive collection of U.S. laws. Title 8 specifically addresses "Aliens and Nationality," and the INA's sections are aligned with corresponding U.S. Code sections for clarity. For accuracy, the official U.S. Code is provided by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the U.S. House of Representatives, with links available through USCIS.[375]

1986: Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA)

The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA), detailed in House Report 99-1000, introduced significant changes to U.S. immigration law. Title I of the Act focused on controlling illegal immigration by making it unlawful for employers to hire or continue employing unauthorized aliens without verifying their work status.[376] It established an employment verification system requiring employers to attest to and maintain records of employees' work eligibility. The Act also set up procedures for monitoring the verification system and addressing violations, while explicitly prohibiting the use of such verification for national identity purposes. Additionally, Title I outlined employer sanctions, including a public education period and a phased enforcement approach. Title II of the Act provided a legalization program for certain undocumented aliens who met specific criteria, including continuous residence in the U.S. since January 1, 1982.[376] It authorized adjustment from temporary to permanent resident status under certain conditions and required the Attorney General to manage and disseminate information about the program. Title III addressed the reform of legal immigration, including provisions for temporary agricultural workers and adjustments to visa programs. The Act also established various commissions and reports to assess and improve immigration policies and enforcement measures.

1996: Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)

The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 expanded the definition of "qualified alien" under section 431 of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 (8 U.S.C. 1641) to include certain categories of battered aliens. The new provisions added to 8 U.S.C. 1641 recognize battered aliens.[377] Those who have experienced battery or extreme cruelty by a spouse or parent, or by a member of their family residing with them. As eligible for benefits if there is a substantial connection between the abuse and the need for assistance. This includes aliens with pending petitions for various statuses under the Immigration and Nationality Act, such as spousal or child status of a U.S. citizen or applications for suspension of deportation. The act extends protections to aliens whose children have been subjected to similar abuse, provided there is no active participation by the alien in the abuse. It also includes alien children who reside with a parent who has been abused. These provisions do not apply if the abuser resides in the same household as the victim. The Attorney General is tasked with issuing guidance on the interpretation of "battery" and "extreme cruelty" and establishing standards for determining the connection between such abuse and the need for benefits.[377]

2012: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

At a Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) rally in San Francisco, protesters displayed a variety of signs and banners advocating for the protection and expansion of the DACA program.

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) is a policy established on June 15, 2012, by Janet Napolitano, then Secretary of Homeland Security, under the Obama administration. The policy provides temporary relief from deportation and work authorization to certain young undocumented immigrants who meet specific criteria. DACA does not offer a pathway to permanent legal status. Instead, it grants temporary protection that requires renewal every two years. To be eligible, applicants must have arrived in the United States before the age of 16, be currently under the age of 31, and have continuously resided in the U.S. since June 15, 2007. They must also be enrolled in school, have graduated from high school, or have been honorably discharged from the U.S. Armed Forces or Coast Guard. Upon its implementation, DACA initially benefited approximately 832,881 individuals. The policy has been associated with various socioeconomic improvements among its recipients. According to a 2019 survey, DACA recipients experienced an 86 percent increase in their average hourly wage. This rise in wages has contributed to enhanced financial independence and increased consumer spending, which in turn has had positive economic effects. Recipients also reported improved job conditions and expanded educational opportunities, reflecting the broader impact of the policy on their quality of life. Overall, DACA has been a significant, though temporary, measure aimed at addressing the status of undocumented young immigrants and has had notable effects on their economic and educational outcomes.[378]

DACA's future has faced legal challenges, including a 2020 Supreme Court ruling that blocked the Trump administration's attempt to end it and a 2021 decision declaring DACA unlawful, though it did not immediately affect current recipients. The Biden administration has since reaffirmed its support and proposed regulatory changes to secure the program's future.

See also

Places of settlement in United States:

Diaspora:

Individuals:

Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics:

General:

Notes

  1. ^ Includes Asian Americans.
  2. ^ a b c The 1970, 1980, and 1990 US censuses did not allow for the selection of multiple races.
  3. ^ As a U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Sotomayor was nominated by Barack Obama and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, not elected.
  4. ^ After the election of California senator Kamala Harris as vice president, Padilla was appointed senator by California Governor Gavin Newsom to fill the seat vacancy.

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Further reading

Surveys and historiography

Pre 1965

Culture and politics, post 1965

Women

Regional and local

California

Texas and Southwest

Other regions

Primary sources

External links