Исландия ( исландский : Ísland , произносится [ˈistlant]) )[d]—североевропейское островное государствомеждуСеверной АтлантикойиСеверным Ледовитым океаном, наСрединно-Атлантическом хребтемеждуСеверной АмерикойиЕвропой. Оно культурно и политически связано с Европой и является самоймалонаселенной страной.[12]Егостолицаи крупнейший город —Рейкьявик, в котором проживает около 36% из примерно 380 000 жителей страны. Официальный язык страны —исландский.
Исландия находится на разломе между тектоническими плитами , и ее геологическая активность включает гейзеры и частые извержения вулканов . [13] [14] Внутренняя часть состоит из вулканического плато, характеризующегося песчаными и лавовыми полями , горами и ледниками , и множество ледниковых рек текут к морю через низины . Исландия согревается Гольфстримом и имеет умеренный климат, несмотря на широту чуть южнее Полярного круга . Ее широта и морское влияние делают лето прохладным, и большинство ее островов имеют полярный климат .
Согласно древнему манускрипту Landnámabók , заселение Исландии началось в 874 году нашей эры, когда норвежский вождь Ингольф Арнарсон стал первым постоянным поселенцем острова. [15] В последующие столетия норвежцы и, в меньшей степени, другие скандинавы иммигрировали в Исландию, привозя с собой рабов (т. е. рабов или крепостных) гэльского происхождения.
Остров управлялся как независимое содружество под управлением местного парламента, Альтинга , одного из старейших действующих законодательных собраний в мире. После периода гражданских распрей Исландия присоединилась к норвежскому правлению в 13 веке. В 1397 году Исландия последовала за интеграцией Норвегии в Кальмарскую унию вместе с королевствами Дания и Швеция, перейдя под фактическое датское правление после ее распада в 1523 году. Датское королевство силой ввело лютеранство в 1550 году, [16] а Кильский договор официально уступил Исландию Дании в 1814 году.
Под влиянием идеалов национализма после Французской революции борьба Исландии за независимость приняла форму и достигла кульминации в датско-исландском Акте об унии в 1918 году, с созданием Королевства Исландия , разделяющего через личную унию действующего монарха Дании . Во время оккупации Дании во Второй мировой войне Исландия подавляющим большинством голосов проголосовала за то, чтобы стать республикой в 1944 году, положив конец оставшимся формальным связям с Данией. Хотя Альтинг был приостановлен с 1799 по 1845 год, Исландия, тем не менее, может претендовать на поддержание одного из самых продолжительных парламентов в мире.
До 20 века Исландия в основном полагалась на рыболовство и сельское хозяйство. Индустриализация рыболовства и помощь по плану Маршалла после Второй мировой войны принесли процветание, и Исландия стала одной из самых богатых и развитых стран мира. В 1994 году она стала частью Европейской экономической зоны , что еще больше диверсифицировало ее экономику в таких секторах, как финансы, биотехнологии и производство .
Исландия имеет рыночную экономику с относительно низкими налогами , по сравнению с другими странами ОЭСР , [17] а также самое большое членство в профсоюзах в мире . [18] Она поддерживает скандинавскую систему социального обеспечения , которая обеспечивает всеобщее здравоохранение и высшее образование . [19] Исландия занимает высокие места в международных сравнениях национальных показателей, таких как качество жизни, образование, защита гражданских свобод, прозрачность правительства и экономическая свобода. Она имеет наименьшее население среди всех членов НАТО и является единственной страной, не имеющей постоянной армии , имея только легковооруженную береговую охрану . [20]
В сагах исландцев говорится, что норвежец по имени Наддодд (или Наддадор) был первым норвежцем , достигшим Исландии; в девятом веке он назвал ее Snæland или «Снежная страна», потому что там шел снег. После Наддодда прибыл швед Гардар Сваварссон , и поэтому остров стал называться Гардарсхольмюр, что означает «Остров Гардара». [21]
Затем пришел викинг по имени Флоки Вильгердарсон ; его дочь утонула по дороге, а его скот умер от голода. Саги говорят, что довольно подавленный Флоки поднялся на гору и увидел фьорд ( Arnarfjörður ), полный айсбергов, что побудило его дать острову его новое и нынешнее название. [22] Мнение о том, что исландские поселенцы-викинги выбрали это название, чтобы отбить охоту заселять их зеленый остров, является мифом. [22]
Согласно Landnámabók и Íslendingabók , монахи, известные как Papar, жили в Исландии до прибытия скандинавских поселенцев, возможно, члены хиберно-шотландской миссии . Археологические раскопки выявили руины хижины в Хафнире на полуострове Рейкьянес . Радиоуглеродное датирование показывает, что она была заброшена где-то между 770 и 880 годами. [23] В 2016 году археологи обнаружили длинный дом в Стёдварфьордюре , который датируется 800 годом. [24]
Шведский исследователь-викинг Гардар Сваварссон был первым, кто обогнул Исландию в 870 году и установил, что это остров. [25] Он остался там на зиму и построил дом в Хусавике . Гардар уехал следующим летом, но один из его людей, Наутфари , решил остаться с двумя рабами. Наутфари поселился в месте, которое сейчас известно как Наутфаравик, и он и его рабы стали первыми постоянными жителями Исландии, которые были задокументированы. [26] [27]
Норвежско-скандинавский вождь Ингольфр Арнарсон построил свою усадьбу в современном Рейкьявике в 874 году. За Ингольфром последовало много других эмигрантов-поселенцев, в основном скандинавов и их рабов , многие из которых были ирландцами или шотландцами . [28] К 930 году большая часть пахотных земель на острове была захвачена; был инициирован Альтинг , законодательное и судебное собрание для регулирования Исландского Содружества . Нехватка пахотных земель также послужила толчком к заселению Гренландии, начавшемуся в 986 году. [29] Период этих ранних поселений совпал со Средневековым теплым периодом , когда температуры были аналогичны температурам начала 20-го века. [30] В это время около 25% Исландии было покрыто лесами, по сравнению с 1% в настоящее время. [31] Христианство было принято единогласно около 999–1000 гг., хотя норвежское язычество сохранялось среди некоторых слоев населения в течение нескольких лет после этого. [32]
Исландское Содружество просуществовало до XIII века, когда политическая система, разработанная первоначальными поселенцами, оказалась неспособной справиться с растущей властью исландских вождей. [33] Внутренние распри и гражданские распри эпохи Стурлунгов привели к подписанию Ветхого Завета в 1262 году, который положил конец Содружеству и привел Исландию под норвежскую корону. Владение Исландией перешло от Королевства Норвегия (872–1397) к Кальмарской унии в 1415 году, когда были объединены королевства Норвегия, Дания и Швеция. После распада унии в 1523 году она осталась норвежской зависимостью, как часть Дании–Норвегии .
Неплодородная почва, извержения вулканов, вырубка лесов и суровый климат сделали жизнь в обществе, где выживание зависело почти полностью от сельского хозяйства, суровой. Черная смерть охватила Исландию дважды, первый раз в 1402–1404 годах и снова в 1494–1495 годах. [34] Первая вспышка убила от 50% до 60% населения, а вторая — от 30% до 50%. [35]
Около середины XVI века, в рамках протестантской Реформации , король Дании Кристиан III начал навязывать лютеранство всем своим подданным. Йон Арасон , последний католический епископ Холара , был обезглавлен в 1550 году вместе с двумя своими сыновьями. Впоследствии страна официально стала лютеранской, и лютеранство с тех пор остается доминирующей религией.
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В XVII и XVIII веках Дания ввела жесткие торговые ограничения в Исландии. Стихийные бедствия, включая извержения вулканов и болезни, способствовали сокращению населения. Летом 1627 года берберийские пираты совершили события, известные на местном уровне как турецкие похищения , в ходе которых сотни жителей были угнаны в рабство в Северной Африке, а десятки убиты; это было единственное вторжение в истории Исландии, приведшее к жертвам. [36] [37] По оценкам, эпидемия оспы в Исландии 1707–08 годов унесла жизни от четверти до трети населения. [38] [39] В 1783 году произошло извержение вулкана Лаки , имевшее разрушительные последствия. [40] В годы, последовавшие за извержением, известные как Туманные лишения ( исландский : Móðuharðindin ), погибло более половины всего скота в стране. Около четверти населения умерло от голода в результате последовавшего за этим голода . [41]
В 1814 году, после Наполеоновских войн , Дания-Норвегия была разделена на два отдельных королевства по Кильскому договору , но Исландия оставалась датской зависимостью. На протяжении всего 19-го века климат страны продолжал становиться холоднее, что привело к массовой эмиграции в Новый Свет , особенно в регион Гимли , Манитоба в Канаде, который иногда называли Новой Исландией . Эмигрировало около 15 000 человек из общей численности населения в 70 000 человек. [42]
Национальное сознание возникло в первой половине XIX века, вдохновленное романтическими и националистическими идеями из материковой Европы. Исландское движение за независимость оформилось в 1850-х годах под руководством Йона Сигурдссона , основанное на зарождающемся исландском национализме, вдохновленном Fjölnismenn и другими исландскими интеллектуалами, получившими датское образование. В 1874 году Дания предоставила Исландии конституцию и ограниченное самоуправление. Это было расширено в 1904 году, и Ханнес Хафстейн стал первым министром Исландии в датском кабинете министров.
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Датско -исландский акт об унии , соглашение с Данией, подписанное 1 декабря 1918 года и действовавшее в течение 25 лет, признало Исландию полностью суверенным и независимым государством в личной унии с Данией. Правительство Исландии открыло посольство в Копенгагене и обратилось к Дании с просьбой осуществлять от ее имени определенные вопросы обороны и иностранных дел, при условии консультаций с Альтингом. Датские посольства по всему миру демонстрировали два герба и два флага: Королевства Дания и Королевства Исландия . Правовое положение Исландии стало сопоставимо с положением стран, входящих в Содружество Наций, таких как Канада, сувереном которой является король Карл III .
Во время Второй мировой войны Исландия присоединилась к Дании, заявив о нейтралитете. После немецкой оккупации Дании 9 апреля 1940 года Альтинг заменил короля регентом и объявил, что исландское правительство возьмет под контроль свою собственную оборону и иностранные дела. [43] Месяц спустя британские вооруженные силы провели операцию «Форк» — вторжение и оккупацию страны, нарушив исландский нейтралитет . [44] В 1941 году правительство Исландии, дружественное Великобритании, пригласило тогдашние нейтральные Соединенные Штаты взять на себя ее оборону, чтобы Великобритания могла использовать свои войска в другом месте. [43]
31 декабря 1943 года датско-исландский Акт об унии истек после 25 лет. Начиная с 20 мая 1944 года исландцы голосовали на четырехдневном плебисците по вопросу о прекращении личной унии с Данией, упразднении монархии и создании республики. 97% голосов было подано за прекращение унии и 95% — за новую республиканскую конституцию. [45] Исландия официально стала республикой 17 июня 1944 года, а Свейнн Бьёрнссон стал ее первым президентом.
В 1946 году силы обороны США покинули Исландию. Страна официально стала членом НАТО 30 марта 1949 года на фоне внутренних разногласий и беспорядков . 5 мая 1951 года было подписано соглашение об обороне с Соединенными Штатами. Американские войска вернулись в Исландию как силы обороны Исландии и оставались там на протяжении всей холодной войны . США вывели последние свои войска 30 сентября 2006 года.
Исландия процветала во время Второй мировой войны. Сразу послевоенный период сопровождался существенным экономическим ростом , обусловленным индустриализацией рыболовной промышленности и программой США « План Маршалла» , через которую исландцы получили наибольшую помощь на душу населения среди всех европейских стран (209 долларов США, а разоренные войной Нидерланды оказались на втором месте с 109 долларами США). [46] [47]
Вигдис Финнбогадоттир вступила на пост президента Исландии 1 августа 1980 года, став первой избранной женщиной-главой государства в мире. [48]
1970-е годы были отмечены « тресковыми войнами» — несколькими спорами с Соединенным Королевством по поводу расширения Исландией своих рыболовных границ до 200 морских миль (370 км) от берега. Исландия принимала саммит в Рейкьявике в 1986 году между президентом США Рональдом Рейганом и советским премьером Михаилом Горбачевым , в ходе которого они предприняли значительные шаги в направлении ядерного разоружения . Несколько лет спустя Исландия стала первой страной, признавшей независимость Эстонии , Латвии и Литвы , когда они отделились от СССР. На протяжении 1990-х годов страна расширяла свою международную роль и разрабатывала внешнюю политику, ориентированную на гуманитарные и миротворческие цели. С этой целью Исландия предоставляла помощь и экспертные знания различным интервенциям под руководством НАТО в Боснии , Косово и Ираке . [49]
Исландия присоединилась к Европейской экономической зоне в 1994 году, после чего экономика была значительно диверсифицирована и либерализована. Международные экономические отношения еще больше усилились после 2001 года, когда недавно дерегулированные банки Исландии начали привлекать большие суммы внешнего долга , способствуя 32-процентному росту валового национального дохода Исландии в период с 2002 по 2007 год. [50] [51]
В 2003–2007 годах, после приватизации банковского сектора при правительстве Давида Оддссона , Исландия перешла к экономике, основанной на международных инвестиционно-банковских и финансовых услугах. [52] Она быстро становилась одной из самых процветающих стран в мире, но сильно пострадала от крупного финансового кризиса . [52] Кризис привел к наибольшей миграции из Исландии с 1887 года, при этом чистая эмиграция в 2009 году составила 5000 человек. [53]
Экономика Исландии стабилизировалась при правительстве Йоханны Сигурдардоттир и выросла на 1,6% в 2012 году. [54] Правоцентристская Партия независимости вернулась к власти в коалиции с Прогрессивной партией на выборах 2013 года. [55] В последующие годы в Исландии наблюдался всплеск туризма, поскольку страна стала популярным местом отдыха. В 2016 году премьер-министр Сигмундур Давид Гуннлаугссон ушел в отставку после того, как был замешан в скандале с «Панамскими документами» . [56] Досрочные выборы 2016 года привели к формированию правого коалиционного правительства Партии независимости , Партии реформ и «Светлого будущего» . [57] Это правительство пало, когда «Светлое будущее» вышло из коалиции из-за скандала, связанного с письмом отца тогдашнего премьер-министра Бьярни Бенедиктссона в поддержку осужденного за совершение сексуальных преступлений в отношении детей. [58] Внеочередные выборы в октябре 2017 года привели к власти новую коалицию, состоящую из Партии независимости, Прогрессивной партии и Лево-зеленого движения во главе с Катрин Якобсдоттир . [59]
После парламентских выборов 2021 года новое правительство, как и предыдущее, представляло собой трехпартийную коалицию Партии независимости, Прогрессивной партии и Лево-зеленого движения во главе с премьер-министром Катрин Якобсдоттир. [60] В апреле 2024 года Бьярни Бенедиктссон из Партии независимости сменил Катрин Якобсдоттир на посту премьер-министра. [61]
Исландия находится на стыке Северного Атлантического и Северного Ледовитого океанов. Главный остров полностью находится к югу от Полярного круга , который проходит через небольшой исландский остров Гримсей у северного побережья главного острова. Страна расположена между 63 и 68° северной широты и 25 и 13° западной долготы .
Исландия находится ближе к континентальной Европе , чем к материковой части Северной Америки, хотя она ближе всего к Гренландии (290 километров; 155 морских миль), острову Северной Америки. Исландию обычно включают в Европу по географическим, историческим, политическим, культурным, лингвистическим и практическим причинам. [62] [63] [64] [65] Геологически остров включает части обеих континентальных плит. Ближайшие участки суши в Европе — Фарерские острова (420 км; 225 морских миль); остров Ян-Майен (570 км; 310 морских миль); Шетландские и Внешние Гебриды , оба примерно в 740 км (400 морских миль); и Шотландский материк и Оркнейские острова , оба примерно в 750 км (405 морских миль). Ближайшая часть континентальной Европы — материковая Норвегия, расположенная примерно в 970 км (525 морских миль), а материковая часть Северной Америки — в 2070 км (1120 морских миль), на северной оконечности Лабрадора .
Исландия — 18-й по величине остров в мире и второй по величине остров в Европе после Великобритании и Ирландии. Главный остров занимает площадь 101 826 км 2 (39 315 кв. миль), но вся страна занимает площадь 103 000 км 2 (40 000 кв. миль), из которых 62,7% приходится на тундру . Исландия содержит около 30 мелких островов, включая малонаселенные Гримсей и архипелаг Вестманнаэйяр . Озера и ледники покрывают 14,3% ее поверхности; только 23% покрыто растительностью. [66] Самые большие озера — водохранилище Торисватн : 83–88 км 2 (32–34 кв. мили) и Тингвадлаватн : 82 км 2 (32 кв. мили); другие важные озера включают Лагарфльот и Миватн . Йокулсарлон - самое глубокое озеро, его высота составляет 248 м (814 футов). [67]
Геологически Исландия является частью Срединно-Атлантического хребта , хребта, вдоль которого океаническая кора распространяется и образует новую кору. Эта часть срединно-океанического хребта расположена над мантийным плюмом, из-за чего Исландия находится над поверхностью моря. Хребет отмечает границу между Евразийской и Североамериканской плитами , и Исландия была создана путем рифтинга и аккреции через вулканизм вдоль хребта. [68]
Множество фьордов перемежают 4970-километровую (3088 миль) береговую линию Исландии, где также расположено большинство поселений. Внутренняя часть острова, Исландское нагорье , представляет собой холодное и непригодное для жизни сочетание песка, гор и лавовых полей . Крупнейшие города — столица Рейкьявик , а также ее отдаленные города Коупавогюр , Хабнарфьордюр и Гардабайр , близлежащий Рейкьянесбайр , где расположен международный аэропорт, и город Акюрейри на севере Исландии. Остров Гримсей на Полярном круге содержит самое северное поселение Исландии, тогда как Кольбейнсей содержит самую северную точку Исландии. [69] В Исландии есть три национальных парка : Ватнайёкюдль , Снайфедльсйёкюдль и Тингведлир . [70] Страна считается «сильным исполнителем» в области охраны окружающей среды, заняв 13-е место в Индексе экологической эффективности Йельского университета за 2012 год. [71]
Геологически молодая земля возрастом от 16 до 18 миллионов лет, Исландия является поверхностным выражением Исландского плато , большой магматической провинции, образовавшейся в результате вулканизма из Исландской горячей точки и вдоль Срединно-Атлантического хребта , последний из которых проходит прямо через него. [72] [73] Это означает, что остров очень геологически активен со многими вулканами, включая Геклу , Эльдгьяу , Хердюбрейд и Эльдфедль . [74] Извержение вулкана Лаки в 1783–1784 годах вызвало голод, в результате которого погибло почти четверть населения острова. [75] Кроме того, извержение вызвало появление облаков пыли и дымки над большей частью Европы и частями Азии и Африки в течение нескольких месяцев после этого, а также повлияло на климат в других регионах. [76]
В Исландии много гейзеров , включая Гейсир , от которого произошло английское слово, и знаменитый Строккюр , который извергается каждые 8–10 минут. После периода бездействия Гейсир снова начал извергаться после серии землетрясений в 2000 году . С тех пор Гейсир стал тише и извергается нечасто. [77]
Благодаря широкому распространению геотермальной энергии и использованию многих рек и водопадов для гидроэлектроэнергии , большинство жителей имеют доступ к недорогой горячей воде, отоплению и электричеству. Остров в основном состоит из базальта , лавы с низким содержанием кремния , связанной с изверженным вулканизмом , как это произошло также на Гавайях . Однако в Исландии есть множество вулканических типов (композитные и трещинные), многие из которых производят более развитые лавы, такие как риолит и андезит . В Исландии есть сотни вулканов с примерно 30 активными вулканическими системами. [78]
Surtsey , один из самых молодых островов в мире, является частью Исландии. Названный в честь Surtr , он поднялся над океаном в результате серии вулканических извержений между 8 ноября 1963 года и 5 июня 1968 года. [69] Только учёным, исследующим рост новой жизни, разрешено посещать остров. [79]
21 марта 2010 года вулкан Эйяфьятлайокудль на юге Исландии извергся впервые с 1821 года, заставив 600 человек покинуть свои дома. [80] Дополнительные извержения 14 апреля заставили сотни людей покинуть свои дома. [81] Образовавшееся облако вулканического пепла привело к серьезным сбоям в авиасообщении по всей Европе. [82]
Еще одно крупное извержение произошло 21 мая 2011 года. На этот раз это был вулкан Гримсвотн , расположенный под толстым льдом крупнейшего в Европе ледника Ватнайёкюдль . Гримсвотн — один из самых активных вулканов Исландии, и это извержение было намного мощнее, чем активность Эйяфьятлайокюдля в 2010 году, с пеплом и лавой, выброшенными на 20 км (12 миль) в атмосферу, создав большое облако. [83]
Большая вулканическая активность наблюдалась на полуострове Рейкьянес в 2020 и 2021 годах после почти 800 лет бездействия. После извержения вулкана Фаградалсфьялл 19 марта 2021 года эксперты National Geographic предсказали, что это «может ознаменовать начало десятилетий вулканической активности». Извержение было небольшим, что привело к прогнозу, что этот вулкан вряд ли будет угрожать «каким-либо населенным пунктам». [84]
Самая высокая точка Исландии — 2110 м (6920 футов) — зафиксирована в Хваннадальшнукуре (64°00′ с.ш., 16°39′ з.д.).
18 декабря 2023 года началось извержение в кратерном ряду Сундхнукур в вулканической системе Эльдвёрп-Свартсенги на полуострове Рейкьянес в Исландии , примерно в 4 км к северо-востоку от рыбацкой общины Гриндавик , которая была эвакуирована в ноябре после того, как сильная сейсмическая активность повредила дороги, дома и другие сооружения и вызвала опасения по поводу неминуемого извержения. Ноябрьские землетрясения также привели к закрытию геотермального спа-центра Blue Lagoon — одной из крупнейших туристических достопримечательностей Исландии. Извержение представляло собой 3,5-километровое линейное трещинное событие в районе, где недавно наблюдалось концентрированное поднятие земной коры, с фонтанами лавы, достигающими высоты 100 метров. [85] [86] В отличие от извержений Эйяфьятлайокудля в 2010 году , это событие не должно было вызвать значительных разрушений из-за ограниченного образования облака пепла вулканом. [87] Извержение было недолгим, активность быстро снижалась и прекратилась 21 декабря. [88]
Новое извержение началось 14 января 2024 года, вскоре после того, как власти эвакуировали Гриндавик из-за серии небольших землетрясений. [89] Несколько часов спустя вторая трещина открылась недалеко от окраины города, и лава поползла к домам. Защитные стены, построенные к северу от Гриндавика, были прорваны. [90] [91] Поток лавы из первой трещины перерезал главную дорогу в Гриндавик, а лава из второй трещины разрушила три дома. Извержение прекратилось через два дня. [92]
8 февраля началось третье извержение в том же районе, что и декабрьское.
16 марта началось четвертое извержение между горами Хагафелл и Стоура-Скугфелл. Первоначально это было извержение из трещины протяженностью 3 км, но постепенно оно переросло в лаву, выбрасываемую из нескольких жерл, и в конечном итоге в один жерл, который превратился в конус разбрызгивания. Активность продолжалась до апреля с разной интенсивностью и потоком лавы. Вместо того чтобы распространяться на новые области, лава текла по предыдущим потокам того же извержения, образуя щит вокруг конуса.
Климат побережья Исландии субарктический . Теплое Северо-Атлантическое течение обеспечивает в целом более высокие годовые температуры, чем в большинстве мест с аналогичной широтой в мире. Регионы мира с подобным климатом включают Алеутские острова , полуостров Аляска и Огненную Землю , хотя эти регионы находятся ближе к экватору. Несмотря на близость к Арктике, побережье острова остается свободным ото льда в течение зимы. Ледяные вторжения редки, последнее произошло на северном побережье в 1969 году. [93]
Климат различается в разных частях острова. В целом, южное побережье теплее, влажнее и ветренее, чем северное. Центральные нагорья — самая холодная часть страны. Низменные внутренние районы на севере — самые засушливые. Снегопады зимой более обычны на севере, чем на юге.
Самая высокая температура воздуха была зафиксирована 22 июня 1939 года в Тейгархорне на юго-восточном побережье и составила 30,5 °C (86,9 °F). Самая низкая температура была −38 °C (−36,4 °F) 22 января 1918 года в Гримсстадире и Мёдрудалуре на северо-востоке внутренних районов. Температурные рекорды для Рейкьявика составили 26,2 °C (79,2 °F) 30 июля 2008 года и −24,5 °C (−12,1 °F) 21 января 1918 года.
Вся страна находится в едином экорегионе : исландские бореальные березовые леса и высокогорная тундра . Некоторые районы покрыты ледниками .
Фитогеографически Исландия относится к арктической провинции Циркумбореального региона в пределах Бореального царства . Растительность в основном представлена лугами, которые регулярно выпасаются скотом. Наиболее распространенным деревом, произрастающим в Исландии, является северная береза ( Betula pubescens ), которая раньше образовывала леса на большей части Исландии, наряду с осинами ( Populus tremula ), рябинами ( Sorbus aucuparia ), можжевельниками обыкновенными ( Juniperus communis ) и другими более мелкими деревьями, в основном ивами.
Когда остров впервые заселили, он был обширно покрыт лесами, около 30% земли покрывали деревья. В конце XII века Ари Мудрый описал его в Íslendingabók как «лесной от гор до морского берега». [96] Постоянное поселение людей сильно нарушило изолированную экосистему тонких вулканических почв и ограниченного видового разнообразия . Леса интенсивно эксплуатировались на протяжении веков для получения дров и древесины. [97] Вырубка лесов , ухудшение климата во время Малого ледникового периода и чрезмерный выпас овец, завезенных поселенцами, привели к потере критического верхнего слоя почвы из-за эрозии . Сегодня многие фермы заброшены. Три четверти из 100 000 квадратных километров Исландии (39 000 квадратных миль) затронуты эрозией почвы; 18 000 км 2 (6900 квадратных миль) затронуты в степени, достаточно серьезной, чтобы сделать землю бесполезной. [96] В настоящее время существует лишь несколько небольших березовых насаждений в изолированных заповедниках. Исландская лесная служба и другие лесохозяйственные группы содействуют масштабному лесовосстановлению в стране. Благодаря усилиям по лесовосстановлению лесной покров Исландии увеличился в шесть раз с 1990-х годов. Это помогает компенсировать выбросы углерода, предотвратить песчаные бури и повысить производительность ферм. [98] Посадка новых лесов увеличила количество деревьев, но результат не сравнится с первоначальными лесами. Некоторые из посаженных лесов включают интродуцированные виды . [97] Самое высокое дерево в Исландии — это ель ситхинская , посаженная в 1949 году в Киркьюбайярклёйстюре ; в 2013 году ее высота составила 25,2 м (83 фута). [99] Водоросли, такие как Chondrus crispus , Phyllphora truncata и Phyllophora crispa и другие, были зарегистрированы в Исландии. [100]
Единственным местным наземным млекопитающим, когда прибыли люди, был песец , [97] который пришел на остров в конце ледникового периода, пройдя по замерзшему морю. В редких случаях летучие мыши были занесены на остров ветрами, но они не могли там размножаться. На острове нет местных или свободно живущих рептилий или амфибий. [101]
Животные Исландии включают исландских овец , крупный рогатый скот , кур , коз , крепких исландских лошадей и исландских овчарок , все они являются потомками животных, завезенных европейцами. Дикие млекопитающие включают песцов, норок , мышей, крыс, кроликов и северных оленей . Белые медведи иногда посещают остров, путешествуя из Гренландии на айсбергах, но исландских популяций не существует. [102] В июне 2008 года в том же месяце прибыли два белых медведя. [103] Морские млекопитающие включают серого тюленя ( Halichoerus grypus ) и обыкновенного тюленя ( Phoca vitulina ).
В океанских водах, окружающих Исландию, обитает множество видов рыб, и рыболовная промышленность является важной частью экономики Исландии, составляя примерно половину всего экспорта страны. Птицы, особенно морские птицы, являются важной частью животного мира Исландии. Атлантические тупики , поморники и черноногие моевки гнездятся на ее морских скалах. [104]
Коммерческий китобойный промысел практикуется время от времени [105] [106] наряду с научной охотой на китов. [107] Наблюдение за китами стало важной частью экономики Исландии с 1997 года. [108]
В Исландии известно около 1300 видов насекомых. Это мало по сравнению с другими странами (во всем мире описано более миллиона видов). В Исландии практически нет комаров . [109]
Исландия является парламентской представительной демократической республикой , где президент является главой государства , а премьер-министр Исландии является главой правительства в многопартийной системе . Члены исландского парламента избираются по пропорциональному представительству по избирательным округам .
Following the 2021 parliamentary elections, the biggest parties are the centre-right Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn), the Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn) and the Left-Green Movement (Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð). These three parties form the ruling coalition in the cabinet led by leftist Katrín Jakobsdóttir. Other political parties with seats in the Althing (Parliament) are the Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin), the People's Party (Flokkur fólksins), Iceland's Pirates (Píratar), the Reform Party (Viðreisn) and the Centre Party (Miðflokkurinn).
In 2016, Iceland was ranked second in the strength of its democratic institutions[110] and 13th in government transparency.[111] The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections,[112] compared to an OECD average of 72%. Iceland scored second in Europe for their trust in legal institutions (police, parliament and judiciary) at a mean of 73% trust as of 2018.[113]
Many political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries).[114]
Women in Iceland first gained the right to vote in 1915 (with restrictions) and increased voting rights in 1920.[115] Iceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women.[116] Known as the Women's List (Kvennalistinn), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. It left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women. In the 2021 elections, 48% of members of parliament are female compared to the global average of 16% in 2009.[117][118][119] Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was the world's first democratically elected female head of state. In 2009, Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became the world's first openly LGBT head of government.[120]
Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and temporarily suspended from 1799 to 1845. Consequently, "it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy."[121] It has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years.[122]
The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government.
The president of Iceland, in contrast, is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum.[123][124] They are elected by popular vote for a term of four years with no term limit. The current president is Guðni Th. Jóhannesson. On 1 August 2016, he became the new president of Iceland, and he was re-elected with an overwhelming majority of the vote in the 2020 presidential election.[125]
The elections for the president, the Althing, and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.[126]
The cabinet in the country's government is typically appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing. However, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide amongst themselves which parties can form the cabinet and how to distribute its seats, as long as it has majority support in the Althing. If the party leaders are unable to come to an agreement within a reasonable period of time, the president will personally appoint the cabinet. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, although in 1942 the regent, Sveinn Björnsson, appointed a non-parliamentary government. Sveinn held the practical position of a president at the time, and later became the country's first official president in 1944.
The governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. There is no legal consensus on the extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest differently.[127] In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.[128]
Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, and municipalities. The eight regions are primarily used for statistical purposes. District court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.[69] Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:
The redistricting change was made to balance the weight of different districts of the country since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system but still exists.[69]
Sixty-nine municipalities in Iceland govern local matters like schools, transport, and zoning.[129] These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.[69]
Iceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe, and OECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada, and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic, and linguistic similarities, Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.
Iceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009, the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of the application for EU membership[130] and officially applied on 17 July 2009.[131] However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following the 2013 Icelandic parliamentary election the two parties that formed the island's new government—the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party—announced they would hold a referendum on EU membership.[132] In 2015, Minister for Foreign Affairs Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson informed the EU that Iceland would no longer pursue membership, but the application was not formally withdrawn and there have been subsequent calls for a referendum on the issue.[133][134]
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Iceland has no standing army but has the Icelandic Coast Guard which also maintains the Iceland Air Defence System, and an Iceland Crisis Response Unit to support peacekeeping missions and perform paramilitary functions.
The Iceland Defense Force (IDF) was a military command of the United States Armed Forces from 1951 to 2006. The IDF, created at the request of NATO, came into existence when the United States signed an agreement to provide for the defence of Iceland. The IDF also consisted of civilian Icelanders and military members of other NATO nations. The IDF was downsized after the end of the Cold War and the U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Naval Air Station Keflavik until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006. Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission.[135][136] Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq,[137] which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the conflict in Afghanistan[138] and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.[139] Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009.[140]
Iceland was the neutral host of the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over exclusive economic zones. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars, which included confrontations between the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy over British fishermen: in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from 3 to 4 nmi (5.6 to 7.4 km; 3.5 to 4.6 mi), in 1958–1961 following a further extension to 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi), in 1972–1973 with another extension to 50 nmi (92.6 km; 57.5 mi), and in 1975–1976 after another extension to 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi).[141]
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate and high level of socio-political stability.[142] Iceland is listed in Guinness World Records as the "country ranked most at peace" and the "lowest military spending per capita".[143]
In 2022, Iceland was the eighth-most productive country in the world per capita (US$78,837), and the thirteenth-most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($69,833).[144] About 85 percent of the total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources.[145] Use of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita.[146]
Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides ~20% of export earnings and employed 7% of the workforce.[69][147] The economy is now more dependent on tourism, but important sectors continue to be: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Iceland's economic dependence on fishing is diminishing, from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 20% in 2020.[148][147]
Until the 20th century, Iceland was a fairly poor country. Whaling in Iceland was historically significant. It is now one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth led Iceland to be ranked third in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2021/2022.[9] According to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland had the second-highest quality of life in the world.[149] Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world,[150] and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking is sixth.[151] Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012[update], compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.[69][152][153]
The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK). Iceland is the only country in the world to have a population under two million yet still have a floating exchange rate and an independent monetary policy.[154] A poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed.[155] Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.[156]
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%.[157] The tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population.[158] 1.7 million people visited Iceland in 2016, 3 times more than the number that came in 2010.[159] Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP,[69] consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton, and dairy products.[69] The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.[160]
Iceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world.[161] As of 2016[update], it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015.[162] According to the Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 20th most innovative country in the world in 2022 and 2023.[163][164] Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75% and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not including the many available deductions.[165] The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world.[165] There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006. Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management.[165] Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.
Despite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy.[166] There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy.[167] An assessment by the OECD 2011[168] determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy to address inflation.[168] Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and as of 2015[update] is the 31st-highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.[169]
Iceland was hit especially hard by the Great Recession that began in December 2007 because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion).[170][171] In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks.[172] Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks were to be run into bankruptcy.
On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2019[update], it was 3.5%), a move forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund (IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with a valuation at around 250 ISK per euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.[173]
On 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in the law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.[174]
Thousands of Icelanders left the country after the collapse, many of those moving to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625.[175] In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament's Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation,[176] revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis.[177] By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt.[178]
According to Bloomberg in 2014, Iceland was on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail.[179]
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Iceland has a high level of car ownership per capita, with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport.[180] Iceland has 13,034 km (8,099 mi) of administered roads, of which 4,617 km (2,869 mi) are paved and 8,338 km (5,181 mi) are not. The road speed limits are 30 and 50 km/h (19 and 31 mph) in towns, 80 km/h (50 mph) on gravel country roads and 90 km/h (56 mph) on hard-surfaced roads. A great number of interior roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads.[181]
Route 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur), completed in 1974, is the main road that runs around Iceland and connects most inhabited parts of the island. The interior of the island is mostly uninhabitable. The road is paved and is 1,332 km (828 mi) long with one lane in each direction, except between and within larger towns and cities where it has more lanes.[182] On Route 1 there are some 30 single lane bridges, particularly prevalent in the southeast.[183]
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City buses in Reykjavík (including the Capital Region) are operated by Strætó bs. Long-distance public bus services throughout the country are also provided by Strætó bs. Smaller towns such as Akureyri, Reykjanesbær and Selfoss also provide local bus services.[184] Public and private bus services are available to and from Keflavik International Airport.[185]
No passenger railways have ever operated in Iceland. Previously, temporary freight railways have operated in Iceland.
Keflavík International Airport (KEF)[186] is the largest airport and the main aviation hub for international passenger transport.[187] KEF is in the southwest of the country, 49 km (30 mi)[188] from the Reykjavík city centre.
Reykjavík Airport (RKV)[189] is the second-largest airport, located just 1.5 km from the capital centre. Reykjavík Airport serves daily regular domestic flights within Iceland, general aviation, private aviation and medivac traffic.[190]
Akureyri Airport (AEY)[191] and Egilsstaðir Airport (EGS)[192] are two other airports with domestic service and limited international service. Akureyri Airport opened an expanded international terminal in 2024.[193] There are a total of 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.
Several ferry services provide regular access to various island communities or shorten travel distances. The Smyril Line operates the ship Norröna providing an international ferry service from Seyðisfjörður to the Faroe Islands and Denmark.[194]
Several companies provide maritime transport services to Iceland, including Eimskip and Samskip. Iceland's largest ports are managed by Faxaflóahafnir.[195]
Renewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity[196] and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption,[197] with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet.[198][199] Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir,[200][201] while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station.[202] When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.[203]
In 2023, battery electric vehicles constituted 50.1% of new registrations and around 18% of the country's vehicle fleet was electrified in 2024.[204][205] Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells.[206]
Despite this, Icelanders emitted 16.9 tonnes of CO2 per capita in 2016, the highest among EFTA and EU members, mainly resulting from transport and aluminium smelting.[207] Nevertheless, in 2010, Iceland was reported by Guinness World Records as "the Greenest Country", reaching the highest score by the Environmental Sustainability Index, which measures a country's water use, biodiversity and adoption of clean energies, with a score of 93.5/100.[208]
On 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area.[209] Three exploration licences were awarded but all were subsequently relinquished.[210]
Iceland's official governmental goal is to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by the year 2030 and reach carbon neutrality by the year 2040.[211] As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.[212]
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The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities. The government does allow citizens to home educate their children, however, under a very strict set of demands.[213] Students must adhere closely to the government-mandated curriculum, and the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching certificate.
Nursery school, or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.[214][215][216]
Compulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, and ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.[217]
Upper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed-sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.
An OECD assessment found that 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%.[158] Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered excellent: the Programme for International Student Assessment ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average.[218] Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.
According to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to reach by 2020.[219] Iceland was ranked 17th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 20th in 2019.[220][221][222][223][224] A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (US$100 million or more), Iceland ranked ninth by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the United Kingdom and Canada.[225]
The original population of Iceland was of Norse and Gaelic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses. One such genetic study indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were Norsemen who brought Gaelic slaves with them.[226]
Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database that is intended to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times.[15] There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.[227] The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000.[228] Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table below).[229][230]
In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce.[1] About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant.[231] Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.[232]
The southwest corner of Iceland is by far the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. More than 70 percent of Iceland's population lives in the southwest corner (Greater Reykjavík and the nearby Southern Peninsula), which covers less than two percent of Iceland's land area. The largest town outside Greater Reykjavík is Reykjanesbær, which is located on the Southern Peninsula, less than 50 km (31 mi) from the capital. The largest town outside the southwest corner is Akureyri in northern Iceland.
Some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red settled Greenland in the late tenth century.[233] The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000, and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500.[234] People from Greenland attempted to set up a settlement at Vinland in North America, but abandoned it in the face of hostility from the Indigenous residents.[235]
Emigration of Icelanders to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. As of 2006[update], Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent,[236] while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.[237]
Iceland's 10 most populous urban areas:
Iceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.
Icelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.
English and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum. English is widely understood and spoken, while basic to moderate knowledge of Danish is common mainly among the older generations.[238] Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the largest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska (i.e. Scandinavian) in Iceland.[239]
Rather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most Western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practised. Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother. These follow the person's given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir ("Elísabet, Jón's daughter" (Jón being the father)) or Ólafur Katrínarson ("Ólafur, Katrín's son" (Katrín being the mother)).[240] Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory lists people alphabetically by the first name rather than by surname.[241] All new names must be approved by the Icelandic Naming Committee.
Iceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare (Icelandic: Velferðarráðuneytið)[242] and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.[243]
A considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care,[243] and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP[244] and 14th in spending per capita.[245] Overall, the country's health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization.[246] According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations. As of 2009[update], Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).[245]
Icelanders are among the world's healthiest people, with 81% reporting they are in good health, according to an OECD survey.[158] Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries.[245] Iceland has many campaigns for health and wellbeing, including the famous television show Lazytown, starring and created by former gymnastics champion Magnus Scheving. Infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world,[247] and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average.[245] Almost all women choose to terminate pregnancies of children with Down syndrome in Iceland.[248] The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the fourth-highest in the world.[249]
Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens.[250] According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic materials in the atmosphere is far lower than in any other industrialised country measured.[251]
In 2019, the age-adjusted suicide rate in Iceland was 11.2 cases per 100,000.[252]
Icelanders have freedom of religion guaranteed under the Constitution, although the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church:
The Evangelical Lutheran Church shall be the State Church in Iceland and, as such, it shall be supported and protected by the State.
— Article 62, Section IV of Constitution of Iceland[254]
Approximately 80 percent of Icelanders legally affiliate with a religious denomination, a process that happens automatically at birth and from which they can choose to opt out. They also pay a church tax (sóknargjald), which the government directs to help support their registered religion, or, in the case of no religion, the University of Iceland.[255]
The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2017, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:
On March 8, 2021, Iceland formally recognised Judaism as a religion for the first time. Iceland's Jews will have the choice to register as such and direct their taxes to their own religion. Among other benefits, the recognition will also allow Jewish marriage, baby-naming and funeral ceremonies to be civilly recognised.[255]
Iceland is a very secular country; as with other Nordic nations, church attendance is relatively low.[256][257] The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic.[258] A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves "religious", 31% considered themselves "non-religious", while 10% defined themselves as "convinced atheists", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the world.[259]
Icelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Nordic languages.[260]
In contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders believe independence is "very important", compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25.[261] Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.[262]
According to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD.[158] A more recent 2012 survey found that around three-quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%.[263]
Icelanders are known for their strong sense of community and lack of social isolation: An OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country. Similarly, only 6% reported "rarely" or "never" socialising with others.[158] This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation.[264]
Egalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world.[150] The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.[265] Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in.[266][267][268]
In 2011, Reykjavík was designated a UNESCO City of Literature.[269]
Iceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.
A translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions from the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.
Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation.[265] Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines,[270] and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.[271][better source needed]
Most books in Iceland are sold between late September to early November, a period known as the Christmas Book Flood (Jólabókaflóð).[269] The Flood begins with the Iceland Publisher's Association distributing Bókatíðindi, a catalogue of all new publications, free to each Icelandic home.[269]
Iceland is liberal about LGBT rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting, and assisted insemination treatment. In 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender-neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage. The law took effect on 27 June 2010.[272] The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.[272]
The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.
Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.
In recent years the artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large-scale projects and exhibitions. The artist-run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions, and projects.[273] The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum, and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.
Much Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes folk and pop traditions. Notable Icelandic music acts include medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock acts such as The Sugarcubes, Sóley and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, pop singers such as Hafdís Huld, Emilíana Torrini and Björk, solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, and post-rock bands such as Amiina and Sigur Rós. Independent music is strong in Iceland, with bands such as múm and solo artists such as Daði Freyr.
Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes.[274] The best-known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of Kvæðamannafélagið Iðunn.[275][276]
Among Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir, who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honour that includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient.[277]
The national anthem of Iceland is Lofsöngur, written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson.[278]
Iceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including in some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.[279]
Iceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's educational musical comedy programme created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the Americas, the UK and Sweden.[280] The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær. The 2015 television crime series Trapped aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according to the Guardian "the unlikeliest TV hit of the year".[281]
In 1992, the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his Children of Nature.[282] It features the story of an old man who is unable to continue running his farm. After being unwelcomed in his daughter's and father-in-law's house in town, he is put in a home for the elderly. There, he meets an old girlfriend of his youth, and they both begin a journey through the wilds of Iceland to die together. This is the only Icelandic movie to have ever been nominated for an Academy Award.[283]
Singer-songwriter Björk received international acclaim for her starring role in the Danish musical drama Dancer in the Dark, directed by Lars von Trier, in which she plays Selma Ježková, a factory worker who struggles to pay for her son's eye operation. The film premiered at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival, where she won the Best Actress Award. The movie also led Björk to nominations for Best Original Song at the 73rd Academy Awards, with the song I've Seen It All and for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama.[284]
Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's film The Sacrifice (1986). Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's The Tudors, is also Icelandic. Briem starred in the film Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008), which shot scenes in Iceland. The James Bond movie Die Another Day (2002) is set for a large part in Iceland. Christopher Nolan's film Interstellar (2014) was also filmed in Iceland for some of its scenes, as was Ridley Scott's Prometheus (2012).[285]
On 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers—the strongest journalist protection law in the world.[286] According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest-ranked countries in press freedom.[287]
CCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, are headquartered in Reykjavík. CCP Games hosts the third-most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game, according to Guinness World Records.[288]
Iceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world.[289] Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology.[290] The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country third in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.[291] In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to pornography without compromising freedom of speech.[292][293][294]
Much of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no use of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr (a yogurt-like cheese), hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding, Flatkaka (flatbread), dried fish and dark rye bread traditionally baked in the ground in geothermal areas.[295] Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.
Breakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as slátur, which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.[296][297]
Coffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, with the country being third placed by per capita consumption worldwide in 2016,[298] and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon. Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world.[299]
Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is brennivín (literally "burnt [i.e., distilled] wine"), which is similar in flavouring to the akvavit variant of Scandinavian brännvin. It is a type of schnapps made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði ("Black Death"). Modern distilleries on Iceland produce vodka (Reyka), gin (Ísafold), moss schnapps (Fjallagrasa), and a birch-flavoured schnapps and liqueur (Foss Distillery's Birkir and Björk). Martin Miller blends Icelandic water with its England-distilled gin on the island. Strong beer was banned until 1989, so bjórlíki, a mixture of legal, low-alcohol pilsner beer and vodka, became popular. Several strong beers are now made by Icelandic breweries.
Sport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active.[301] The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.
Popular sports include football, track and field, handball and basketball. Handball is often referred to as the national sport.[300] The Icelandic national football team qualified for the 2016 UEFA European football championship for the first time. They recorded a draw against later winners Portugal in the group stage, and defeated England 2–1 in the round of 16, with goals from Ragnar Sigurðsson and Kolbeinn Sigþórsson. They then lost to hosts and later finalists France in the quarter-finals.[302] Following up on this, Iceland made its debut at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. For both the European and the world championships, Iceland is to date the smallest nation in terms of population to qualify.
Iceland is also the smallest country to ever qualify for Eurobasket, having done so in both 2015 and 2017. However, they have not managed to win a single game in the European Basketball final stages.
Iceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless many golf courses throughout the island, and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000.[303] Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club.[304][305] Iceland has also won the second most World's Strongest Man competitions of any country with nine titles, including four by both Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson and most recently Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson in 2018.
Iceland is also one of the leading countries in ocean rowing. Icelandic explorer and endurance athlete Fiann Paul holds the highest number of performance-based Guinness World Records within a single athletic discipline. As of 2020, he is the first and only person to achieve the Ocean Explorers Grand Slam (performing open-water crossings on each of the five oceans using human-powered vessels) and has claimed overall speed Guinness World Records for the fastest rowing of all four oceans (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and the Arctic) in a human-powered row boat. He had achieved a total of 41, including 33 performance based Guinness World Records by 2020.[306][307][308][309][310]
Swimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum.[305] Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.
The oldest sports association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence. To this day, it remains a significant pastime.[311]
Iceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War. As of 2008[update], there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population.[312] Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in several international tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950.[313]
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{{cite news}}: |last2= has generic name (help)Benedikt Ófeigsson, a geophysicist at the Icelandic Met Office, said on the National Broadcast Company RUV's website that "it is the worst case scenario" as is located close to both Grindavík and Svartsengi [the area of the power station and Blue Lagoon].
Volcanologist Dr. Evgenia Ilyinskaya told the BBC that there would not be the same level of disruption as 2010, as these volcanoes in south-west Iceland were 'physically not able to generate the same ash clouds'.
{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help){{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity. Formally, only the Minister of Education has the power to exempt students from this, but individual schools usually grant informal exemptions.
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