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китайцы хань

Китайцы хань (альтернативно народ хань , [a] или просто китайцы [17] ) являются восточноазиатской этнической группой, родом из Большого Китая . С численностью населения более 1,4 миллиарда человек китайцы хань являются крупнейшей этнической группой в мире , составляя около 17,5% населения мира . Китайцы хань представляют 92% населения материкового Китая и 97% населения Тайваня . [18] [19] Китайцы хань образуют большую диаспору по всей Юго-Восточной Азии, включающую большие меньшинства в таких странах, как Таиланд, Малайзия и Индонезия. В Сингапуре люди ханьского происхождения составляют около 75 процентов населения страны. [20]

Китайцы хань оказали основное формирующее влияние на формирование развития и роста китайской цивилизации. [21] [22] [23] Происходящие из Центральных равнин , китайцы хань ведут свою родословную от народа хуася , конфедерации земледельческих племен, которые жили вдоль среднего и нижнего течения реки Хуанхэ [24] [25] [26] [27] в северном Китае. Хуася являются прародителями китайской цивилизации и предками современных китайцев хань. [28] [29]

Земли южного Китая были приобретены путем завоевания и колонизации во времена династий Цинь и Хань. Затем китайцы-ханьцы и их культура распространились на юг из северного центра в долине реки Хуанхэ, движимые большими и устойчивыми волнами миграции в течение последовательных периодов китайской истории, что привело к демографическому и экономическому наклону в сторону юга и к поглощению различных неханьских этнических групп на протяжении столетий в различные моменты китайской истории. [26] [30] [31] Ко времени династий Тан и Сун китайцы-ханьцы были основными жителями плодородных равнинных районов и городов южного Китая, [32] а племена меньшинства занимали высокогорья.

Личность

Китайцы-ханьцы в традиционной одежде

Термин «Хань» относится не только к определенному этническому коллективу, но также указывает на общее происхождение, историю и культурную идентичность . Термин «Хуася» использовался современниками древнекитайского философа Конфуция в эпоху Воюющих царств для разъяснения общей этнической принадлежности всех китайцев; [33] Китайцы называли себя Хуа Жэнь . [34] Период Воюющих царств привел к появлению китайцев эпохи Чжоу, называвших себя Хуася (буквально «прекрасное величие»), что отчетливо использовалось для обозначения «цивилизованной» культуры в отличие от народов, считавшихся « варварскими » по отношению к соседним и прилегающим окрестностям, граничащим с королевствами Чжоу, которые были населены различными неханьскими китайскими народами вокруг них. [35] [26] [36] [37] Людей ханьского происхождения, имеющих иностранное гражданство другой страны, обычно называют людьми Хуа (华人;華人; Huárén ) или Хуацзу (华族;華族; Huázú ). Два соответствующих вышеупомянутых термина применяются исключительно к тем, у кого этническое происхождение хань, которое семантически отличается от Чжунго Жэнь (中国人;中國人), которое имеет коннотации и последствия, ограниченные гражданами и подданными Китая, особенно в отношении людей неханьской китайской этнической принадлежности . [38] [39] [22]

Обозначение

«Ханьцы»

Название «народ Хань» (漢人;汉人; Hànrén ) впервые появилось в период Северного и Южного Китая и было вдохновлено династией Хань , которая считается одним из первых золотых веков в истории Китая . Будучи единой и сплоченной империей, сменившей недолговечную династию Цинь, Китай Хань утвердился в качестве центра восточноазиатского геополитического порядка того времени, проецируя свою силу и влияние на азиатских соседей. Он был сопоставим с современной Римской империей по численности населения, географическому охвату и культурному охвату. [40] [41] [42] Престиж и известность династии Хань побудили многих древних хуася идентифицировать себя как «народ Хань». [35] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] Аналогичным образом китайский язык также стал называться и упоминаться как «язык хань» (漢語;汉语; Hànyǔ ) с тех пор, а китайская письменность упоминается как « ханьские иероглифы ». [41] [48] [45]

ХуарэньиХуайи

До династии Хань древние китайские учёные использовали термин Хуася (華夏;华夏; Huáxià ) в текстах для описания собственно Китая , в то время как китайское население упоминалось как «различные Хуа» (諸華;诸华; Zhūhuá ) или «различные Ся» (诸夏;諸夏; Zhūxià ). Это дало начало двум терминам, которые в настоящее время широко используются зарубежными китайцами в качестве этнической идентичности для китайской диаспоры – Хуарэнь (華人;华人; Huárén ; «этнические китайцы») и Хуацяо (华侨;華僑; Huáqiáo ; «китайский иммигрант»), что означает зарубежные китайцы . [22] Это также дало начало литературному названию КитаяЧжунхуа (中華;中华; Zhōnghuá ; «Центральный Китай»). [23] В то время как общий термин Чжунго жэнь (中國人;中国人) относится к любому гражданину Китая или китайскому подданному независимо от их этнического происхождения и не обязательно подразумевает ханьское происхождение, термин хуарэнь в его узком, классическом использовании подразумевает Центральные равнины или ханьское происхождение. [39]

Тангрен.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}Да

Среди некоторых южноханьских китайских диалектов, таких как кантонский , хакка и миннань , существует другой термин — танский китайский ( китайский :唐人; пиньинь : Táng Rén , буквально «люди Тан»), происходящий от поздней династии Тан , считающейся еще одним золотым веком и высшей точкой китайской цивилизации. Самоидентификация как Тан Жэнь популярна в Южном Китае, потому что именно в это время массивные волны миграции и поселения привели к смещению центра тяжести китайской нации от суеты Центральных равнин к мирным землям к югу от Янцзы и на юго-восточном побережье, что привело к серьезному заселению китайцами земель, до сих пор считавшихся частью малонаселенной границы или периферии империи. Гуандун и Фуцзянь, до сих пор считавшиеся захолустными регионами, населенными потомками солдат гарнизона, изгнанников и беженцев, стали новыми центрами и представителями культуры ханьского Китая под влиянием новых мигрантов хань. Термин используется в повседневном разговорном дискурсе, а также является элементом одного из слов для обозначения Чайнатауна : «улица людей Тан» ( китайский :唐人街; пиньинь : Táng Rén Jiē ; Jyutping : tong4 jan4 gaai1 ). [49] Фраза Huá Bù ,華埠;华埠также используется для обозначения той же области.

Подгруппы китайцев хань

Дети китайцев хань

Китайцев-хань можно разделить на различные подгруппы в зависимости от разновидности китайского языка, на котором они говорят. [50] [51] Волны миграции происходили на протяжении всей долгой истории Китая и его обширных географических пространств, что привело к появлению подгрупп ханьцев, которые сегодня встречаются в различных регионах современного Китая и имеют различные региональные особенности. [50] [51] [52] [53] [54]

Экспансия народа хань за пределы своей традиционной родины в районе реки Хуанхэ является важной частью их исторического сознания и этногенеза и объясняет их современное разнообразие.

На протяжении истории было несколько периодов массовой миграции ханьцев в Юго-Восточный и Южный Китай. [52] Первоначально малонаселенные регионы Южного Китая были заселены племенами, известными только как Бай Юэ или Сто Юэ. Многие из этих племен развились в королевства под правителями и знатью ханьской этнической группы, но сохраняли большинство бай Юэ в течение нескольких столетий. [ требуется цитата ] Другие же были насильно перенесены в Синосферу имперскими амбициями таких императоров, как Цинь Ши Хуанди и Хань У Ди, оба из которых поселили сотни тысяч китайцев на этих землях, чтобы сформировать сельскохозяйственные колонии и военные гарнизоны. Даже тогда контроль над этими землями был незначительным, и культурная идентичность бай Юэ оставалась сильной до тех пор, пока устойчивые волны эмиграции ханьских китайцев во времена династий Цзинь, Тан и Сун не изменили полностью демографический баланс. [ требуется цитата ]

Военные гарнизоны и сельскохозяйственные колонии

Говорят, что первый император Цинь Шихуан-ди послал несколько сотен тысяч мужчин и пятнадцать тысяч женщин для создания сельскохозяйственных и военных поселений в Линнане (современные Гуанси и Гуандун) под руководством генерала по имени Чжао То. Знаменитый император Хань, Хань У-ди, приказал еще двумстам тысячам человек построить корабли для атаки и колонизации региона Линнань, тем самым увеличив население в Гуандуне и Гуанси. Первые городские поселения в регионе, например, Паньюй, были созданы поселенцами хань, а не бай-юэ, которые предпочитали поддерживать небольшие поселения, существующие за счет подсечно-огневого земледелия и выращивания риса. Позже, во время правления Ван Мана , Гуандун, Северный Вьетнам и Юньнань испытали всплеск мигрантов из Хань-китайцев. [52] Однако демографический состав и культура этих регионов в этот период едва ли могли быть названы китайскими за пределами этих сельскохозяйственных поселений и военных форпостов. [ необходима ссылка ]

Исторические миграции на юг

Карта, показывающая экспансию династии Хань во II веке до н.э.

Происхождение современного народа хань и его подгрупп невозможно понять отдельно от их исторических миграций на юг, приведших к депопуляции Центральных равнин, расколу между теми, кто остался, и теми, кто направился на юг, и их последующему слиянию с аборигенными племенами к югу от Янцзы, в то время как центры культуры и богатства ханьского Китая переместились из бассейна реки Хуанхэ в Цзяннань и, в меньшей степени, в Фуцзянь и Гуандун. [ необходима цитата ]

В различные моменты китайской истории крах центральной власти перед лицом варварских восстаний или вторжений и потеря контроля над китайским сердцем вызывали массовые миграционные волны, которые трансформировали демографический состав и культурную идентичность юга. Этот процесс устойчивой массовой миграции был известен как «одежда и головные уборы, движущиеся на юг» 衣冠南渡 (yì guān nán dù), из-за того, что его первыми возглавили аристократические классы. [55] [32] [56]

Такие миграционные волны были многочисленны и были вызваны такими событиями, как Восстание пяти варваров во время династии Цзинь (304–316 гг. н. э.), в котором Китай был полностью захвачен меньшинствами, ранее служившими вассалами и слугами Сыма (королевский дом Цзинь), восстание Ань Лу Шаня во время династии Тан (755–763 гг. н. э.), инцидент Цзинкан (1127 г. н. э.) и войны Цзинь-Сун . Эти события вызвали широкомасштабное опустошение и даже обезлюдили север, что привело к полному социальному и политическому краху и краху центральной власти на Центральных равнинах, вызвав массовые, устойчивые волны миграции китайцев хань в Южный Китай, [57] [58], что привело к формированию отдельных родословных Хань, [59] которые также, вероятно, ассимилировали к настоящему времени частично китаизированного Бай Юэ в своей среде.

Современные подгруппы ханьских китайцев, такие как кантонцы , хакка , хэнхуа , хайнаньцы , народы хокло , гань , сян , народы, говорящие на языке у , все заявляют о своем происхождении от ханьских китайцев, ссылаясь на официальные истории и собственные генеалогические записи в поддержку таких заявлений. [32] [56] [60] [61] Лингвисты выдвигают гипотезу, что разновидности китайского языка у и минь происходят от того, как говорили на китайском языке во времена Цзинь, [62] в то время как юэ и хакка — от того, как говорили на китайском языке во времена Тан и Сун, примерно полтысячелетия спустя. [63] Присутствие субстратов тай-крадай в этих диалектах могло быть связано с ассимиляцией оставшихся групп бай-юэ, интегрировавших эти земли в собственно синосферу.

Первая волна: Династия Цзинь — Война восьми принцев и восстание пяти варваров

Основные кочевые группы, участвовавшие в восстании пяти варваров

Хаос Восстания пяти варваров спровоцировал первое массовое движение ханьских китайцев, в котором доминировали гражданские лица, а не солдаты, на юг, возглавляемое в основном аристократией и элитой Цзинь. Таким образом, Цзяннань, включающий прибрежные районы Ханчжоу и долину Янцзы, был заселен в 4 веке н. э. семьями, произошедшими от китайской знати. [52] [64] Для огромного числа ханьских китайцев, иммигрировавших в этот период, были созданы специальные « командорства иммигрантов» и «белые регистры» [52] , в которые вошли такие известные семьи, как Ван и Се. [65] Религиозная группа, известная как Небесные мастера, внесла свой вклад в движение. Цзяннань стал самым густонаселенным и процветающим регионом Китая. [66] [67]

Восстание пяти варваров также привело к переселению Фуцзянь. Провинция Фуцзянь, коренные жители которой были депортированы на Центральные равнины Хань У Ди, теперь была заселена китайскими поселенцами и колонистами из глубинки Китая. «Восемь великих фамилий» — это восемь благородных семей, которые мигрировали с Центральных равнин в Фуцзянь — это кланы Ху, Хэ, Цю, Дань, Чжэн, Хуан, Чэнь и Линь, которые остаются там и по сей день. [68] [69] [70] [71]

Династия Тан и восстание Ань Лу Шаня

Ань Лу Шань , чье восстание привело к сокращению зарегистрированной численности населения династии Тан с 53 миллионов до 17 миллионов человек.

После восстания Ань Лу Шаня на юг двинулась новая волна ханьских переселенцев из северного Китая. [54] [57] [32] [56] [72] В начале восстания в 755 году в империи Тан было зарегистрировано 52,9 миллиона жителей, а после его окончания в 764 году — только 16,9 миллиона. [ необходима цитата ] Вероятно, разница в цифрах переписи была вызвана полным крахом административных возможностей, а также повсеместным бегством ханьских китайцев с севера и их массовой миграцией на юг. [ необходима цитата ]

К настоящему времени численность китайцев-ханьцев на юге значительно превзошла численность бай-юэ. Гуандун и Фуцзянь испытали значительный приток поселенцев из северных китайцев-ханьцев, что привело к тому, что многие кантонцы, хоккиенцы и теочуэ стали идентифицировать себя как «людей Тан» (唐人; Tángrén ), что послужило средством утверждения и признания их этнического и культурного происхождения и идентичности. [73]

Войны Цзинь-Сун и монгольское вторжение

Войны Цзинь-Сун привели к опустошению северного Китая и перемещению еще большего числа ханьцев в южный Китай.

Войны Цзинь -Сун вызвали еще одну волну массовой миграции ханьских китайцев из Северного Китая в Южный Китай, [32] [56] что привело к дальнейшему росту численности ханьских китайцев в южных китайских провинциях. Формирование народов хайнаньцы и хакка можно отнести к хаосу этого периода.

Монгольское вторжение в тринадцатом веке снова вызвало резкий приток беженцев из северных китайцев-ханьцев на юг, чтобы поселиться и развить дельту Жемчужной реки . [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] Эти массовые миграции на протяжении столетий неизбежно привели к демографической экспансии, экономическому процветанию, сельскохозяйственному прогрессу и культурному расцвету Южного Китая, который оставался относительно мирным в отличие от своего северного аналога. [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [ чрезмерное цитирование ]

Распределение

Восемь основных диалектов мандаринского наречия в материковом Китае

Материковый Китай

Подавляющее большинство китайцев хань – более 1,2 миллиарда – проживает в Китайской Народной Республике (КНР), где они составляют около 90% от общей численности населения. [87] Китайцы хань в Китае были культурно, экономически и политически доминирующим большинством по отношению к неханьским меньшинствам на протяжении большей части зафиксированной истории Китая. [88] [89] Китайцы хань составляют большинство почти во всех китайских провинциях, муниципалитетах и ​​автономных районах, за исключением автономных районов Синьцзян (38% или 40% в 2010 году) и Тибетский автономный район (8% в 2014 году), где уйгуры и тибетцы составляют большинство соответственно.

Гонконг и Макао

Китайцы-ханьцы также составляют большинство в обоих специальных административных районах КНР – около 92,2% и 88,4% населения Гонконга и Макао соответственно. [90] [91] [ проверка не удалась ] Китайцы-ханьцы в Гонконге и Макао были культурно, экономически и политически доминирующим большинством по сравнению с неханьскими меньшинствами. [92] [93]

Юго-Восточная Азия

Около 30-40 миллионов человек ханьского происхождения живут в Юго-Восточной Азии. [94] Согласно исследованию популяционной генетики , Сингапур является «страной с самой большой долей ханьского населения» в Юго-Восточной Азии. [95] Сингапур является единственной страной в мире, где зарубежные китайцы составляют большинство населения и остаются культурными, экономическими и политическими арбитрами страны по отношению к своим коллегам из неханьского меньшинства. [93] [96] [92] Вплоть до последних нескольких десятилетий зарубежные общины хань происходили преимущественно из районов Восточного и Юго-Восточного Китая (в основном из провинций Фуцзянь , Гуандун и Хайнань , и в меньшей степени из Гуанси , Юньнань и Чжэцзян ). [95]

Тайвань

Храм Луншань Манка в Тайбэе

На Тайване проживает более 22 миллионов человек ханьского происхождения. [97] Сначала эти мигранты выбирали места для поселения, которые напоминали те районы, которые они покинули в материковом Китае, независимо от того, прибыли ли они на север или юг Тайваня. [ необходима цитата ] Иммигранты хокло из Цюаньчжоу селились в прибрежных районах, а иммигранты из Чжанчжоу, как правило, собирались на внутренних равнинах, в то время как хакка населяли холмистые районы.

Столкновения и напряженность между двумя группами из-за земли, воды, этно-расовых и культурных различий привели к переселению некоторых общин, и со временем имели место различные степени смешанных браков и ассимиляции. На Тайване китайцы-хань (включая как ранних тайваньских поселенцев-хань, так и недавних материковых китайцев, прибывших на Тайвань с Чан Кайши в 1949 году) составляют более 95% населения. Они также были политически, культурно и экономически доминирующим большинством по отношению к неханьским коренным тайваньским народам . [93] [92]

Другие

Общая численность китайского населения за рубежом во всем мире составляет около 60 миллионов человек. [98] [99] [100] Зарубежные китайцы хань обосновались во многих странах по всему миру, особенно в западном мире, где около 4 миллионов человек ханьского происхождения проживают в Соединенных Штатах (около 1,5% населения), [101] более 1 миллиона в Австралии (5,6%) [14] [ не удалось проверить ] и около 1,5 миллиона в Канаде (5,1%), [102] [103] [ не удалось проверить ] около 231 000 в Новой Зеландии (4,9%), [104] [ не удалось проверить ] и около 750 000 в странах Африки к югу от Сахары. [105]

История

У китайцев-ханьцев богатая история, которая охватывает тысячи лет, а их исторические корни уходят во времена древнего Китая . На протяжении всей истории ханьцев, Китай управлялся династиями , с периодами, в течение которых он видел циклы расширения, сжатия, единства и фрагментации. Из-за подавляющего численного и культурного доминирования культуры хань в Китае, большую часть письменной истории Китая можно читать как «историю китайцев-ханьцев», намекая и окрашивая только мимолетными ссылками на их этнические неханьские аналоги меньшинства . [106] [28]

Предыстория

Китайцы-ханьцы называют себя « потомками Янь и Хуан ».

Предыстория китайцев хань тесно переплетена как с археологией, биологией, историческими текстовыми записями, так и с мифологией. Этническая группа, от которой китайцы хань изначально ведут свое происхождение, была конфедерацией земледельческих племен позднего неолита и раннего бронзового века, известных как хуася, которые жили вдоль бассейнов рек Гуаньчжун и Хуанхэ в Северном Китае. [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [ чрезмерное цитирование ] Кроме того, многочисленные этнические группы были ассимилированы и поглощены китайцами хань в различные моменты истории Китая. [111] [114] [107] Как и многие современные этнические группы, этногенез китайцев хань был длительным процессом, который включал в себя экспансию последовательных китайских династий и ассимиляцию ими различных неханьских этнических групп , которые были китаизированы на протяжении столетий. [115] [116] [117] [118]

Гробница Хуанди в Шэньси

Во времена династий Западная Чжоу и Хань китайские писатели-ханьцы устанавливали генеалогические линии, опираясь на легендарные материалы, происходящие от династии Шан , [119] в то время как историк династии Хань Сыма Цянь в «Записях великого историка» помещает правление Желтого императора , легендарного лидера племен Юсюн (有熊氏), в начало китайской истории. Желтому императору традиционно приписывают объединение с соседними племенами Шэньнун после победы над их лидером, императором Янь , в битве при Баньцюане . Затем недавно объединенные племена Яньхуан объединили силы, чтобы победить своего общего врага с востока, Чию из племени Цзюли (九黎), в битве при Чжолу и установили свое культурное господство в регионе Центральной равнины . По сей день современные китайцы-ханьцы называют себя « потомками Янь и Хуан ».

Хотя изучение этого периода истории осложнено отсутствием современных записей, открытие археологических памятников позволило идентифицировать последовательность неолитических культур вдоль реки Хуанхэ. Вдоль среднего и нижнего течения реки Хуанхэ располагались культура Цишань ( ок.  6500–5000 до н. э. ), культура Яншао ( ок.  5000–3000 до н. э. ), культура Луншань ( ок.  3000–2000 до н. э. ) и культура Эрлитоу ( ок.  1900–1500 до н. э. ). Считается, что эти культуры связаны с происхождением сино -тибетских языков , а позднее и синитских языков . [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] Они стали основой для формирования древнекитайского языка и основания династии Шан , первой подтвержденной династии Китая.

Ранняя история

Ранняя древнекитайская история в значительной степени легендарна, состоящая из мифических сказаний, переплетенных со спорадическими летописями, написанными столетиями или тысячелетиями позже. « Записи великого историка» Сыма Цяня зафиксировали период после битвы при Чжолу, во время правления последовательных поколений союзных правителей ( китайский :共主), известных как Три государя и Пять императоров (ок. 2852–2070 гг. до н. э.), которые, как утверждается, были избраны к власти среди племен. [ необходима цитата ] Это период, для которого существует мало надежных археологических свидетельств — эти государи в основном считаются культурными героями .

династия Ся

Первая династия, описанная в китайских исторических записях, — это династия Ся (ок. 2070–1600 гг. до н. э.), основанная Юем Великим после того, как император Шунь отрекся от власти, чтобы вознаградить Юя за его работу по укрощению Великого потопа . Сын Юя, Ци , сумел не только установить себя в качестве следующего правителя, но и продиктовать своим сыновьям право наследования по умолчанию, сделав династию Ся первой в истории, где генеалогическая преемственность была нормой. Считается, что цивилизационное процветание династии Ся в это время дало начало названию «Хуася» ( упрощенный китайский :华夏; традиционный китайский :華夏; пиньинь : Huá Xià , «великолепный Ся»), термин, который повсеместно использовался на протяжении всей истории для определения китайской нации. [125]

Однако убедительные археологические свидетельства, датируемые до 16 века до н. э., редко доступны. Недавние усилия проекта «Хронология Ся–Шан–Чжоу» выявили связь между культурой Эрлитоу и династией Ся, но ученые не смогли прийти к единому мнению относительно надежности такой истории. [ необходима цитата ]

династия Шан

Династия Ся была свергнута после битвы при Минтяо , около 1600 г. до н. э., Чэн Таном , который основал династию Шан ( ок.  1600–1046 гг. до н. э.). Самые ранние археологические примеры китайской письменности относятся к этому периоду — от иероглифов, начертанных на гадательных костях, используемых для гадания, — но хорошо развитые иероглифы намекают на гораздо более раннее происхождение письменности в Китае.

Во времена династии Шан люди из области У в дельте реки Янцзы считались другим племенем и описывались как скудно одетые, татуированные и говорящие на другом языке. Позже Тайбо , старший дядя Цзи Чана , осознав, что его младший брат Цзили был мудрее и заслуживал унаследовать трон, бежал в У [126] и поселился там. Три поколения спустя король У из династии Чжоу победил короля Чжоу (последнего короля Шан) и отдал в удел потомкам Тайбо в У [126] — отражая более позднюю историю Наньюэ , где китайский король и его солдаты правили неханьским населением и смешивались с местными жителями, которые со временем были китаизированы .

династия Чжоу

После битвы при Муе династия Шан была свергнута Чжоу (во главе с Цзи Фа ), которая возникла как западное государство вдоль реки Вэй во 2-м тысячелетии до н. э. Династия Чжоу разделяла язык и культуру народа Шан и расширила их влияние, охватив большую часть территории к северу от реки Янцзы . [127] Благодаря завоеванию и колонизации большая часть этой территории попала под влияние китаизации, и эта культура распространилась на юг. Однако вскоре после этого власть царей Чжоу распалась, и возникло множество автономных вассальных государств. Эта династия традиционно делится на две эпохи — Западная Чжоу (1046–771 гг. до н. э.) и Восточная Чжоу (770–256 гг. до н. э.) — причем последняя далее делится на периоды Весны и Осени (770–476 гг. до н. э.) и Воюющих царств (476–221 гг. до н. э.). Это был период значительной культурной и философской диверсификации (известный как Сто школ мысли ), и конфуцианство , даосизм и легизм являются одними из самых важных сохранившихся философий этой эпохи. [ необходима цитата ]

Имперская история

династия Цинь

Хаотичный период Воюющих царств династии Восточная Чжоу подошел к концу с объединением Китая западным государством Цинь после завоевания всех других соперничающих государств [ когда? ] при короле Ин Чжэне . Затем король Чжэн дал себе новый титул « Первый император Цинь » ( китайский :秦始皇帝; пиньинь : Qín Shǐ Huángdì ), создав прецедент на следующие два тысячелетия. Чтобы укрепить административный контроль над недавно завоеванными частями страны, Первый император издал указ о общенациональной стандартизации валюты, письменности и единиц измерения, чтобы объединить страну экономически и культурно. Он также приказал осуществить крупномасштабные инфраструктурные проекты, такие как Великая стена , канал Линцюй и дорожная система Цинь, чтобы укрепить границы в военном отношении. По сути, он создал централизованное бюрократическое государство, заменившее старую феодальную конфедеративную систему предшествующих династий, сделав Цинь первой императорской династией в истории Китая. [ необходима цитата ]

Эта династия, иногда фонетически записываемая как «династия Цинь», была предложена в XVII веке Мартино Мартини и поддержана более поздними учеными, такими как Пол Пеллиот и Бертольд Лауфер, в качестве этимологического источника современного английского слова «China». [ необходима цитата ]

династия Хань

Служанка и советник, одетые в шелковые одежды , керамические статуэтки эпохи Западной Хань.

Правление первой императорской династии было недолгим. Из-за самодержавного правления первого императора и его масштабных трудовых проектов, которые спровоцировали восстание среди его населения, династия Цинь вскоре после его смерти впала в хаос. Под коррумпированным правлением его сына и преемника Хухая династия Цинь рухнула всего через три года. Затем из последовавших гражданских войн возникла династия Хань (206 г. до н. э. - 220 г. н. э.) и преуспела в создании гораздо более долговечной династии. Она продолжила многие из институтов, созданных династией Цинь, но приняла более умеренное правление. При династии Хань процветали искусство и культура, в то время как империя Хань расширялась в военном отношении во всех направлениях . Многие китайские ученые, такие как Хо Пин-ти, считают, что концепция ( этногенез ) этнической принадлежности хань, хотя и является древней, формально укоренилась в династии Хань. [128] Династия Хань считается одним из золотых веков китайской истории, а современный народ хань взял свое этническое название от этой династии, а китайскую письменность называют « ханьскими иероглифами ». [129]

Троецарствие в Цзинь

Карта империи Тан в 742 году, показывающая основные провинции империи.

За падением династии Хань последовала эпоха раздробленности и несколько столетий разобщенности на фоне войн между соперничающими королевствами. Был короткий период процветания при местной китайской династии Хань, известной как Цзинь ( 266–420 до н. э.), хотя затяжная борьба внутри правящего дома Сыма (司馬) спровоцировала затяжной период раздробленности, восстания иммигрантских племен, которые служили рабами и наемными слугами, и расширенное неместное правление. [ необходима цитата ]

Неродное правило

During this time, areas of northern China were overrun by various non-Han nomadic peoples, which came to establish kingdoms of their own, the most successful of which was the Northern Wei established by the Xianbei. From this period, the native population of China proper was referred to as Hanren, or the "People of Han" to distinguish them from the nomads from the steppe. Warfare and invasion led to one of the first great migrations of Han populations in history, as they fled south to the Yangzi and beyond, shifting the Chinese demographic center and speeding up sinicization of the far south. At the same time, most of the nomads in northern China came to be sinicized as they ruled over large Chinese populations and adopted elements of their culture and administration. Of note, the Xianbei rulers of Northern Wei ordered a policy of systematic sinicization, adopting Han surnames, institutions, and culture, so the Xianbei became Han Chinese.

Sui and Tang

Cortege of Emperor Li Xian, Emperor of the Tang

Han Chinese rule resumed during the Sui and Tang dynasties, led by the Han Chinese families of the Yang (杨) and Li (李) surnames respectively. Both the Sui and Tang dynasties are seen as high points of Han Chinese civilization. These dynasties both emphasized their aristocratic Han Chinese pedigree and enforced the restoration of Central Plains culture, even the founders of both dynasties had already intermarried with non-Han or partly-Han women from the Dugu and Yuwen families.[citation needed]

The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties saw continuing emigration from the Central Plains to the south-eastern coast of what is now China proper, including the provinces of Fujian, Guangdong, and Hainan. This was especially true in the latter part of the Tang era and the Five Dynasties period that followed; the relative stability of the south coast made it an attractive destination for refugees fleeing continual warfare and turmoil in the north.[citation needed]

Song to Qing

Tea competition in Song China

The next few centuries saw successive invasions of Han and non-Han peoples from the north. In 1279, the Mongols conquered all of China, becoming the first non-Han ethnic group to do so, and established the Yuan dynasty. Emigration, seen as disloyal to ancestors and ancestral land, was banned by the Song and Yuan dynasties.[130]

Zhu Yuanzhang, who had a Han-centered concept of China, and regarded expelling "barbarians" and restoring Han people's China as a mission, established the Ming dynasty in 1368 after the Red Turban Rebellions. During this period, China referred to the Ming Empire and to the Han people living in them, and non-Han communities were separated from China.[131]

Early Manchu rulers treated China as equivalent to both the Ming Empire and to the Han group.[131] In 1644, the Ming capital, Beijing, was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels and the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide. The Manchus of the Qing dynasty then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing. Remnant Ming forces led by Koxinga fled to Taiwan and established the Kingdom of Tungning, which eventually capitulated to Qing forces in 1683. Taiwan, previously inhabited mostly by non-Han aborigines, was sinicized during this period via large-scale migration accompanied by assimilation, despite efforts by the Manchus to prevent this, as they found it difficult to maintain control over the island. In 1681, the Kangxi Emperor ordered construction of the Willow Palisade to prevent Han Chinese migration to the three northeastern provinces, which nevertheless had harbored a significant Chinese population for centuries, especially in the southern Liaodong area. The Manchus designated Jilin and Heilongjiang as the Manchu homeland, to which the Manchus could hypothetically escape and regroup if the Qing dynasty fell.[132] Because of increasing Russian territorial encroachment and annexation of neighboring territory, the Qing later reversed its policy and allowed the consolidation of a demographic Han majority in northeast China. The Taiping Rebellion erupted in 1850 from the anti-Manchu sentiment of the Han Chinese, which killed at least twenty million people and made it one of the bloodiest conflicts in history.[133] Late Qing revolutionary intellectual Zou Rong famously proclaimed that "China is the China of the Chinese. We compatriots should identify ourselves with the China of the Han Chinese".[134]

Republic history

Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China

The Han nationalist revolutionary Sun Yat-sen made Han Chinese superiority a basic tenet of the Chinese revolution in the early 1900s.[135] In Sun's revolutionary philosophical view, Han identity is exclusively possessed by the so-called civilized Hua Xia people who originated from the Central Plains, and were also the former subjects of the Celestial empire and evangelists of Confucianism.[134] Restoring Chinese rule to the Han majority was one of the motivations for supporters of the 1911 Revolution to overthrow the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in 1912, which led to the establishment of the Han-dominated Republic of China.[136]

Mao Zedong and his People's Republic of China ("China" or "Mainland China") founded in 1949 was critical of Han chauvinism.[133] In the latter half of the 20th century, official policy of communist China marked Han chauvinism as anti-Marxist.[135] Today, the tension between the dominant Han Chinese majority and ethnic minorities remains contentious, as the deterioration in ethnic relations has compounded by China's contemporary ethnic policies in favor of ethnic minorities since its founding.[134] Han chauvinism has been gaining mainstream popularity throughout China since the 2000s, attributed to discontent toward these ethnic policies instituted by the Chinese government.[137][138] The contemporary dissatisfaction and discord between the dominant Han Chinese mainstream and its non-Han minorities has led to the Chinese government scaling back on preferential treatment for ethnic minorities under the Xi Jinping administration.[139]

Culture and society

Chinese civilization is one of the world's oldest and most complex civilizations, whose culture dates back thousands of years. Overseas Han Chinese maintain cultural affinities to Chinese territories outside of their host locale through ancestor worship and clan associations, which often identify famous figures from Chinese history or myth as ancestors of current members.[140] Such patriarchs include the Yellow Emperor and the Yan Emperor, who according to legend lived thousands of years ago and gave Han people the sobriquet "Descendants of Yan and Huang Emperor" (炎黃子孫, 炎黄子孙), a phrase which has reverberative connotations in a divisive political climate, as in that of major contentions between Mainland China and Taiwan.

Zhang Zeduan's painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival captures the daily life of people from the Song dynasty at the capital, Bianjing, today's Kaifeng.

The Han Chinese also share a distinct set of cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs that have evolved over centuries. Traditional Han customs, art, dietary habits, literature, religious beliefs, and value systems have not only deeply influenced Han culture itself, but also the cultures of its East Asian neighbors as well.[141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][excessive citations] Chinese art, Chinese architecture, Chinese cuisine, Chinese dance, Chinese fashion, Chinese festivals, Chinese holidays, Chinese language, Chinese literature, Chinese music, Chinese mythology, Chinese numerology, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese theatre all have undergone thousands of years of development and growth, while numerous Chinese sites, such as the Great Wall and the Terracotta Army, are World Heritage Sites. Since this program was launched in 2001, aspects of Chinese culture have been listed by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Throughout the history of China, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Credited with shaping much of Chinese philosophical thought, Confucianism was the official state philosophical doctrine throughout most of Imperial China's history, institutionalizing values such as filial piety, which implied the performance of certain shared rituals. Thus, villagers lavished on funeral and wedding ceremonies that imitated the Confucian standards of the Emperors.[140] Educational achievement and academic success gained through years of arduous study and mastery of classical Confucian texts was an imperative duty for defending and protecting one's family honor while also providing the primary qualifying basis criterion for entry among ambitious individuals who sought to hold high ranking and influential government positions of distinguished authority, importance, responsibility, and power within the upper echelons of the imperial bureaucracy.[152][153][154] But even among successful test takers and degree-holders who did not enter the imperial bureaucracy or who left it opting out to pursue other careers experienced significant improvements with respect to their credibility, pedigree, respectability, social status, and societal influence, resulting in a considerable amelioration with regards to the esteem, glory, honor, prestige, and recognition that they brought and garnered to their families, social circles, and the localities that they hailed from. This elevation in their social standing, respectability, and pedigree was greatly augmented both within their own family circles, as well as among their neighbors and peers compared with the regular levels of recognition that they would have typically enjoyed had they only chosen to remain as mere commoners back in their ancestral regions. Yet even such a dynamic social phenomenon has greatly influenced Han society, leading to the homogenization of the Han populace. Additionally, it has played a crucial role in the formation of a socially cohesive and distinct shared Han culture as well as the overall growth and integration of Han society. This development has been facilitated by various extraneous factors, including periods of rapid urbanization and sprouts of geographically extensive yet interconnected commodity markets.[140]

Language

Han Chinese speak various forms of the Chinese language that are descended from a common early language;[140] one of the names of the language groups is Hanyu (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語), literally the "Han language". Similarly, Chinese characters, used to write the language, are called Hanzi (simplified Chinese: 汉字; traditional Chinese: 漢字) or "Han characters".

In the Qing era, more than two-thirds of the Han Chinese population used a variant of Mandarin Chinese as their native tongue.[140] However, there was a larger variety of languages in certain areas of Southeast China, "in an arc extending roughly from Shanghai through Guangdong and into Guangxi."[140] Since the Qin dynasty, which standardized the various forms of writing that existed in China, a standard literary Chinese had emerged with vocabulary and grammar that was significantly different from the various forms of spoken Chinese. A simplified and elaborated version of this written standard was used in business contracts, notes for Chinese opera, ritual texts for Chinese folk religion and other daily documents for educated people.[140]

During the early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese based on Mandarin dialects, which had been developing for several centuries, was standardized and adopted to replace literary Chinese. While written vernacular forms of other varieties of Chinese exist, such as written Cantonese, written Chinese based on Mandarin is widely understood by speakers of all varieties and has taken up the dominant position among written forms, formerly occupied by literary Chinese. Thus, although residents of different regions would not necessarily understand each other's speech, they generally share a common written language, Standard Written Chinese and Literary Chinese.[citation needed]

From the 1950s, Simplified Chinese characters were adopted in mainland China and later in Singapore and Malaysia, while Chinese communities in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and overseas countries continue to use Traditional Chinese characters.[155] Although significant differences exist between the two character sets, they are largely mutually intelligible.

Names

Through China, the notion of hundred surnames (百家姓) is a crucial identity point of the Han people.[156]

Fashion

A Song dynasty Chinese painting Night Revels of Han Xizai showing scholars in scholar's robes and musicians dressed in a Hanfu variant, 12th-century remake of a 10th-century original by Gu Hongzhong.

Han Chinese clothing has been shaped through its dynastic traditions as well as foreign influences.[157] Han Chinese clothing showcases the traditional fashion sensibilities of Chinese clothing traditions and forms one of the major cultural facets of Chinese civilization.[158] Hanfu (漢服) or traditional Han clothing comprises all traditional clothing classifications of the Han Chinese with a recorded history of more than three millennia until the end of the Ming dynasty. During the Qing dynasty, Hanfu clothing was mostly replaced by the Manchu style until the dynasty's fall in 1911, yet Han women continued to wear clothing from Ming dynasty. Manchu and Han fashions of women's clothing coexisted during the Qing dynasty.[159][160] Moreover, neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in the traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests.[161][162] During the Republic of China period, fashion styles and forms of traditional Qing costumes gradually changed, influenced by fashion sensibilities from the Western World resulting modern Han Chinese wearing Western style clothing as a part of everyday dress.[163][158]

Han Chinese clothing has continued to play an influential role within the realm of traditional East Asian fashion as both the Japanese Kimono and the Korean Hanbok were influenced by Han Chinese clothing designs.[164][165][166][167][168]

Family

Han Chinese families throughout China have had certain traditionally prescribed roles, such as the family head (家長, jiāzhǎng), who represents the family to the outside world and the family manager (當家, dāngjiā), who is in charge of the revenues. Because farmland was commonly bought, sold or mortgaged, families were run like enterprises, with set rules for the allocation (分家, fēnjiā) of pooled earnings and assets.[140]

Han Chinese houses differ from place to place. In Beijing, the whole family traditionally lived together in a large rectangle-shaped house called a siheyuan. Such houses had four rooms at the front – guest room, kitchen, lavatory and servants' quarters. Across large double doors was a wing for the elderly in the family. This wing consisted of three rooms: a central room where the four tablets – heaven, earth, ancestor and teacher – were worshipped and two rooms attached to the left and right, which were bedrooms for the grandparents. The east wing of the house was inhabited by the eldest son and his family, while the west wing sheltered the second son and his family. Each wing had a veranda; some had a "sunroom" made with surrounding fabric and supported by a wooden or bamboo frame. Every wing was also built around a central courtyard that was used for study, exercise or nature viewing.[169]

Ancestry and lineage are an important part of Han Chinese cultural practice and self-identity, and there have been strict naming conventions since the time of the Song dynasty that have been preserved until this day. Elaborate and detailed genealogies and family registers are maintained, and most lineage branches of all surname groups will maintain a hall containing the memorial tablets (also known as spirit tablets) of deceased family members in clan halls. Extended family groupings have been very important to the Han Chinese, and there are strict conventions as how one may refer to aunts, uncles, and cousins and the spouses of the same, depending on their birth order as well as whether these blood relatives share the same surname.[citation needed]

Ancestral halls and academies, as well as tombs were of great import to the Chinese. Ancestral halls were used for the veneration or commemoration of ancestors and other large family events. Family members preferred to be buried near one another. Academies were also set up to benefit those of the same surname.[citation needed]

Food

There is no one specific uniform cuisine of the Han Chinese since the culinary traditions and food consumed varies from Sichuan's famously spicy food to Guangdong's dim sum and fresh seafood.[170] Analyses throughout the reaches of Northern and Southern China have revealed their main staple to be rice (more likely to consumed by Southerners) as well as noodles and other wheat-based food items (which are more likely to be eaten by Northerners).[171] During China's Neolithic period, southwestern rice growers transitioned to millet from the northwest, when they could not find a suitable northwestern ecology – which was typically dry and cold – to sustain the generous yields of their staple as well as it did in other areas, such as along the eastern Chinese coast.[172]

Literature

Lu Xun is one of the founding figures of modern Chinese literature.[173]

With a rich historical literary heritage spanning over three thousand years, the Han Chinese have continued to push the boundaries that have circumscribed the standards of literary excellence by showcasing an unwaveringly exceptional caliber and extensive wealth of literary accomplishments throughout the ages. The Han Chinese possess a vast catalogue of classical literature that can be traced back as far as three millennia, with a body of literature encompassing significant early works such as the Classic of Poetry, Analects of Confucius, I Ching, Tao Te Ching and the Art of War. Canonical works of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism alongside historical writings, philosophical works, treatises, poetry, drama, and fiction have been revered and immortalized as timeless cultural masterpieces within the vast expanse of Chinese literature. Historically, ambitious individuals who aspired to seek top government positions of distinguished authority, importance, and power were mandated to demonstrate their proficiency in the Confucian classics assessed through rigorous examinations in Imperial China.[152][153] Such comprehensive examinations were not only employed as the prevailing universal standards to evaluate a candidate's ethical behavior and virtuous conduct, but were also deployed as a measure of academic aptitude that determined a candidate's caliber, credibility, and eligibility for such esteemed roles of great influence and responsibility, extending beyond their prevailing entrance as a gateway into the imperial bureaucracy. Han literature itself has a rich tradition dating back thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature vernacular fiction novels that arose during the Ming dynasty which were employed as a source of cultural pleasure to entertain the masses of literate Chinese. Some of the most important Han Chinese poets in the pre-modern era were Li Bai, Du Fu and Su Dongpo. The most esteemed and noteworthy novels of great literary significance in Chinese literature, otherwise known as the Four Great Classical Novels are: Dream of the Red Chamber, Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West.

Drawing upon their extensive literary heritage rooted in a historical legacy spanning over three thousand years, the Han Chinese have continued to demonstrate a uniformly high level of literary achievement throughout the modern era as the reputation of contemporary Chinese literature continues to be internationally recognized. Erudite literary scholars who are well-versed in Chinese literature continue to remain highly esteemed in contemporary Chinese society. Liu Cixin's San Ti series won the Hugo Award.[174] Gao Xingjian became the first Chinese novelist to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2000. In 2012, the novelist and short story writer Mo Yan also received the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 2015, children's writer Cao Wenxuan was bestowed with the Hans Christian Andersen Award, the first Chinese recipient of the esteemed international children's book prize.[175]

Science and technology

The Han Chinese have made significant contributions to various fields in the advancement and progress of human civilization, including business and economy, culture and society, governance, and science and technology, both historically and in the modern era. They have also played a pivotal role in being at the forefront of shaping the evolutionary trajectory of Chinese civilization and significantly influenced the advancement of East Asian civilization in concurrence with the broader region of East Asia as a whole. The invention of paper, printing, the compass and gunpowder are celebrated in Chinese society as the Four Great Inventions.[176] The innovations of Yi Xing (683-727), a polymathic Buddhist monk, mathematician, and mechanical engineer of the Tang dynasty is acknowledged for applying the earliest-known escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe.[177][178][179][180] The accomplishments and advancements of the Song dynasty polymath Su Song (1020-1101) is recognized for inventing a hydro-mechanical astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng, which employed an early escapement mechanism.[181][182][183][177] The work of medieval Chinese polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty theorized that the sun and moon were spherical and wrote of planetary motions such as retrogradation as well as postulating theories for the processes of geological land formation.[184] Medieval Han Chinese astronomers were also among the first peoples to record observations of a cosmic supernova in 1054 AD, the remnants of which would form the Crab Nebula.[184]

In the contemporary era, Han Chinese have continued to contribute to the development and growth of modern science and technology. Among such prominently illustrious names that have been honored, recognized, remembered, and respected for their historical groundbreaking achievements include Nobel Prize laureates Tu Youyou, Steven Chu, Samuel C.C. Ting, Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Yuan T. Lee, Daniel C. Tsui, Roger Y. Tsien and Charles K. Kao (known as the "Godfather of Broadband" and "Father of Fiber Optics");[185] Fields Medalists Terence Tao and Shing-Tung Yau as well as Turing Award winner Andrew Yao. Tsien Hsue-shen was a prominent aerospace engineer who helped to establish NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.[186] Chen Jingrun was a noted mathematician recognized for his contributions to number theory, where he demonstrated that any sufficiently large even number can be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers or a prime number and a semiprime, a concept now known as Chen's theorem.[187]

The 1978 Wolf Prize in Physics inaugural recipient and physicist Chien-Shiung Wu, nicknamed the "First Lady of Physics" contributed to the development of the Manhattan Project and radically altered modern physical theory and changed the conventionally accepted view of the structure of the universe.[188] The geometer Shiing-Shen Chern has been regarded as the "father of modern differential geometry" and has also been recognized as one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th-century. Chern was awarded the 1984 Wolf Prize in mathematics in recognition for his fundamental contributions to the development and growth of differential geometry and topology.[189][190][191][192][193][194][excessive citations] The botanist Shang Fa Yang was well-noted for his research that unlocked the key to prolonging freshness in fruits and flowers and "for his remarkable contributions to the understanding of the mechanism of biosynthesis, mode of action and applications of the plant hormone, Ethylene."[195] The agronomist Yuan Longping, regarded as the "Father of Hybrid Rice" was famous for developing the world's first set of hybrid rice varieties in the 1970s, which was then part of the Green Revolution that marked a major scientific breakthrough within the field of modern agricultural research.[196][197][198][199] The physical chemist Ching W. Tang, was the inventor of the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) and hetero-junction organic photovoltaic cell (OPV) and is widely considered the "Father of Organic Electronics".[200] Biochemist Chi-Huey Wong is well known for his pioneering research in glycoscience research and developing the first enzymatic method for the large-scale synthesis of oligosaccharides and the first programmable automated synthesis of oligosaccharides. The chemical biologist Chuan He is notable for his work in discovering and deciphering reversible RNA methylation in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation.[201] Chuan is also noteworthy for having invented TAB-seq, a biochemical method that can map 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) at base-resolution genome-wide, as well as hmC-Seal, a method that covalently labels 5hmC for its detection and profiling.[202][203]

Other prominent Han Chinese who have made notable contributions the development and growth of modern science and technology include the medical researcher, physician, and virologist David Ho, who was one of the first scientists to propose that AIDS was caused by a virus, thus subsequently developing combination antiretroviral therapy to combat it. In recognition of his medical contributions, Ho was named Time magazine Person of the Year in 1996.[204] The medical researcher and transplant surgeon Patrick Soon-Shiong is the inventor of the drug Abraxane, which became known for its efficacy against lung, breast, and pancreatic cancer.[205] Soon-Shiong is also well known for performing the first whole-pancreas transplant[206][207] and he developed and first performed the experimental Type 1 diabetes-treatment known as encapsulated-human-islet transplant, and the "first pig-to-man islet-cell transplant in diabetic patients."[206] The physician and physiologist Thomas Ming Swi Chang is the inventor of the world's first artificial cell made from a permeable plastic sack that would effectively carry hemoglobin around the human circulatory system.[208] Chang is also noteworthy for his development of charcoal-filled cells to treat drug poisoning in addition to the discovery of enzymes carried by artificial cells as a medical tool to correct the faults within some metabolic disorders.[209] Min Chueh Chang was the co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill and is known for his pioneering work and significant contributions to the development of in vitro fertilization at the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology.[210][211] Biochemist Choh Hao Li discovered human growth hormone (and subsequently used it to treat a form of dwarfism caused by growth hormone deficiency), beta-endorphin (the most powerful of the body's natural painkillers), follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (the key hormone used in fertility testing, an example is the ovulation home test).[212][213] Joe Hin Tjio was a cytogeneticist renowned as the first person to recognize the normal number of human chromosomes, a breakthrough in karyotype genetics.[214][215] The bio-engineer Yuan-Cheng Fung, was regarded as the "Father of modern biomechanics" for pioneering the application of quantitative and analytical engineering principles to the study of the human body and disease.[216][217] China's system of "barefoot doctors" was among the most important inspirations for the World Health Organization conference in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan in 1978, and was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough in international health ideology emphasizing primary health care and preventive medicine.[218][219]

Religion

A traditional representation of The Vinegar Tasters, an allegorical image representing Buddhists, Confucianists, and Taoists

Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism, as well as other various traditional homegrown Chinese philosophies, have influenced not only Han Chinese culture, but also the neighboring cultures in East Asia. Chinese spiritual culture has been long characterized by religious pluralism and Chinese folk religion has always maintained a profound influence within the confines of Chinese civilization both historically and in the modern era. Indigenous Confucianism and Taoism share aspects of being a philosophy or a religion and neither demand exclusive adherence, resulting in a culture of tolerance and syncretism, where multiple religions or belief systems are often practiced in conjunction with local customs and traditions. Han culture has for long been influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, while in recent centuries Christianity has also gained a foothold among the population.[220]

Chinese folk religion is a set of worship traditions of the ethnic deities of the Han people. It involves the worship of various extraordinary figures in Chinese mythology and history, heroic personnel such as Guan Yu and Qu Yuan, mythological creatures such as the Chinese dragon or family, clan and national ancestors. These practices vary from region to region and do not characterize an organized religion, though many traditional Chinese holidays such as the Duanwu (or Dragon Boat) Festival, Qingming Festival, Zhongyuan Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival come from the most popular of these traditions.[citation needed]

Taoism, another indigenous Han philosophy and religion, is also widely practiced by the Han in both its folk forms and as an organized religion with its traditions having been a source of vestigial perennial influence on Chinese art, poetry, philosophy, music, medicine, astronomy, Neidan and alchemy, dietary habits, Neijia and other martial arts and architecture. Taoism was the state religion during the Han and Tang eras where it also often enjoyed state patronage under subsequent emperors and successive ruling dynasties.[citation needed]

Confucianism, although sometimes described as a religion, is another indigenous governing philosophy and moral code with some religious elements like ancestor worship. It continues to be deeply ingrained in modern Chinese culture and was the official state philosophy in ancient China during the Han dynasty and until the fall of imperial China in the 20th century (though it is worth noting that there is a movement in China today advocating that the culture be "re-Confucianized").[221]

During the Han dynasty, Confucian ideals were the dominant ideology. Near the end of the dynasty, Buddhism entered China, later gaining popularity. Historically, Buddhism alternated between periods of state tolerance (and even patronage) and persecution. In its original form, certain ideas in Buddhism was not quite compatible with traditional Chinese cultural values, especially with the Confucian sociopolitical elite, as certain Buddhist values conflicted with Chinese sensibilities. However, through centuries of mutual tolerance, assimilation, adaptation, and syncretism, Chinese Buddhism gained an respectable place in the culture. Chinese Buddhism was also influenced by Confucianism and Taoism and exerted influence in turn – such as in the form of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhist influences in Chinese folk religion, such as the cult of Guanyin, who is treated as a Bodhisattva, immortal, goddess or exemplar of Confucian virtue, depending on the tradition. The four largest schools of Han Buddhism (Chan, Jingtu, Tiantai and Huayan) were all developed in China and later spread throughout the Chinese sphere of influence.[citation needed]

Though Christian influence in China existed as early as the 7th century, Christianity did not gain a significant foothold in China until the establishment of contact with Europeans during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Christian beliefs often had conflicts with traditional Chinese values and customs which eventually resulted in the Chinese Rites controversy and a subsequent reduction in Christian influence in the country. Christianity grew considerably following the First Opium War, after which foreign missionaries in China enjoyed the protection of the Western powers and engaged in widespread proselytizing.[222]

The People's Republic of China government defined Chinese-speaking Muslims as a separate ethnic group, the "Hui People". This was opposed by the Republic of China government and Muslim celebrities such as Bai Chongxi, the founder of the Chinese Muslim Association. Han Chinese Muslims were categorised as "inland nationals with special living customs" under the Republic of China government.[223] Bai Chongxi believed that "Hui" is an alternative name for Islam as a religion in the Chinese language instead of the name for any ethnic group, and that Chinese-speaking Muslims should not be considered as a separate ethnic group apart from other Han Chinese.[224]

Genetics

Internal genetic structure

The internal genetic structure of the Han Chinese is consistent with the vast geographical expanse of China and the recorded history of large migratory waves over the past several millennia have engendered the emergence of the diverse Han subgroups displaying slight but discernible physical and physiological differences. Although genetically similar, Han Chinese subgroups exhibit a north-south stratification in their genetics,[225][226][227][228] with centrally placed populations acting as conduits for outlying ones.[225] Although a genetic north-south cline can be demonstrated, many studies simply conveniently categorize the Han Chinese into two subgroups: northern and southern Han Chinese[229]

Variation notwithstanding, Han Chinese subgroups are genetically closer to each other than they each are to their Korean and Yamato neighbors,[230] to whom they are also genetically close in general. The close genetic relationship between the Han across the entirety of China has led to their characterization as having a "coherent genetic structure".[226][228]

The two notable exceptions to this structure are Pinghua and Tanka people,[231] who on their patrilines, bear a closer genetic resemblance to aboriginal peoples, but have Han matrilines. The Tanka are a group of boat-dwellers who speak a Sinitic language and who claim Han ancestry, but who have traditionally faced severe discrimination from the other southern Han subgroups. Unlike the Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan Han (whose dominant Y-chromosome haplotype is the Han patriline O2-M122), the Tanka have been shown instead to have a predominantly non-Han patriline similar to Daic peoples from Guizhou.[232][233] However, matrilineally, the Tanka are closely clustered with the Hakka Han and Teochew Han, rather than with Austronesian or Austroasiatic populations, thus supporting an admixture hypothesis and validating, even if only partially, their own claims to Han ancestry.[232][233]

A PCA graph illustrates the genetic differences among Han Chinese subgroups.[234]

Demic diffusion and north-south differences

The estimated contribution of northern Han to the southern Han is substantial in the paternal ancestral lineages in addition to a geographic cline that exists for its corresponding maternal ancestry. These genetic findings are in concord with historical records confirming the continuous and large migratory waves of northern Han Chinese inhabitants escaping dynastic changes, geopolitical upheavals, instability, warfare and famine into what is now today modern Southern China.[235][227][236][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][74][75][76][77][78][79][excessive citations] These successive waves of Han migration to the south, subsequent intermarriage and cultural mixing between the northern Han migrants and the non-Han aborigines over the past few thousand years gave rise to modern Chinese demographics - a Han Chinese super-majority and minority non-Han Chinese indigenous peoples.[227]

Han Chinese in Fujian and Guangdong provinces also show excessive ancestries from Late Neolithic Fujianese sources (35.0–40.3%), which are more significant in modern Ami, Atayal and Kankanaey (66.9–74.3%), and less significant in Han Chinese from Zhejiang (22%), Jiangsu (17%) and Shandong (8%).[237] Meanwhile, modern north Han Chinese received 45% and 55% of their ancestries from Devil’s Gate hunter-gatherer-related and Oakaie-related peoples respectively, with Shaanxi Han inheriting 25.2% and 74.8% of their ancestries from Yakut-related and She-related peoples respectively. This led Chen et. al (2019) to theorize that Han Chinese emerged from admixture between an ancient Tibeto-Burman and a local pre-Sinitic population, which might have been linguistically Altaic in Neolithic times, when agriculture emerged in Yangtze and Yellow River basins.[238]

Zhou et. al (2022) states that the massive Han subgroups differ in some of their ancestral components despite shared Neolithic Yellow River farmer ancestry, reflective of their vast demographic history. They tend to share some maternal ancestry with geographically close minority groups. For example, southern Han show evidence of being admixed with populations of Tai-Kadai and Austronesian ancestry. Southwestern Han show admixture with Hmong-Mien speakers whilst northwestern Han have very minor West Eurasian ancestral components, dating 4,500–1,200/1,300 years ago. Northeastern Han like Liaoning Han have more Yellow River Basin and some ancient Northeast Asian ancestry than south Han Chinese.[239]

Patrilineal DNA

Typical Y-DNA haplogroups of present-day Han Chinese include Haplogroup O-M95, Haplogroup O-M122, Haplogroup O-M175, C, Haplogroup N, Haplogroup N-M231 and Haplogroup Q-M120.[240]

The Y-chromosome haplogroup distribution between southern Han Chinese and northern Han Chinese populations and principal core component analysis indicates that almost all modern Han Chinese populations form a tight cluster in their Y chromosome:

Patrilineal DNA indicates the northern Han Chinese were the primary contributors to the paternal gene pool of modern southern Han Chinese.[240][241][242][246] The data also indicates that the contribution of southern non-Han aboriginals to the southern Han Chinese genetics is limited. In short, male Han Chinese were the primary drivers of Han Chinese expansion in successive migratory waves from the north into what is now modern southern China as is shown by a greater contribution to the Y-chromosome than the mtDNA from northern to southern Han.[227]

During the Zhou dynasty, or earlier, peoples with haplogroup Q-M120 also contributed to the ethnogenesis of Han Chinese people. This haplogroup is implied to be spread across in the Eurasian steppe and north Asia since it is found among Cimmerians in Moldova and Bronze Age natives of Khövsgöl. But it is currently near-absent in these regions except for East Asia. In modern China, haplogroup Q-M120 can be found in the northern and eastern regions.[247]

Matrilineal DNA

MtDNA of Han Chinese increases in diversity as one looks from northern to southern China, which suggests that the influx of male Han Chinese migrants intermarried with the local female non-Han aborigines after arriving in what is now modern-day Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan and other regions of southern China.[241][242] In these populations, the contribution to mtDNA from Han Chinese and indigenous tribes is evenly matched, representing a substantial mtDNA contribution from non-Han groups, collectively known as the Bai Yue or Hundred Yue.[241][242]

A study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences into the gene frequency data of Han sub-populations and ethnic minorities in China, showed that Han sub-populations in different regions are also genetically quite close to the local ethnic non-Han minorities, meaning that in many cases, the blood of ethnic minorities had mixed into Han genetic substrate through varying degrees of intermarriage, while at the same time, the blood of the Han had also mixed into the genetic substrates of the local ethnic non-Han minorities.[248]

Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Han Chinese

The Hengbei archaeological site in Jiang County, southern Shanxi was part of the suburbs of the capital during the Zhou dynasty. Genetic material from human remains in Hengbei have been used to examine the genetic continuity between ancient and modern Han Chinese.[226]

Comparisons of Y chromosome single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) between modern Northern Han Chinese and 3000-year-old Hengbei samples reveal extreme similarity, confirming genetic continuity between ancient Hengbei inhabitants to present-day Northern Han Chinese. This shows that the core genetic structure of Northern Han Chinese was established more than three thousand years ago in the Central Plains Area.[226][249] Additionally, these studies indicate that contemporary northern and southern Han Chinese populations exhibit an almost identical Y-DNA genetic structure, indicating a common paternal descent, corroborating the historical record of Han Chinese migration to the south.[226] However, a study of mitochondrial DNA from Yinxu commoner graves in the Shang dynasty showed similarity with modern northern Han Chinese, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese - indicating admixture on the matriline.[250]

Closely related East Asian groups

The Han Chinese show a close yet distinguishable genetic relationship with other East Asian populations such as the Koreans and Yamato.[251][252][253][254][255][256][230][excessive citations] Although the genetic relationship is close, the various Han Chinese subgroups are genetically closer to each other than to their Korean and Yamato counterparts. [230]

Other research suggests a significant overlap between Yamato Japanese and the northern Han Chinese in particular.[257]

Notes

  1. ^ simplified Chinese: 汉族; traditional Chinese: 漢族; pinyin: Hànzú; lit. 'Han ethnic group' or
    simplified Chinese: 汉人; traditional Chinese: 漢人; pinyin: Hànrén; lit. 'Han people'

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Further reading

External links

Media related to Han Chinese people at Wikimedia Commons