Модерн ( / ˌ ɑː r ( t ) n uː ˈ v oʊ / AR(T) noo- VOH , французский: [aʁ nuvo] ;букв.«Новое искусство») — международныйстильв искусстве, архитектуре иприкладном искусстве, особенно вдекоративно-прикладном искусстве. Он часто вдохновлялся природными формами, такими как извилистые изгибы растений и цветов.[1]Другими характеристиками ар-нуво были чувство динамизма и движения, часто придаваемое асимметрией илирезкими линиями, а также использование современных материалов, в частности железа, стекла, керамики и позднее бетона, для создания необычных форм и больших открытых пространств.[2]Он был популярен между 1890 и 1910 годами впериодПрекрасной эпохи[3]и был реакцией наакадемизм,эклектизмиисторизмархитектуры и декоративно-прикладного искусства XIX века.
Одной из главных целей ар-нуво было разрушить традиционное различие между изящными искусствами (особенно живописью и скульптурой) и прикладным искусством. Он наиболее широко использовался в дизайне интерьера, графике, мебели, стеклянном искусстве, текстиле, керамике, ювелирных изделиях и работе с металлом. Стиль отвечал ведущим теоретикам 19 века, таким как французский архитектор Эжен-Эммануэль Виолле-ле-Дюк (1814–1879) и британский художественный критик Джон Раскин (1819–1900). В Британии на него оказали влияние Уильям Моррис и движение «Искусства и ремесла» . Немецкие архитекторы и дизайнеры стремились к духовно возвышающему Gesamtkunstwerk («тотальному произведению искусства»), которое объединило бы архитектуру, обстановку и искусство в интерьере в общий стиль, чтобы возвышать и вдохновлять жителей. [2]
Первые дома в стиле модерн и внутреннее убранство появились в Брюсселе в 1890-х годах в архитектуре и дизайне интерьеров домов, спроектированных Полом Ханкаром , Генри ван де Вельде и особенно Виктором Ортой , чей отель Tassel был завершен в 1893 году. [4] [5] [6] Стиль быстро переместился в Париж, где его адаптировал Гектор Гимар , который увидел работы Орты в Брюсселе и применил этот стиль к входам в новое парижское метро . Он достиг своего пика на Парижской международной выставке 1900 года , которая представила работы таких художников, как Луи Тиффани . В графическом искусстве он появился в плакатах Альфонса Мухи и в стеклянной посуде Рене Лалика и Эмиля Галле .
Из Британии, Бельгии и Франции ар-нуво распространилось по всей Европе, принимая разные названия и характеристики в каждой стране (см. раздел «Наименование» ниже). Он часто появлялся не только в столицах, но и в быстрорастущих городах, которые хотели установить художественную идентичность ( Турин и Палермо в Италии; Глазго в Шотландии; Мюнхен и Дармштадт в Германии; Барселона в Каталонии , Испания), а также в центрах движения за независимость ( Хельсинки в Финляндии, тогда входившей в состав Российской империи).
К 1914 году, с началом Первой мировой войны , ар-нуво в значительной степени исчерпал себя. В 1920-х годах его сменил в качестве доминирующего архитектурного и декоративного стиля ар-деко , а затем модернизм . [7] Стиль ар-нуво начал получать более позитивное внимание критиков в конце 1960-х годов, с большой выставкой работ Гектора Гимара в Музее современного искусства в 1970 году. [8]
Термин «ар нуво» впервые был использован в 1880-х годах в бельгийском журнале L'Art Moderne для описания творчества Les Vingt , двадцати художников и скульпторов, стремящихся к реформе посредством искусства. Название было популяризировано Maison de l'Art Nouveau («Дом нового искусства»), художественной галереей, открытой в Париже в 1895 году франко-немецким арт-дилером Зигфридом Бингом . В Британии обычно использовался французский термин « ар нуво» , в то время как во Франции его часто называли термином « стиль модерн» (родственный британскому термину « модерновый стиль ») или «стиль 1900 года» . [9] Во Франции его также иногда называли «стиль Жюля Верна» (в честь романиста Жюля Верна ), «стиль метро» (в честь железных и стеклянных входов в метро Гектора Гимара ), «искусство прекрасной эпохи » или «искусство конца века» . [10]
Art Nouveau известен под разными названиями на разных языках: ‹See Tfd› Jugendstil на немецком языке, Stile Liberty на итальянском языке, Modernisme на каталонском языке, а также известен как Modern Style на английском языке. Стиль часто связан, но не всегда идентичен стилям, которые возникли во многих странах Европы и в других местах примерно в то же время. Их местные названия часто использовались в соответствующих странах для описания всего движения.
Новое художественное движение берет свое начало в Британии, в цветочных узорах Уильяма Морриса и в движении «Искусства и ремесла», основанном учениками Морриса. Ранние прототипы стиля включают Красный дом с интерьерами Морриса и архитектурой Филиппа Уэбба (1859) и роскошную Павлинью комнату Джеймса Эбботта Макнила Уистлера . На новое движение также оказали сильное влияние художники -прерафаэлиты , включая Данте Габриэля Россетти и Эдварда Берн-Джонса , и особенно британские графические художники 1880-х годов, включая Селвина Имиджа , Хейвуда Самнера , Уолтера Крейна , Альфреда Гилберта и особенно Обри Бирдсли . [16] Стул, спроектированный Артуром Макмёрдо, был признан предшественником дизайна в стиле модерн. [17]
Во Франции на него оказал влияние теоретик архитектуры и историк Эжен Виолле-ле-Дюк , ярый противник исторического архитектурного стиля Бо-ар , чьи теории рационализма были выведены из его исследований средневекового искусства :
Виолле-ле-Дюк сам был предшественником ар-нуво: в 1851 году в соборе Парижской Богоматери он создал серию настенных росписей, типичных для этого стиля. [22] Эти картины были сняты в 1945 году как неакадемические. В замке Роктайад в регионе Бордо его внутренние украшения, датируемые 1865 годом, также предвосхищают ар-нуво. В своей книге 1872 года «Entretiens sur l'architecture » он писал: «Используйте средства и знания, данные нам нашим временем, без промежуточных традиций, которые сегодня больше не жизнеспособны, и таким образом мы сможем открыть новую архитектуру. Для каждой функции свой материал; для каждого материала своя форма и свой орнамент». [23] Эта книга оказала влияние на целое поколение архитекторов, включая Луи Салливана , Виктора Орту , Гектора Гимара и Антонио Гауди . [24]
Французские художники Морис Дени , Пьер Боннар и Эдуар Вюйар сыграли важную роль в объединении изобразительного искусства с живописью и декором. «Я считаю, что прежде всего картина должна украшать», — писал Дени в 1891 году. «Выбор сюжетов или сцен — ничто. Именно с помощью ценности тонов, цветной поверхности и гармонии линий я могу достичь духа и пробудить эмоции». [25] Все эти художники занимались как традиционной живописью, так и декоративной живописью на экранах, в стекле и в других средствах. [26]
Другим важным влиянием на новый стиль был японизм . Это была волна энтузиазма по поводу японской гравюры на дереве , в частности работ Хиросигэ , Хокусая и Утагавы Кунисада , которые были импортированы в Европу, начиная с 1870-х годов. Предприимчивый Зигфрид Бинг основал ежемесячный журнал Le Japon artistique в 1888 году и опубликовал тридцать шесть номеров, прежде чем он прекратил свое существование в 1891 году. Он оказал влияние как на коллекционеров, так и на художников, включая Густава Климта . Стилизованные черты японской гравюры появились в графике в стиле модерн, фарфоре, ювелирных изделиях и мебели. С начала 1860-х годов внезапно проявилось дальневосточное влияние. В 1862 году любители искусства из Лондона или Парижа могли купить японские произведения искусства , потому что в том году Япония впервые появилась в качестве экспонента на Международной выставке в Лондоне. Также в 1862 году в Париже на улице Риволи открылся магазин La Porte Chinoise , где продавались японские укиё-э и другие предметы с Дальнего Востока. В 1867 году появились «Примеры китайских орнаментов» Оуэна Джонса , а в 1870 году «Искусство и промышленность в Японии » Р. Олкока, а два года спустя О. Х. Мозер и Т. В. Катлер опубликовали книги о японском искусстве. Некоторые художники модерна, такие как Виктор Орта , владели коллекцией дальневосточного искусства, особенно японского. [11]
Новые технологии в печати и издательском деле позволили стилю ар-нуво быстро достичь мировой аудитории. Художественные журналы, иллюстрированные фотографиями и цветными литографиями , сыграли важную роль в популяризации нового стиля. Studio в Англии, Arts et idèes и Art et décoration во Франции и Jugend в Германии позволили стилю быстро распространиться во все уголки Европы. Обри Бердслей в Англии, а также Эжен Грассе , Анри де Тулуз-Лотрек и Феликс Валлоттон добились международного признания как иллюстраторы. [27] С плакатами Жюля Шере для танцовщицы Лои Фуллер в 1893 году и Альфонса Мухи для актрисы Сары Бернар в 1895 году плакат стал не просто рекламой, а формой искусства. Сара Бернар откладывала большое количество своих плакатов для продажи коллекционерам. [28]
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Первые городские дома в стиле модерн, дом Ханкара Поля Ханкара (1893) и отель Тассель Виктора Орты (1892–1893), [4] [5] были построены в Брюсселе почти одновременно . Они были похожи по своей оригинальности, но очень различались по своему дизайну и внешнему виду.
Виктор Орта был одним из самых влиятельных архитекторов раннего модерна, а его Hôtel Tassel (1892–1893) в Брюсселе является одной из вех этого стиля. [29] [30] Архитектурное образование Орта получил в качестве помощника Альфонса Балата , архитектора короля Леопольда II , построившего монументальные железные и стеклянные королевские оранжереи в Лакене . [31] Он был большим поклонником Виолле-ле-Дюка , идеи которого он полностью отождествлял с собой. [32] [33] В 1892–1893 годах он использовал этот опыт совсем по-другому. Он спроектировал резиденцию выдающегося бельгийского химика Эмиля Тасселя на очень узком и глубоком участке. Центральным элементом дома была лестница, не окруженная стенами, а открытая, украшенная вьющимися коваными перилами и расположенная под высоким световым люком. Полы поддерживались тонкими железными колоннами, похожими на стволы деревьев. Мозаичные полы и стены были украшены изящными арабесками в цветочных и растительных формах, которые стали самой популярной чертой стиля. [34] [35] За короткий период Орта построил еще три городских дома, все с открытыми интерьерами и все с мансардными окнами для максимального внутреннего освещения: Hôtel Solvay , Hôtel van Eetvelde (для Эдмонда ван Этвельде ) и Maison & Atelier Horta . Все четыре теперь являются частью Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО .
Поль Анкар также был новатором раннего ар-нуво. Родившийся в Фрамерис , в Эно , сын мастера-каменотеса, он изучал декоративную скульптуру и декор в Королевской академии изящных искусств в Брюсселе с 1873 по 1884 год, одновременно работая скульптором-орнаменталистом. С 1879 по 1904 год он работал в студии выдающегося архитектора Анри Бейера , мастера эклектичной и неоклассической архитектуры . Благодаря Бейерту Анкар также стал поклонником Виолле-ле-Дюка. [36] В 1893 году Анкар спроектировал и построил Дом Анкара, свою собственную резиденцию в Брюсселе. С целью создания синтеза изящных искусств и декоративно-прикладного искусства он объединил скульптора Рене Янсенса и художника Альберта Чиамберлани, чтобы украсить интерьер и экстерьер сграффити , или фресками. Фасад и балконы отличались железным декором и завитыми линиями в стилизованных цветочных узорах, что стало важной чертой ар-нуво. Основываясь на этой модели, он построил несколько домов для своих друзей-художников. Он также спроектировал серию инновационных стеклянных витрин для брюссельских магазинов, ресторанов и галерей, что местный критик назвал «настоящим бредом оригинальности». [37] Он умер в 1901 году, как раз когда движение начало получать признание. [38]
Генри ван де Вельде , родившийся в Антверпене , был еще одной основоположницей зарождения ар-нуво. Проекты ван де Вельде включали интерьер его резиденции в Брюсселе, виллы Блуменверф (1895). [39] [40] Внешний вид дома был вдохновлен Красным домом , резиденцией писателя и теоретика Уильяма Морриса , основателя движения «Искусства и ремесла» . Получив образование художника, ван де Вельде обратился к иллюстрации, затем к дизайну мебели и, наконец, к архитектуре. Для виллы Блуменверф он создал текстиль, обои, столовое серебро, ювелирные изделия и даже одежду, которые соответствовали стилю резиденции. [41] Ван де Вельде отправился в Париж, где спроектировал мебель и украшения для немецко-французского арт-дилера Зигфрида Бинга , чья парижская галерея дала стилю название. Он также был одним из первых теоретиков ар-нуво, требуя использования динамичных, часто противоположных линий. Ван де Вельде писал: «Линия — это сила, как и все другие элементарные силы. Несколько линий, соединенных вместе, но противопоставленных, обладают присутствием, столь же сильным, как несколько сил». В 1906 году он уехал из Бельгии в Веймар (Германия), где основал Великогерцогскую школу искусств и ремесел, где преподавание исторических стилей было запрещено. Он сыграл важную роль в немецком Веркбунде , прежде чем вернуться в Бельгию. [42]
Дебют архитектуры ар-нуво в Брюсселе сопровождался волной декоративного искусства в новом стиле. Среди выдающихся художников были Гюстав Штраувен , который использовал кованое железо для достижения барочных эффектов на фасадах Брюсселя; дизайнер мебели Гюстав Серрюрье-Бови , известный своими весьма оригинальными стульями и шарнирной металлической мебелью; и ювелирный дизайнер Филипп Вольферс , который делал украшения в форме стрекоз, бабочек, лебедей и змей. [43]
Брюссельская международная выставка 1897 года привлекла к этому стилю международное внимание; в оформлении выставки приняли участие Орта, Ханкар, Ван де Вельде и Серрюрье-Бови, а Анри Прива-Ливмон создал афишу выставки.
Франко-немецкий торговец произведениями искусства и издатель Зигфрид Бинг сыграл ключевую роль в популяризации стиля. В 1891 году он основал журнал, посвященный искусству Японии, который помог популяризировать японизм в Европе. В 1892 году он организовал выставку семи художников, среди которых были Пьер Боннар , Феликс Валлотон , Эдуар Вюйар , Тулуз-Лотрек и Эжен Грассе , которая включала как современную живопись, так и декоративные работы. Эта выставка была показана в Национальном обществе изящных искусств в 1895 году. В том же году Бинг открыл новую галерею на улице Прованс, 22 в Париже, Maison de l'Art Nouveau , посвященную новым работам как в области изящных, так и декоративных искусств. Интерьер и мебель галереи были спроектированы бельгийским архитектором Генри ван де Вельде , одним из пионеров архитектуры ар-нуво. В Maison de l'Art Nouveau были представлены картины Жоржа Сёра , Поля Синьяка и Тулуз-Лотрека , стекло от Луи Комфорта Тиффани и Эмиля Галле , ювелирные изделия Рене Лалика и плакаты Обри Бердслея . Работы, представленные там, были совсем не однородны по стилю. Бинг писал в 1902 году: «Ар-нуво во время своего создания никоим образом не претендовало на честь стать общим термином. Это было просто название дома, открытого как точка сбора для всех молодых и пылких художников, нетерпеливо желавших показать современность своих тенденций». [44]
Стиль быстро заметили в соседней Франции. После посещения отеля Тасселя Орты, Гектор Гимар построил Кастель Беранже , одно из первых парижских зданий в новом стиле, между 1895 и 1898 годами. [nb 1] Парижане жаловались на однообразие архитектуры бульваров, построенных при Наполеоне III Жоржем -Эженом Османом . Кастель Беранже представлял собой любопытную смесь неоготики и ар-нуво, с изогнутыми хлыстовыми линиями и естественными формами. Гимар, искусный публицист своей работы, заявил: «Чего следует избегать любой ценой, так это... параллельности и симметрии. Природа — величайший строитель из всех, и природа не создает ничего параллельного и ничего симметричного». [46]
Парижане приветствовали оригинальный и живописный стиль Гимара; Кастель Беранже был выбран в качестве одного из лучших новых фасадов в Париже, что дало старт карьере Гимара. Гимару было поручено спроектировать входы для новой системы парижского метро , что привлекло внимание миллионов посетителей Всемирной выставки 1900 года . [10]
Всемирная выставка в Париже 1900 года ознаменовала собой пик ар-нуво. С апреля по ноябрь 1900 года она привлекла около пятидесяти миллионов посетителей со всего мира и продемонстрировала архитектуру, дизайн, изделия из стекла, мебель и декоративные предметы этого стиля. Архитектура выставки часто представляла собой смесь архитектуры ар-нуво и боз-ар : главный выставочный зал, Гран-Пале, имел фасад в стиле боз-ар, совершенно не связанный с впечатляющей лестницей и выставочным залом в стиле ар-нуво внутри.
Французские дизайнеры все сделали специальные работы для выставки: хрусталь и ювелирные изделия Lalique ; ювелирные изделия Анри Вевера и Жоржа Фуке ; стекло Daum ; фарфоровая мануфактура Manufacture nationale de Sèvres ; керамика Александра Биго ; скульптурные стеклянные лампы и вазы Эмиля Галле ; мебель Эдуарда Колонны и Луи Мажореля ; и многие другие известные фирмы искусств и ремесел. На Парижской выставке 1900 года Зигфрид Бинг представил павильон под названием «Ар нуво Бинг» , в котором было представлено шесть различных интерьеров, полностью оформленных в этом стиле. [47] [48]
Выставка стала первой международной выставкой дизайнеров и художников в стиле модерн со всей Европы и за ее пределами. Среди победителей и участников были Альфонс Муха , который создал фрески для павильона Боснии и Герцеговины и разработал меню для ресторана павильона; декораторы и дизайнеры Бруно Пауль и Бруно Мёринг из Берлина; Карло Бугатти из Турина ; Бернхардт Панкок из Баварии ; российский архитектор-дизайнер Федор Шехтель и Louis Comfort Tiffany and Company из США. [49] Венский архитектор Отто Вагнер был членом жюри и представил модель ванной комнаты в стиле модерн в своей городской квартире в Вене со стеклянной ванной. [50] Йозеф Хоффманн спроектировал венскую экспозицию на парижской выставке, выделив проекты Венского сецессиона . [51] Элиэль Сааринен впервые получил международное признание за свой творческий дизайн павильона Финляндии. [52]
В то время как Парижская выставка была, безусловно, крупнейшей, другие выставки сделали многое для популяризации стиля. Барселонская всемирная выставка 1888 года ознаменовала начало стиля модерн в Испании, с некоторыми зданиями Луиса Доменека-и-Монтанера . Международная выставка современного декоративного искусства 1902 года в Турине, Италия, представила дизайнеров со всей Европы, включая Виктора Орту из Бельгии и Жозефа Марию Ольбриха из Вены, а также местных художников, таких как Карло Бугатти , Галилео Кини и Эудженио Кварти . [53]
После выставки 1900 года столицей ар-нуво стал Париж. Самые экстравагантные резиденции в этом стиле построил Жюль Лавиротт , который полностью покрыл фасады керамическим скульптурным декором. Самым ярким примером является здание Лавиротт на авеню Рапп , 29 (1901). Офисные здания и универмаги имели высокие дворы, покрытые витражными куполами и керамическим декором. Стиль был особенно популярен в ресторанах и кафе, включая Maxim's на улице Рояль , 3 и Le Train bleu на Лионском вокзале (1900). [54]
Статус Парижа привлекал в город иностранных художников. Художник швейцарского происхождения Эжен Грассе был одним из первых создателей французских плакатов в стиле модерн. Он помогал украшать знаменитое кабаре Le Chat Noir в 1885 году, создал свои первые плакаты для Fêtes de Paris и знаменитый плакат Сары Бернар в 1890 году. В Париже он преподавал в школе искусств Герен ( École normale d'enseignement du dessin ), где среди его учеников были Аугусто Джакометти и Поль Бертон . [55] [56] Швейцарец Теофиль-Александр Стейнлен создал знаменитый плакат для парижского кабаре Le Chat noir в 1896 году. Чешский художник Альфонс Муха (1860–1939) приехал в Париж в 1888 году и в 1895 году создал плакат для актрисы Сары Бернар в пьесе «Жисмонда» Викторьена Сарду в Театре Ренессанса . Успех этого плаката привел к контракту на изготовление плакатов еще для шести пьес Бернар.
Город Нанси в Лотарингии стал другой французской столицей нового стиля. В 1901 году был основан Alliance provinciale des industries d'art , также известный как École de Nancy , призванный разрушить иерархию, которая ставила живопись и скульптуру выше декоративно-прикладного искусства. Среди основных художников, работавших там, были создатели стеклянных ваз и ламп Эмиль Галле , братья Дом , занимавшиеся дизайном стекла, и дизайнер Луи Мажорель , создававший мебель с изящными цветочными и растительными формами. Архитектор Анри Соваж принес новый архитектурный стиль в Нанси со своей виллой Мажорель в 1902 году.
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Французский стиль широко пропагандировался новыми журналами, включая The Studio , Arts et Idées и Art et Décoration , чьи фотографии и цветные литографии сделали этот стиль известным дизайнерам и состоятельным клиентам по всему миру.
Во Франции стиль достиг своего пика в 1900 году, а затем быстро вышел из моды, фактически исчезнув из Франции к 1905 году. Ар-нуво был роскошным стилем, который требовал опытных и высокооплачиваемых мастеров, и не мог легко или дешево производиться массово. Одним из немногих продуктов в стиле ар-нуво, который можно было производить массово, был флакон для духов, и они до сих пор производятся в этом стиле.
Бельгия была ранним центром ар-нуво, во многом благодаря архитектуре Виктора Орты , который спроектировал один из первых домов в стиле ар-нуво, отель Тассель в 1893 году, и три других таунхауса в вариациях того же стиля. Теперь они являются объектами Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО . Орта оказал сильное влияние на работу молодого Гектора Гимара , который приехал посмотреть на строительство отеля Тассель, и позже заявил, что Орта был «изобретателем» ар-нуво. [57] Инновация Орты заключалась не в фасаде, а в интерьере, где он использовал обилие железа и стекла, чтобы открыть пространство и наполнить комнаты светом, и украсил их коваными колоннами и перилами в изогнутых растительных формах, которые отражались на полу и стенах, а также в мебели и коврах, которые спроектировал Орта. [58]
Поль Ханкар был еще одним пионером брюссельского ар-нуво. Его дом был завершен в 1893 году, в том же году, что и отель Тассель Орты, и на фасаде были изображены фрески сграффито . Ханкар находился под влиянием как Виолле-ле-Дюка, так и идей английского движения «Искусства и ремесла» . Его концептуальная идея заключалась в том, чтобы объединить декоративное и изящное искусство в единое целое. Он поручил скульптору Альфреду Крику и художнику Адольфу Креспену украсить фасады домов их работами. Самым ярким примером был дом и студия, построенные для художника Альберта Чиамберлани по адресу 48, rue Defacqz / Defacqzstraat в Брюсселе, для которых он создал пышный фасад, покрытый фресками сграффито с нарисованными фигурами и орнаментом, воссоздающими декоративную архитектуру Кватроченто , или Италии XV века. [31] Ханкар умер в 1901 году, когда его творчество только начало получать признание. [59]
Гюстав Штраувен начал свою карьеру в качестве помощника дизайнера, работая с Ортой, прежде чем он начал свою собственную практику в возрасте 21 года, создав некоторые из самых экстравагантных зданий в стиле модерн в Брюсселе. Его самая известная работа - дом Сен-Сира по адресу 11, square Ambiorix / Ambiorixsquare . Дом имеет ширину всего 4 метра (13 футов), но его сложные архитектурные изобретения придают ему необычайную высоту. Он полностью покрыт полихромным кирпичом и сетью вьющихся растительных форм из кованого железа , в практически стиле модерн-барокко. [60]
Другие важные художники ар-нуво из Бельгии включали архитектора и дизайнера Генри ван де Вельде , хотя самая важная часть его карьеры прошла в Германии; он оказал сильное влияние на декор югендстиля . Другие включали декоратора Гюстава Серрюрье-Бови и графика Фернана Кнопффа . [5] [61] [62] Бельгийские дизайнеры воспользовались обильным запасом слоновой кости , импортируемой из Бельгийского Конго ; смешанные скульптуры, сочетающие камень, металл и слоновую кость, такие художники, как Филипп Вольферс , были популярны. [63]
В Нидерландах этот стиль был известен как Nieuwe Stijl («Новый стиль») или Nieuwe Kunst («Новое искусство»), и он принял иное направление, нежели более цветочный и изогнутый стиль в Бельгии. На него повлияли более геометрические и стилизованные формы немецкого югендстиля и австрийского венского сецессиона . [63] На него также повлияло искусство и импортная древесина из Индонезии , затем из Голландской Ост-Индии , в частности, дизайны тканей и батика с Явы .
Самым важным архитектором и дизайнером мебели в этом стиле был Хендрик Петрус Берлаге , который осуждал исторические стили и выступал за чисто функциональную архитектуру. Он писал: «Необходимо бороться с искусством иллюзии, чтобы распознавать ложь, чтобы найти суть, а не иллюзию». [64] Как и Виктор Орта и Гауди , он был поклонником архитектурных теорий Виолле-ле-Дюка . [64] Его мебель была спроектирована так, чтобы быть строго функциональной и уважать естественные формы дерева, а не сгибать или скручивать его, как если бы это был металл. Он указывал на пример египетской мебели и предпочитал стулья с прямыми углами. Его первой и самой известной архитектурной работой была Биржа Берлаге (1896–1903), Амстердамская товарная биржа, которую он построил, следуя принципам конструктивизма . Все было функциональным, включая линии заклепок, украшавшие стены главного зала. Он часто возводил очень высокие башни в своих зданиях, чтобы сделать их более заметными, — практика, которую использовали другие архитекторы в стиле модерн того периода, в том числе Йозеф Мария Ольбрих в Вене и Элиэль Сааринен в Финляндии. [65]
Другие здания в этом стиле включают American Hotel (1898–1900), также спроектированный Берлаге; и Astoria (1904–1905) Германа Хендрика Баандерса и Геррита ван Аркеля в Амстердаме ; железнодорожную станцию в Харлеме (1906–1908) и бывшее офисное здание Holland America Lines (1917) в Роттердаме , ныне отель New York .
Известные художники-графики и иллюстраторы в этом стиле включали Яна Туропа , чье творчество тяготело к мистицизму и символизму , даже в его плакатах для салатного масла. В своих цветах и дизайнах они также иногда показывали влияние искусства Явы. [65]
Важными фигурами в голландской керамике и фарфоре были Юрриан Кок и Тео Коленбрандер . Они использовали красочный цветочный узор и более традиционные мотивы ар-нуво в сочетании с необычными формами керамики и контрастными темными и светлыми цветами, заимствованными из батика Явы. [66]
Стиль ар-нуво берет свое начало в Британии, в движении «Искусства и ремесла» , которое началось в 1860-х годах и достигло международного признания к 1880-м годам. Он призывал к лучшему отношению к декоративно-прикладному искусству и черпал вдохновение в средневековом мастерстве и дизайне, а также в природе. [ 69] Одним из примечательных ранних примеров стиля модерн является дизайн обложки его эссе о городских церквях сэра Кристофера Рена , опубликованного в 1883 году, а также его стул из красного дерева того же года. [70]
Другие важные новаторы в Британии включали графических дизайнеров Обри Бирдсли , чьи рисунки включали изогнутые линии, которые стали самой узнаваемой чертой стиля. Свободно текущее кованое железо 1880-х годов также можно было бы привести или некоторые плоские цветочные текстильные узоры, большинство из которых были обязаны некоторым импульсом образцам дизайна 19-го века. Другие британские графические художники, которые играли важную роль в стиле, включали Уолтера Крейна и Чарльза Эшби . [71]
Универмаг Liberty в Лондоне сыграл важную роль, благодаря своим красочным стилизованным цветочным узорам для текстиля, а также серебряным, оловянным и ювелирным изделиям мэнского (шотландского происхождения) Арчибальда Нокса . Его ювелирные изделия в материалах и формах полностью порвали с историческими традициями ювелирного дизайна.
Для архитектуры и дизайна мебели в стиле ар-нуво самым важным центром в Британии был Глазго , с творениями Чарльза Ренни Макинтоша и Школы Глазго , чья работа была вдохновлена шотландской баронской архитектурой и японским дизайном. [72] Начиная с 1895 года Макинтош демонстрировал свои проекты на международных выставках в Лондоне, Вене и Турине; его проекты особенно повлияли на стиль сецессиона в Вене. Его архитектурные творения включали здание Glasgow Herald Building (1894) и библиотеку Школы искусств Глазго (1897). Он также создал себе репутацию дизайнера мебели и декоратора, тесно сотрудничая со своей женой Маргарет Макдональд Макинтош , выдающейся художницей и дизайнером. Вместе они создали поразительные проекты, которые сочетали геометрические прямые линии с плавно изогнутыми цветочными украшениями, в частности, известный символ стиля, Розу Глазго». [73]
Леон-Виктор Солон внес важный вклад в керамику в стиле ар-нуво в качестве арт-директора в Mintons. Он специализировался на пластинах и вазах с трубчатой подкладкой , которые продавались как «сецессионистские изделия» (обычно их называют в честь венского художественного движения ). [74] Помимо керамики, он проектировал текстиль для шелковой промышленности Leek [75] и дублюры для переплетчика (GTBagguley из Ньюкасл-андер-Лайм), который запатентовал переплет Sutherland в 1895 году.
Джордж Скиппер был, пожалуй, самым активным архитектором в стиле модерн в Англии. Здание Эдварда Эверарда в Бристоле, построенное в 1900–01 годах для размещения типографских работ Эдварда Эверарда , имеет фасад в стиле модерн. Изображенные фигуры — Иоганн Гутенберг и Уильям Моррис , оба выдающиеся деятели в области печати. Крылатая фигура символизирует «Дух света», а фигура, держащая лампу и зеркало, символизирует свет и истину.
Немецкий стиль модерн широко известен под немецким названием Jugendstil или «Молодежный стиль». Название взято из художественного журнала Jugend («Молодежь»), который издавался в Мюнхене. Журнал был основан в 1896 году Георгом Хиртом , который оставался редактором до своей смерти в 1916 году. Журнал просуществовал до 1940 года. В начале 20-го века югендстиль применялся только к графическому искусству. [76] Он относился в частности к формам типографики и графического дизайна, найденным в немецких журналах, таких как Jugend , Pan и Simplicissimus . Позднее югендстиль применялся к другим версиям модерна в Германии, Нидерландах. Термин был заимствован из немецкого несколькими языками стран Балтии и Северной Европы для описания модерна (см. раздел «Наименование»). [12] [77]
В 1892 году Георг Хирт выбрал название «Мюнхенский сецессион» для Ассоциации визуальных художников Мюнхена . Венский сецессион , основанный в 1897 году, [78] и Берлинский сецессион также взяли свои названия от мюнхенской группы.
Журналы Jugend и Simplicissimus , издаваемые в Мюнхене, и Pan , издаваемый в Берлине, были важными сторонниками югендстиля . Искусство югендстиля сочетало извилистые кривые и более геометрические линии и использовалось для обложек романов, рекламы и выставочных плакатов. Дизайнеры часто создавали оригинальные стили шрифтов , которые гармонично сочетались с изображением, например, шрифт Arnold Böcklin 1904 года.
Отто Экман был одним из самых выдающихся немецких художников, связанных как с Die Jugend , так и с Pan . Его любимым животным был лебедь, и его влияние было настолько велико, что лебедь стал символом всего движения. Другим выдающимся дизайнером в этом стиле был Рихард Римершмид , который создавал мебель, керамику и другие декоративные предметы в строгом геометрическом стиле, который указывал вперед к ар-деко. [79] Швейцарский художник Герман Обрист , живший в Мюнхене, проиллюстрировал мотив coup de fouet или whiplash, высоко стилизованную двойную кривую, предполагающую движение, взятое от стебля цветка цикламена .
Колония художников Дармштадта была основана в 1899 году Эрнестом Людвигом, великим герцогом Гессенским . Архитектором, построившим дом великого герцога, а также самое большое сооружение колонии (башню Свадьбы), был Йозеф Мария Ольбрих , один из основателей Венского сецессиона . Другими известными художниками колонии были Петер Беренс и Ганс Кристиансен . Эрнест Людвиг также поручил перестроить спа-комплекс в Бад-Наухайме в начале века. Совершенно новый комплекс Шпрудельхоф был построен в 1905–1911 годах под руководством Вильгельма Йоста и достиг одной из главных целей югендстиля: синтеза всех искусств. [80] Другим членом правящей семьи, заказавшим сооружение в стиле модерн, была принцесса Елизавета Гессен-Берлинская . В 1908 году она основала в Москве Марфо-Мариинскую обитель , а ее кафоликон признан шедевром стиля модерн. [81]
Другим заметным союзом в Германской империи был Deutscher Werkbund , основанный в 1907 году в Мюнхене по инициативе Германа Мутезиуса художниками колонии Дармштадт Йозефом Марией Ольбрихом , Петером Беренсом ; другим основателем Венского сецессиона Йозефом Хоффманом , а также Wiener Werkstätte (основанными Хоффманом), Рихардом Римершмидом , Бруно Паулем и другими художниками и компаниями. [82] Позже к движению присоединился бельгиец Генри ван де Вельде [nb 2] . Великогерцогская школа искусств и ремёсел , основанная им в Веймаре , была предшественником Баухауса , одного из самых влиятельных течений в модернистской архитектуре . [84]
В Берлине модерн был выбран для строительства нескольких железнодорожных вокзалов. Наиболее примечательной [85] является Бюловштрассе Бруно Меринга ( 1900–1902), другими примерами являются Мексикоплац (1902–1904), Ботанический сад (1908–1909), Фронау (1908–1910), Виттенбергплац (1911–1913) и Панков. (1912–1914) станции. Еще одно примечательное сооружение Берлина - Hackesche Höfe (1906 г.), в котором для фасада внутреннего двора использовался полихромный глазурованный кирпич.
Стиль модерн в Страсбурге (тогда он был частью Германской империи и столицей Рейхсланд -Лотрингии ) был особым брендом, поскольку он сочетал в себе влияния Нанси и Брюсселя с влияниями Дармштадта и Вены , создавая локальный синтез, отражающий историю города между германским и французским королевствами.
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Вена стала центром особого варианта ар-нуво, который стал известен как Венский сецессион . Движение получило свое название от Мюнхенского сецессиона, основанного в 1892 году. Венский сецессион был основан в апреле 1897 года группой художников, в которую входили Густав Климт , Коломан Мозер , Йозеф Хоффман , Йозеф Мария Ольбрих , Макс Курцвайль , Эрнст Штер и другие. [78] Художник Климт стал президентом группы. Они возражали против консервативной ориентации на историзм, выраженной Венским кюнстлерхаусом , официальным союзом художников. Сецессион основал журнал Ver Sacrum для продвижения своих работ во всех средствах массовой информации. [86] Архитектор Йозеф Ольбрих спроектировал купольное здание Сецессиона в новом стиле, которое стало витриной для картин Густава Климта и других художников Сецессиона.
Климт стал самым известным художником сецессиона, часто стирая границу между изобразительным искусством и декоративной живописью. Коломан Мозер был чрезвычайно разносторонним художником в этом стиле; его работы включали журнальные иллюстрации, архитектуру, столовое серебро, керамику, фарфор, текстиль, витражи и мебель.
The most prominent architect of the Vienna Secession was Otto Wagner,[87] he joined the movement soon after its inception to follow his students Hoffmann and Olbrich. His major projects included several stations of the urban rail network (the Stadtbahn), the Linke Wienzeile Buildings (consisting of Majolica House, the House of Medallions and the house at Köstlergasse). The Karlsplatz Station is now an exhibition hall of the Vienna Museum. The Kirche am Steinhof of Steinhof Psychiatric hospital (1904–1907) is a unique and finely-crafted example of Secession religious architecture, with a traditional domed exterior but sleek, modern gold and white interior lit by abundance of modern stained glass.
In 1899 Joseph Maria Olbrich moved to Darmstadt Artists' Colony, in 1903 Koloman Moser and Josef Hoffmann founded the Wiener Werkstätte, a training school and workshop for designers and craftsmen of furniture, carpets, textiles and decorative objects.[88] In 1905 Koloman Moser and Gustav Klimt separated from Vienna Secession, later in 1907 Koloman Moser left Wiener Werkstätte as well, while its other founder Josef Hoffmann joined the Deutscher Werkbund.[82] Gustav Klimt and Josef Hoffmann continued collaborating, they organized Kunstschau Exhibition in 1908 in Vienna and built the Stoclet Palace in Brussels (1905–1911) that announced the coming of modernist architecture.[89][90] It was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in June 2009.[91]
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The pioneer and prophet of the Szecesszió ('Secession' in Hungarian), the architect Ödön Lechner, created buildings which marked a transition from historicism to modernism for Hungarian architecture.[93]His idea for a Hungarian architectural style was the use of architectural ceramics and oriental motifs. In his works, he used pygorganite placed in production by 1886 by Zsolnay Porcelain Manufactory.[93] This material was used in the construction of notable Hungarian buildings of other styles, e.g. the Hungarian Parliament Building and Matthias Church.
Works by Ödön Lechner[94] include the Museum of Applied Arts (1893–1896), other building with similar distinctive features are Geological Museum (1896–1899) and The Postal Savings Bank building (1899–1902), all in Budapest. However, due to the opposition of Hungarian architectural establishment to Lechner's success, he soon was unable to get new commissions comparable to his earlier buildings.[93] But Lechner was an inspiration and a master to the following generation of architects who played the main role in popularising the new style.[93] Within the process of Magyarization numerous buildings were commissioned to his disciples in outskirts of the kingdom: e.g. Marcell Komor and Dezső Jakab were commissioned to build the Synagogue (1901–1903) and Town Hall (1908–1910) in Szabadka (now Subotica, Serbia), County Prefecture (1905–1907) and Palace of Culture (1911–1913) in Marosvásárhely (now Târgu Mureș, Romania). Later Lechner himself built the Blue Church in Pozsony (present-day Bratislava, Slovakia) in 1909–1913.
Another important architect was Károly Kós who was a follower of John Ruskin and William Morris. Kós took the Finnish National Romanticism movement as a model and the Transylvanian vernacular as the inspiration.[95] His most notable buildings include the Roman Catholic Church in Zebegény (1908–09), pavilions for the Budapest Municipal Zoo (1909–1912) and the Székely National Museum in Sepsiszentgyörgy (now Sfântu Gheorghe, Romania, 1911–12).
The movement that promoted Szecesszió in arts was Gödöllő Art Colony, founded by Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch, also a follower John Ruskin and William Morris and a professor at the Royal School of Applied Arts in Budapest in 1901.[96] Its artists took part in many projects, including the Franz Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest.[97]
An associate to Gödöllő Art Colony,[98] Miksa Róth was also involved in several dozen Szecesszió projects, including Budapest buildings including Gresham Palace (stained glass, 1906) and Török Bank (mosaics, 1906) and also created mosaics and stained glass for Palace of Culture (1911–1913) in Marosvásárhely.
A notable furniture designer is Ödön Faragó who combined traditional popular architecture, oriental architecture and international Art Nouveau in a highly picturesque style. Pál Horti, another Hungarian designer, had a much more sober and functional style, made of oak with delicate traceries of ebony and brass.
The most notable Secession buildings in Prague are examples of total art with distinctive architecture, sculpture and paintings.[99] The main railway station (1901–1909) was designed by Josef Fanta and features paintings of Václav Jansa and sculptures of Ladislav Šaloun and Stanislav Sucharda along with other artists. The Municipal House (1904–1912) was designed by Osvald Polívka and Antonín Balšánek, painted by famous Czech painter Alphonse Mucha and features sculptures of Josef Mařatka and Ladislav Šaloun. Polívka, Mařatka, and Šaloun simultaneously cooperated in the construction of New City Hall (1908–1911) along with Stanislav Sucharda, and Mucha later painted St. Vitus Cathedral's stained glass windows in his distinctive style.
The most important Czech architect of this period was Jan Kotěra, who studied in Vienna under Otto Wagner. His best-known works are the Peterka House at 12 Wenceslas Square in Prague (1899–1900), the National House in Prostějov (1905–1907) and the Museum of Eastern Bohemia in Hradec Králové (1909–1912). Many important Vienesse architects were born in Moravia or Austrian Silesia, like Josef Hoffmann, Hubert Gessner, Joseph Maria Olbrich and Leopold Bauer.
The style of combining Hungarian Szecesszió and national architectural elements was typical for a Slovak architect Dušan Jurkovič. His most original works are the Cultural House in Szakolca (now Skalica in Slovakia, 1905), the buildings of spa in Luhačovice (now Czech Republic) in 1901–1903 and 35 war cemeteries near Nowy Żmigród in Galicia (now Poland), most of them heavily influenced by local Lemko (Rusyn) folk art and carpentry (1915–1917).
The most important centres of Secession in Galicia were Kraków, Lviv and Bielsko-Biała. The most important example of the style in Kraków is the Palace of Art (1898–1901), designed by Franciszek Mączyński under the influence of the Secession Hall in Vienna. Other important works Mączyński designed in Kraków together with Tadeusz Stryjeński: the House Under the Globe (1904–1905) and the Old Theater (1903–1906). The most important interior designers were Stanisław Wyspiański and Józef Mehoffer, who designed many stained glass windows and building interiors. The most important work of the former are the stained glasses in the Franciscan Church and in the House of the Krakow Medical Society (1905) and of the latter in the interior of the House Under the Globe.
In Lviv the most important architect was Władysław Sadłowski, who studied in Vienna and was influenced by Otto Wagner. He designed the Lviv railway station (1899–1904), the Lviv's Philharmonic (1905–1908), and the Industrial School (1907–1908). Other important architected, also inspired by Wagner, was Ivan Levynskyi.
One of the most famous buildings in Bielsko-Biała is the so-called Frog House by Emanuel Rost (1903). Other important examples of Secession were designed by Vienesse architects: Max Fabiani, the author of the house at 1 Barlickiego Street (1900) as well as Leopold Bauer, who designed the house at 51 Stojałowskiego Street (1903) and the rebuilding of the Saint Nicholas' Cathedral (1909–10).
The most prolific Slovenian Secession architect was Ciril Metod Koch.[100] He studied at Otto Wagner's classes in Vienna and worked in the Laybach (now Ljubljana, Slovenia) City Council from 1894 to 1923. After the earthquake in Laybach in 1895, he designed many secular buildings in Secession style that he adopted from 1900 to 1910:[100] Pogačnik House (1901), Čuden Building (1901), The Farmers Loan Bank (1906–07), renovated Hauptmann Building in Secession style in 1904. The highlight of his career was the Loan Bank in Radmannsdorf (now Radovljica) in 1906.[100]
Other important Slovene architect, who was active also in Bosnia, was Josip Vancaš, the authot of such works like Grand Hotel Union (1902–1903) or City Savings Bank in Ljubljana (1902–1903) as well as the Ješua D. Salom Mansion (1901) and the Central Post Office in Sarajevo (1907–1913). Also Jože Plečnik and Max Fabiani, both important Vienna Secession architects, were born in Slovenia. The latter designed some buildings in Slovenia and Trieste, like the Bartoli House in Trieste (1906).
In Croatia, the most important examples of Secession include the Kallina House in Zagreb by Vjekoslav Bastl (1903–1904) and the Croatian State Archives in Zagreb by Rudolf Lubinski (1911–1913).
Art Nouveau appears in Romania during the same years as it does in Western Europe (early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914), but here few are the buildings in this style, the Beaux Arts being predominant. The most famous of them is the Constanța Casino. Most of the Romanian examples of Art Nouveau architecture are actually mixes of Beaux Arts and Art Nouveau, like the Romulus Porescu House or house no. 61 on Strada Vasile Lascăr, both in Bucharest.[104] This is because the style was somewhat illegal in Romanian architecture, due to being popular in Transilvania, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at that time, where Romanians were suppressed and discriminated, despite being the majority of the population. So, the people who wanted an Art Nouveau home in the 1900s and early 1910s could only put some subtile ornaments reminiscent of the style, while the rest was completely Beaux Arts or in some rare cases Romanian Revival. An example of this is the Fanny and Isac Popper House in Bucharest (Strada Sfinților no. 1), 1914, by Alfred Popper, which is primarily in the Beaux Arts academic style, but has some Art Nouveau reliefs of women dancing and playing musical instruments at the bases of the two pilasters and flowers above the arch door. A frequent feature reminiscent of the style are the arch windows which have curvy woodwork elements. However, this window feature may not necessarily be Art Nouveau, since Beaux Arts and Rococo Revival architecture tends to use curvy and sinuous lines, especially during the 1890s, 1900s and 1910s.
One of the most notable Art Nouveau painters from Romania was Ștefan Luchian, who quickly took over the innovative and decorative directions of Art Nouveau for a short period of time. The moment was synchronized with the founding of the Ileana Society in 1897, of which he was a founding member, a company that organized an exhibition (1898) at the Union Hotel entitled The Exhibition of Independent Artists and published a magazine – the Ileana Magazine.[105]
Transylvania has examples of both Art Nouveau and Romanian Revival buildings, the former being from the Austro-Hungarian era. Most of them can be found in Oradea, nicknamed the "Art Nouveau capital of Romania",[106] but also in Timișoara, Târgu Mureș and Sibiu.[107][108][109]
Art Nouveau in Italy was known as arte nuova, stile floreale, stile moderno and especially stile Liberty. Liberty style took its name from Arthur Lasenby Liberty and the store he founded in 1874 in London, Liberty department store, which specialised in importing ornaments, textiles and art objects from Japan and the Far East, and whose colourful textiles which were particularly popular in Italy. Notable Italian designers in the style included Galileo Chini, whose ceramics were often inspired both by majolica patterns. He was later known as a painter and a theatrical scenery designer; he designed the sets for two celebrated Puccini operas Gianni Schicchi and Turandot.[110][111][12]
Liberty style architecture varied greatly, and often followed historical styles, particularly the Baroque. Façades were often drenched with decoration and sculpture. Examples of the Liberty style include the Villino Florio (1899–1902) by Ernesto Basile in Palermo; the Palazzo Castiglioni in Milan by Giuseppe Sommaruga (1901–1903); Milan, and the Casa Guazzoni (1904–05) in Milan by Giovanni Battista Bossi (1904–06).[112]
Colorful frescoes, painted or in ceramics, and sculpture, both in the interior and exterior, were a popular feature of Liberty style. They drew upon both classical and floral themes. as in the baths of Acque della Salute, and in the Casa Guazzoni in Milan.
The most important figure in Liberty style design was Carlo Bugatti, the son of an architect and decorator, father of Rembrandt Bugatti, Liberty sculptor, and of Ettore Bugatti, famous automobile designer. He studied at the Milanese Academy of Brera, and later the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His work was distinguished by its exoticism and eccentricity, included silverware, textiles, ceramics, and musical instruments, but he is best remembered for his innovative furniture designs, shown first in the 1888 Milan Fine Arts Fair. His furniture often featured a keyhole design, and had unusual coverings, including parchment and silk, and inlays of bone and ivory. It also sometimes had surprising organic shapes, copied after snails and cobras.[113]
Due to the close proximity to Austria–Hungary and Vojvodina being part of the empire until 1918, both the Vienna Secession and Hungarian Szecesszió were prevalent movements in what is today's northern Serbia, as well as the Capital of Belgrade.[114] Famous Austrian and Hungarian architects would design many buildings in Subotica, Novi Sad, Palić, Zrenjanin, Vrbas, Senta, and Kikinda. Art Nouveau heritage in Belgrade, Pančevo, Aranđelovac, and Vrnjačka Banja are a mixture of French, German, Austrian, Hungarian, and local Serbian movements. From the curvy floral beauty of the Subotica's Synagogue to the Morava-style inspired rosettes on Belgrade's telegraph building, Art Nouveau architecture takes various shapes in present-day Serbia.
Back in early 1900s, north of the Sava and the Danube, resurgent Hungarian national sentiment infused the buildings in Subotica and Senta with local floral ethnic motifs, while in the tiny Kingdom of Serbia, national romantics like Branko Tanezević and Dragutin Inkiostiri-Medenjak (both born in the Austro-Hungarian Empire), translated Serbia's traditional motifs into marvellous buildings. Other architects, like Milan Antonović and Nikola Nestorović brought the then-fashionable sinuous lines and natural motifs to the homes and businesses of their wealthy patrons, so they could show off their worldliness and keeping up with the trends in Paris, Munich and Vienna.[115]
A highly original variant of the style emerged in Barcelona, Catalonia, at about the same time that the Art Nouveau style appeared in Belgium and France. It was called Modernisme in Catalan and Modernismo in Spanish. Its most famous creator was Antoni Gaudí. Gaudí used floral and organic forms in a very novel way in Palau Güell (1886–1890). According to UNESCO, "the architecture of the park combined elements from the Arts and Crafts movement, Symbolism, Expressionism, and Rationalism, and presaged and influenced many forms and techniques of 20th-century Modernism."[117][118][119]He integrated crafts as ceramics, stained glass, wrought ironwork forging and carpentry into his architecture. In his Güell Pavilions (1884–1887) and then Parc Güell (1900–1914) he also used a new technique called trencadís, which used waste ceramic pieces. His designs from about 1903, the Casa Batlló (1904–1906) and Casa Milà (1906–1912),[116] are most closely related to the stylistic elements of Art Nouveau.[120] Later structures such as Sagrada Família combined Art Nouveau elements with revivalist Neo-Gothic.[120] Casa Batlló, Casa Milà, Güell Pavilions, and Parc Güell were results of his collaboration with Josep Maria Jujol, who himself created houses in Sant Joan Despí (1913–1926), several churches near Tarragona (1918 and 1926) and the sinuous Casa Planells (1924) in Barcelona.
Besides the dominating presence of Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner also used Art Nouveau in Barcelona in buildings such as the Castell dels Tres Dragons (1888), Casa Lleó Morera, Palau de la Música Catalana (1905) and Hospital de Sant Pau (1901–1930).[120] The two latter buildings have been listed by UNESCO as World Cultural Heritage.[121]
Another major modernista was Josep Puig i Cadafalch, who designed the Casa Martí and its Els Quatre Gats café, the Casimir Casaramona textile factory (now the CaixaFòrum art museum), Casa Macaya, Casa Amatller, the Palau del Baró de Quadras (housing Casa Àsia for 10 years until 2013) and the Casa de les Punxes ('House of Spikes').
A distinctive Art Nouveau movement was also in the Valencian Community. Some of the notable architects were Demetrio Ribes Marco, Vicente Pascual Pastor, Timoteo Briet Montaud, and José María Manuel Cortina Pérez. Valencian Art Nouveau defining characteristics are a notable use of ceramics in decoration, both in the façade and in ornamentation, and also the use of Valencian regional motives.
Another remarkable variant is the Madrilenian Art Nouveau or Modernismo madrileño, with such notable buildings as the Longoria Palace, the Casino de Madrid or the Cementerio de la Almudena, among others. Renowned modernistas from Madrid were architects José López Sallaberry, Fernando Arbós y Tremanti and Francisco Andrés Octavio.
![Sculpture of polychrome terracota by Lambert Escaler [ca] (1902)](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/El_Pet%C3%B3_Perdut._Lambert_Escaler_i_Mil%C3%A0.JPG/1280px-El_Pet%C3%B3_Perdut._Lambert_Escaler_i_Mil%C3%A0.JPG)
The Modernisme movement left a wide art heritage including drawings, paintings, sculptures, glass and metal work, mosaics, ceramics, and furniture. A part of it can be found in Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.
Inspired by a Paris café called Le Chat Noir, where he had previously worked, Pere Romeu i Borràs decided to open a café in Barcelona that was named Els Quatre Gats (Four Cats in Catalan).[122] The café became a central meeting point for Barcelona's most prominent figures of Modernisme, such as Pablo Picasso and Ramon Casas i Carbó who helped to promote the movement by his posters and postcards. For the café he created a picture called Ramon Casas and Pere Romeu on a Tandem that was replaced with his another composition entitled Ramon Casas and Pere Romeu in an Automobile in 1901, symbolizing the new century.
Antoni Gaudí designed furniture for many of the houses he built; one example is an armchair called the for the Battle House. He influenced another notable Catalan furniture designer, Gaspar Homar (1870–1953) who often combined marquetry and mosaics with his furnishings.[123]
The Art Nouveau variant in Aveiro (Portugal) was called Arte Nova, and its principal characteristic feature was ostentation: the style was used by bourgeoisie who wanted to express their wealth on the façades while leaving the interiors conservative.[125] Another distinctive feature of Arte Nova was the use of locally produced tiles with Art Nouveau motifs.[125]
The most influential artist of Arte Nova was Francisco Augusto da Silva Rocha.[125] Though he was not trained as an architect, he designed many buildings in Aveiro and in other cities in Portugal.[126][125] One of them, the Major Pessoa residence, has both an Art Nouveau façade and interior, and now hosts the Museum of Arte Nova.[125]
There are other examples of Arte Nova in other cities of Portugal.[127][128] Some of them are the Museum-Residence Dr. Anastácio Gonçalves by Manuel Joaquim Norte Júnior (1904–1905) in Lisbon, Café Majestic by João Queiroz (1921) and Livraria Lello bookstore by Xavier Esteves (1906), both in Porto.
Art Nouveau was popular in the Nordic countries, where it was usually known as Jugendstil, and was often combined with the National Romantic Style of each country. The Nordic country with the largest number of Jugendstil buildings is the Grand Duchy of Finland, then a part of Russian Empire.[129] The Jugendstil period coincided with Golden Age of Finnish Art and national awakening. After Paris Exposition in 1900 the leading Finnish artist was Akseli Gallen-Kallela.[130] He is known for his illustrations of the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic, as well as for painting numerous Judendstil buildings in the Duchy.
The architects of the Finnish pavilion at the Exposition were Herman Gesellius, Armas Lindgren, and Eliel Saarinen. They worked together from 1896 to 1905 and created many notable buildings in Helsinki including Pohjola Insurance building (1899–1901) and National Museum of Finland (1905–1910)[131] as well as their joint residence Hvitträsk in Kirkkonummi (1902). Architects were inspired by Nordic legends and nature, rough granite façade thus became a symbol for belonging to the Finnish nation.[132] After the firm dissolved, Saarinen designed the Helsinki Railway Station (1905–1914) in clearer forms, influenced by American architecture.[132] The sculptor who worked with Saarinen in construction of National Museum of Finland and Helsinki Railway Station was Emil Wikström.
Another architect who created several notable works in Finland was Lars Sonck. His major Jugendstil works include Tampere Cathedral (1902–1907), Ainola, the home of Jean Sibelius (1903), Headquarters of the Helsinki Telephone Association (1903–1907) and Kallio Church in Helsinki (1908–1912). Also, Magnus Schjerfbeck, brother of Helene Schjerfbeck, made tuberculosis sanatorium known as Nummela Sanatorium in 1903 using the Jugendstil style.[133][134][135]
Norway also was aspiring independence (from Sweden) and local Art Nouveau was connected with a revival inspired by Viking folk art and crafts. Notable designers included Lars Kisarvik, who designed chairs with traditional Viking and Celtic patterns, and Gerhard Munthe, who designed a chair with a stylised dragon-head emblem from ancient Viking ships, as well as a wide variety of posters, paintings and graphics.[136]
The Norwegian town of Ålesund is regarded as the main centre of Art Nouveau in Scandinavia because it was completely reconstructed after a fire of 23 January 1904.[137] About 350 buildings were built between 1904 and 1907 under an urban plan designed by the engineer Frederik Næsser. The merger of unity and variety gave birth to a style known as Ål Stil. Buildings of the style have linear decor and echoes of both Jugendstil and vernacular elements, e.g. towers of stave churches or the crested roofs.[137] One of the buildings, Swan Pharmacy, now hosts the Art Nouveau Centre.
Jugendstil masterpieces of other Nordic countries include Engelbrektskyrkan (1914) and Royal Dramatic Theatre (1901–1908) in Stockholm, Sweden[138] and former City Library (now Danish National Business Archives) in Aarhus, Denmark (1898–1901).[139] The architect of the latter is Hack Kampmann, then a proponent of National Romantic Style who also created Custom House, Theatre and Villa Kampen in Aarhus. Denmark's most notable Art Nouveau designer was the silversmith Georg Jensen. The Baltic Exhibition in Malmö 1914 can be seen as the last major manifestation of the Jugendstil in Sweden.[140]
![An Art Nouveau Fabergé egg[nb 3] (1898)](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Faberg%C3%A9_egg_Rome_03.JPG/1280px-Faberg%C3%A9_egg_Rome_03.JPG)
Модерн ('Modern') was a very colourful Russian variation of Art Nouveau which appeared in Moscow and Saint Petersburg in 1898 with the publication of a new art journal, Мир искусства (Mir Iskusstva, 'The World of Art'), by Russian artists Alexandre Benois and Léon Bakst, and chief editor Sergei Diaghilev. The magazine organized exhibitions of leading Russian artists, including Mikhail Vrubel, Konstantin Somov, Isaac Levitan, and the book illustrator Ivan Bilibin. The World of Art style made less use of the vegetal and floral forms of French Art Nouveau; it drew heavily upon the bright colours and exotic designs of Russian folklore and fairy tales. The most influential contribution of the Mir Iskusstva was the creation of a new ballet company, the Ballets Russes, headed by Diaghilev, with costumes and sets designed by Bakst and Benois. The new ballet company premiered in Paris in 1909, and performed there every year through 1913. The exotic and colourful sets designed by Benois and Bakst had a major impact on French art and design. The costume and set designs were reproduced in the leading Paris magazines, L'Illustration, La Vie parisienne and Gazette du bon ton, and the Russian style became known in Paris as à la Bakst. The company was stranded in Paris first by the outbreak of World War I, and then by the Russian Revolution in 1917, and ironically never performed in Russia.[141]
Of Russian architects, the most prominent in the pure Art Nouveau style was Fyodor Schechtel. The most famous example is the Ryabushinsky House in Moscow. It was built by a Russian businessman and newspaper owner, and then, after the Russian Revolution, became the residence of the writer Maxim Gorky, and is now the Gorky Museum. Its main staircase, made of a polished aggregate of concrete, marble and granite, has flowing, curling lines like the waves of the sea, and is illuminated by a lamp in the form of a floating jellyfish. The interior also features doors, windows and ceiling decorated with colorful frescoes of mosaic.[142] Schechtel, who is also considered a major figure in Russian symbolism, designed several other landmark buildings in Moscow, including the rebuilding of the Moscow Yaroslavsky railway station, in a more traditional Moscow revival style.[142]
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Other Russian architects of the period created Russian Revival architecture, which drew from historic Russian architecture. These buildings were created mostly in wood, and referred to the Architecture of Kievan Rus'. One example is the Teremok House in Talashkino (1901–1902) by Sergey Malyutin, and Pertsova House (also known as Pertsov House) in Moscow (1905–1907). He also was a member of Mir iskusstva movement. The Saint Petersburg architect Nikolai Vasilyev built in a range of styles before emigrating in 1923. This building is most notable for stone carvings made by Sergei Vashkov inspired by the carvings of Cathedral of Saint Demetrius in Vladimir and Saint George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky of the XII and XIII centuries. Another example of this Russian Revival architecture is the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent (1908–1912), an updated Russian Orthodox Church by Alexey Shchusev, who later, ironically, designed Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow.
Several art colonies in Russia in this period were built in the Russian Revival style. The two best-known colonies were Abramtsevo, funded by Savva Mamontov, and Talashkino, Smolensk Governorate, funded by Princess Maria Tenisheva.
Early 20th-century architecture in Ukrainian lands (southwestern part of the Russian Empire, Eastern Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia in Austria-Hungary) developed under the influence of Ukrainian folk architecture, as well as trends of European Art Nouveau, such as Zakopane Style. Ukrainian "modern" architecture first came to prominence in Poltava Governorate, where its most active promoters were Vasyl Krychevskyi and Opanas Slastion. In the late 1900s and early 1910s, a number of buildings in what was then known simply as "Ukrainian style" were constructed in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Katerynoslav and a number of other places in the Russian Empire. In Western Ukraine, which was at that time part of Austria-Hungary, the local Ukrainian style was influenced by Hutsul architecture, as well as Western European trends and influences from Great Ukraine.[143]
Riga, the present-day capital of Latvia, was at the time one of the major cities of the Russian Empire. Art Nouveau architecture in Riga nevertheless developed according to its own dynamics, and the style became overwhelmingly popular in the city. Soon after the Latvian Ethnographic Exhibition in 1896 and the Industrial and Handicrafts Exhibition in 1901, Art Nouveau became the dominant style in the city.[144] Thus Art Nouveau architecture accounts for one-third of all the buildings in the centre of Riga, making it the city with the highest concentration of such buildings anywhere in the world. The quantity and quality of Art Nouveau architecture was among the criteria for including Riga in UNESCO World Cultural Heritage.[145]
There were different variations of Art Nouveau architecture in Riga:
Some later Neo-Classical buildings also contained Art Nouveau details.
A variation called Style Sapin ('Fir-tree Style') emerged in La Chaux-de-Fonds in the Canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. The style was launched by the painter and artist Charles l’Eplattenier and was inspired especially by the sapin, 'fir tree', and other plants and wildlife of the Jura Mountains. One of his major works was the crematorium in the town, which featured triangular tree forms, pine cones, and other natural themes from the region. The style also blended in the more geometric stylistic elements of Jugendstil and Vienna Secession.[146]
Another notable building in the style is the Villa Fallet La Chaux-de-Fonds, a chalet designed and built in 1905 by a student of L'Epplattenier, the eighteen-year-old Le Corbusier. The form of the house was a traditional Swiss chalet, but the decoration of the façade included triangular trees and other natural features. Le Corbusier built two more chalets in the area, including the Villa Stotzer, in a more traditional chalet style.[147][146][148][149]
In the United States, the firm of Louis Comfort Tiffany played a central role in American Art Nouveau. Born in 1848, he studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City, began working with glass at the age of 24, entered the family business started by his father, and in 1885 set up his own enterprise devoted to fine glass, and developed new techniques for its colouring. In 1893, he began making glass vases and bowls, again developing new techniques that allowed more original shapes and colouring, and began experimenting with decorative window glass. Layers of glass were printed, marbled and superimposed, giving an exceptional richness and variety of colour in 1895 his new works were featured in the Art Nouveau gallery of Siegfried Bing, giving him a new European clientele. After the death of his father in 1902, he took over the entire Tiffany enterprise, but still devoted much of his time to designing and manufacturing glass art objects. At the urging of Thomas Edison, he began to manufacture electric lamps with multicoloured glass shades in structures of bronze and iron, or decorated with mosaics, produced in numerous series and editions, each made with the care of a piece of jewellery. A team of designers and craftsmen worked on each product. The Tiffany lamp in particular became one of the icons of the Art Nouveau, but Tiffany's craftsmen designed and made extraordinary windows, vases, and other glass art. Tiffany's glass also had great success at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris; his stained glass window called the Flight of Souls won a gold medal.[150] The Columbian Exposition was an important venue for Tiffany; a chapel he designed was shown at the Pavilion of Art and Industry. The Tiffany Chapel, along with one of the windows of Tiffany's home in New York, are now on display at the Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art in Winter Park, Florida.
Another important figure in American Art Nouveau was the architect Louis Sullivan. Sullivan was a leading pioneer of American modern architecture. He was the founder of the Chicago School, the architect of some of the first skyscrapers, and the teacher of Frank Lloyd Wright. His most famous saying was "Form follows function." While the form of his buildings was shaped by their function, his decoration was an example of American Art Nouveau. At the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, most famous for the neoclassical architecture of its renowned White City, he designed a spectacular Art Nouveau entrance for the very functional Transportation Building.[151][152]
While the architecture of his Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building (1899) (now the Sullivan Center) was strikingly modern and functional, he surrounded the windows with stylised floral decoration. He invented equally original decoration for the National Farmer's Bank of Owatonna, Minnestota (1907–1908) and the Merchants' National Bank in Grinell, Iowa. He invented a specifically American variety of Art Nouveau, declaring that decorative forms should oscillate, surge, mix and derive without end. He created works of great precision which sometimes combined Gothic with Art Nouveau themes.[153]
Also worth noting are the Uhl brothers from Toledo, Ohio, who set new standards in metal furniture production with their designs for the Toledo Metal Furniture Co.
Flooded with European immigrants, Argentina welcomed all artistic and architectural European styles, including Art Nouveau. There was an environment of huge investments and flexible rules for construction, which encouraged young architects from Europe to come and grow their portfolio to later go back to Europe. As a result of this, Argentina became the country outside of Europe with most art nouveau buildings.[154] Cities with the most notable Art Nouveau heritage in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Rosario and Mar del Plata.[155]
Paris was a prototype for Buenos Aires with the construction of large boulevards and avenues in the 19th century.[154] The local style along with French influence was also following Italian Liberty as many architects (Virginio Colombo, Francisco Gianotti, Mario Palanti) were Italians. In works of Julián García Núñez Catalan influence can be noted as he completed his studies in Barcelona in 1900 as well as in the work of Eduardo Rodríguez Ortega.[154] The influence of Vienna Secession can be found at Paso y Viamonte building, Club Español, Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo and the Savoy hotel.[154]
Some local features are the adaptation to the previously existent "chorizo house" format of buildings, which implied a relatively narrow façade for an actually deep building inside of the block, with multiple patios or holes for air and light; as well as the characteristic "cut corners" on every block that was a requirement by law in Buenos Aires since the end of 1800s; material availability was also different than in Europe, and buildings will often be covered of a "simil piedra París" which was an imitation of the Parisian stone made by mixing cement with sand and different minerals.
The introduction of Art Nouveau in Rosario is connected to Francisco Roca Simó who trained in Barcelona.[156] His Club Español building (1912) features one of the largest stained glass windows in Latin America produced (as well as tiling and ceramics) by the local firm Buxadera, Fornells y Cía.[157] The sculptor of the building is Diego Masana from Barcelona.[157]
Belgian influence on Argentinian Art Nouveau is represented by the Villa Ortiz Basualdo, now hosting the Juan Carlos Castagnino Municipal Museum of Art in Mar del Plata where the furniture, interiors, and lighting are by Gustave Serrurier-Bovy.
As in Argentina, Art Nouveau in other countries was mostly influenced by foreign artists:
Art Nouveau motifs can also be found in French Colonial artchitechture throughout French Indochina.
A notable art movement called Bezalel school appeared in the Palestine region in dating to the late Ottoman and British Mandate periods. It has been described as "a fusion of oriental art and Jugendstil."[168] Several artists associated with the Bezalel school were noted for their Art Nouveau style, including Ze'ev Raban, Ephraim Moses Lilien and Abel Pann.[169]
Early Art Nouveau, particularly in Belgium and France, was characterized by undulating, curving forms inspired by lilies, vines, flower stems and other natural forms, used in particular in the interiors of Victor Horta and the decoration of Louis Majorelle and Émile Gallé.[173] It also drew upon patterns based on butterflies and dragonflies, borrowed from Japanese art, which were popular in Europe at the time.[173]
Early Art Nouveau also often featured more stylised forms expressing movement, such as the coup de fouet or "whiplash" line, depicted in the cyclamen plants drawn by designer Hermann Obrist in 1894. A description published in Pan magazine of Hermann Obrist's wall hanging Cyclamen (1894), compared it to the "sudden violent curves generated by the crack of a whip,"[174] The term "whiplash", though it was originally used to ridicule the style, is frequently applied to the characteristic curves employed by Art Nouveau artists.[174] Such decorative undulating and flowing lines in a syncopated rhythm and asymmetrical shape, are often found in the architecture, painting, sculpture, and other forms of Art Nouveau design.[174]
Other floral forms were popular, inspired by lilies, wisteria and other flowers, particularly in the lamps of Louis Comfort Tiffany and the glass objects made by the artists of the School of Nancy and Émile Gallé. Other curving and undulating forms borrowed from nature included butterflies, peacocks, swans, and water lilies. Many designs depicted women's hair intertwined with stems of lilies, irises and other flowers.[175] Stylised floral forms were particularly used by Victor Horta in carpets, balustrades, windows, and furniture. They were also used extensively by Hector Guimard for balustrades, and, most famously, for the lamps and railings at the entrances of the Paris Metro. Guimard explained: "That which must be avoided in everything that is continuous is the parallel and symmetry. Nature is the greatest builder and nature makes nothing that is parallel and nothing that is symmetrical."[176]
Earlier Art Nouveau furniture, such as that made by Louis Majorelle and Henry van de Velde, was characterized by the use of exotic and expensive materials, including mahogany with inlays of precious woods and trim, and curving forms without right angles. It gave a sensation of lightness.
In the second phase of Art Nouveau, following 1900, the decoration became purer and the lines were more stylised. The curving lines and forms evolved into polygons and then into cubes and other geometric forms. These geometric forms were used with particular effect in the architecture and furniture of Joseph Maria Olbrich, Otto Wagner, Koloman Moser and Josef Hoffmann, especially the Stoclet Palace in Brussels, which announced the arrival of Art Deco and modernism.[89][90][91]
Another characteristic of Art Nouveau architecture was the use of light, by opening up of interior spaces, by the removal of walls, and the extensive use of skylights to bring a maximum amount of light into the interior. Victor Horta's residence-studio and other houses built by him had extensive skylights, supported on curving iron frames. In the Hotel Tassel he removed the traditional walls around the stairway, so that the stairs became a central element of the interior design.
As an art style, Art Nouveau has affinities with the Pre-Raphaelites and the Symbolist styles, and artists like Aubrey Beardsley, Alphonse Mucha, Edward Burne-Jones, Gustav Klimt and Jan Toorop could be classed in more than one of these styles. Unlike Symbolist painting, however, Art Nouveau has a distinctive appearance; and, unlike the artisan-oriented Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau artists readily used new materials, machined surfaces, and abstraction in the service of pure design.
Art Nouveau did not eschew the use of machines, as the Arts and Crafts movement did. For sculpture, the principal materials employed were glass and wrought iron, resulting in sculptural qualities even in architecture. Ceramics were also employed in creating editions of sculptures by artists such as Auguste Rodin.[179] though his sculpture is not considered Art Nouveau.
Art Nouveau architecture made use of many technological innovations of the late 19th century, especially the use of exposed iron and large, irregularly shaped pieces of glass for architecture.
Art Nouveau tendencies were also absorbed into local styles. In Denmark, for example, it was one aspect of Skønvirke ('Aesthetic work'), which itself more closely relates to the Arts and Crafts style.[180][181] Likewise, artists adopted many of the floral and organic motifs of Art Nouveau into the Młoda Polska ('Young Poland') style in Poland.[182] Młoda Polska, however, was also inclusive of other artistic styles and encompassed a broader approach to art, literature, and lifestyle.[183]
Architecturally, Art Nouveau has affinities with styles that, although modern, exist outside the modernist tradition established by architects like Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. It is particularly closely related to Expressionist architecture, which shares its preference for organic shapes, but grew out of an intellectual dissatisfaction with Art Nouveau's approach to ornamentation. As opposed to Art Nouveau's focus on plants and vegetal motifs, Expressionism takes inspiration from things like caves, mountains, lightning, crystal, and rock formations.[184] Another style conceived as a reaction to Art Nouveau was Art Deco, which rejected organic surfaces altogether in preference for a rectilinear style derived from the contemporary artistic avant-garde.
Art Nouveau is represented in painting and sculpture, but it is most prominent in architecture and the decorative arts. It was well-suited to the graphic arts, especially the poster, interior design, metal and glass art, jewellery, furniture design, ceramics and textiles.
The graphic arts flourished in the Art Nouveau period, thanks to new technologies of printing, particularly colour lithography, which allowed the mass production of colour posters. Art was no longer confined to galleries, museums and salons; it could be found on Paris walls, and in illustrated art magazines, which circulated throughout Europe and to the United States. The most popular theme of Art Nouveau posters was women; women symbolizing glamour, modernity and beauty, often surrounded by flowers.
In Britain, the leading graphic artist in the Art Nouveau style was Aubrey Beardsley (1872–1898). He began with engraved book illustrations for Le Morte d'Arthur, then black and white illustrations for Salome by Oscar Wilde (1893), which brought him fame. In the same year, he began engraving illustrations and posters for the art magazine The Studio, which helped publicize European artists such as Fernand Khnopff in Britain. The curving lines and intricate floral patterns attracted as much attention as the text.[185]
The Swiss-French artist Eugène Grasset (1845–1917) was one of the first creators of French Art Nouveau posters. He helped decorate the famous cabaret Le Chat noir in 1885 and made his first posters for the Fêtes de Paris. He made a celebrated poster of Sarah Bernhardt in 1890, and a wide variety of book illustrations. The artist-designers Jules Chéret, Georges de Feure and the painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all made posters for Paris theaters, cafés, dance halls cabarets. The Czech artist Alphonse Mucha (1860–1939) arrived in Paris in 1888, and in 1895 made a poster for actress Sarah Bernhardt in the play Gismonda by Victorien Sardou. The success of this poster led to a contract to produce posters for six more plays by Bernhardt. Over the next four years, he also designed sets, costumes, and even jewellery for the actress.[186][187] Based on the success of his theater posters, Mucha made posters for a variety of products, ranging from cigarettes and soap to beer biscuits, all featuring an idealized female figure with an hourglass figure. He went on to design products, from jewellery to biscuit boxes, in his distinctive style.[188]
In Vienna, the most prolific designer of graphics and posters was Koloman Moser (1868–1918), who actively participated in the Secession movement with Gustav Klimt and Josef Hoffmann, and made illustrations and covers for the magazine of the movement, Ver Sacrum, as well as paintings, furniture and decoration.[189]
Painting was another domain of Art Nouveau, though most painters associated with Art Nouveau are primarily described as members of other movements, particularly Post-Impressionism and symbolism. Alphonse Mucha was famous for his Art Nouveau posters, which frustrated him. According to his son and biographer, Jiří Mucha, he did not think much of Art Nouveau. "What is it, Art Nouveau? he asked. "... Art can never be new."[190] He took the greatest pride in his work as a history painter. His Art Nouveau-inspired painting Slava is a portrait of the daughter of his patron in Slavic costume, which was modelled after his theatrical posters.[190]
The painters most closely associated with Art Nouveau were Les Nabis, post-impressionist artists who were active in Paris from 1888 until 1900. One of their stated goals was to break down the barrier between the fine arts and the decorative arts. They painted not only canvases, but also decorative screens and panels. Many of their works were influenced by the aesthetics of Japanese prints. The members included Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, Paul Ranson, Édouard Vuillard, Ker-Xavier Roussel, Félix Vallotton, and Paul Sérusier.[191]
The Austrian painter Gustav Klimt was an exponent of Art Nouveau painting, and more specifically a representative of the Modernist movement of the Viennese Secession. Klimt painted canvases and murals in an ornate personal style, which he also expressed through handicrafts, such as those found in the Viennese Secession Gallery. Klimt found one of his most recurring sources of inspiration in the female nude. His works are sensual, with a naturalistic, individual, organic style, inspired by nature following the decorative style of Gaudí.
The Catalan modernist painters (Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol, Aleix Clapés, Joaquim Sunyer, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Juan Brull, Ricard Canals, Javier Gosé, Josep Maria Sert, Miguel Utrillo, etc.), closely connected with the avant-garde in Paris, and hugely influenced by Antoni Gaudí, had in the Els Quatre Gats tavern their meeting place. Pablo Picasso came out of the group.
Disciples of Anglada Camarasa were the Argentines Gregorio López Naguil, Tito Cittadini and Raúl Mazza who were responsible for carrying art nouveau painting to South America
In Belgium, Fernand Khnopff worked in both painting and graphic design. Wall murals by Gustav Klimt were integrated into decorative scheme of Josef Hoffmann for the Stoclet Palace (1905–1911). The Klimt mural for the dining room at the Stoclet Palace is considered a masterpiece of late Art Nouveau.
One subject did appear both in traditional painting and Art Nouveau; the American dancer Loie Fuller, was portrayed by French and Austrian painters and poster artists.[44]
One particular style that became popular in the Art Nouveau period, especially in Brussels, was sgraffito, a technique invented in the Renaissance of applying layers of tinted plaster to make murals on the façades of houses. This was used in particular by Belgian architect Paul Hankar for the houses he built for two artist friends, Paul Cauchie and Albert Ciamberlani.
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![Jack-in-the-pulpit vase by Tiffany (c. 1913)[192]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Ngv,_louis_comfort_tiffany,_jack-in-the-pulpit_vase,_1913_circa_01.JPG/1280px-Ngv,_louis_comfort_tiffany,_jack-in-the-pulpit_vase,_1913_circa_01.JPG)
Glass art was a medium in which Art Nouveau found new and varied ways of expression. Intense amount of experimentation went on, particularly in France, to find new effects of transparency and opacity: in engraving win cameo, double layers, and acid engraving, a technique that permitted production in series. The city of Nancy became an important centre for the French glass industry, and the workshops of Émile Gallé and the Daum studio, led by Auguste and Antonin Daum, were located there. They worked with many notable designers, including Ernest Bussière, Henri Bergé (illustrateur), and Amalric Walter. They developed a new method of incrusting glass by pressing fragments of different coloured glass into the unfinished piece. They often collaborated with the furniture designer Louis Majorelle, whose home and workshops were in Nancy. Another feature of Art Nouveau was the use of stained glass windows with that style of floral themes in residential salons, particularly in the Art Nouveau houses in Nancy. Many were the work of Jacques Grüber, who made windows for the Villa Majorelle and other houses.[193]
In Belgium, the leading firm was the glass factory of Val Saint Lambert, which created vases in organic and floral forms, many of them designed by Philippe Wolfers. Wolfers was noted particularly for creating works of symbolist glass, often with metal decoration attached. In Bohemia, then a region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire noted for crystal manufacture, the companies J. & L. Lobmeyr and Joh. Loetz Witwe also experimented with new colouring techniques, producing more vivid and richer colours. In Germany, experimentation was led by Karl Köpping, who used blown glass to create extremely delicate glasses in the form of flowers; so delicate that few survive today.[194]
In Vienna, the glass designs of the Secession movement were much more geometrical than those of France or Belgium; Otto Prutscher was the most rigorous glass designer of the movement.[194] In Britain, a number of floral stained glass designs were created by Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh for the architectural display called The House of an Art Lover.
In the United States, Louis Comfort Tiffany and his designers became particularly famous for their lamps, whose glass shades used common floral themes intricately pieced together. Tiffany lamps gained popularity after the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, where Tiffany displayed his lamps in a Byzantine-like chapel. Tiffany experimented extensively with the processes of colouring glass, patenting in 1894 the process Favrile glass, which used metallic oxides to colour the interior of the molten glass, giving it an iridescent effect. His workshops produced several different series of the Tiffany lamp in different floral designs, along with stained glass windows, screens, vases and a range of decorative objects. His works were first imported to Germany, then to France by Siegfried Bing, and then became one of the decorative sensations of the 1900 Exposition. An American rival to Tiffany, Steuben Glass, was founded in 1903 in Corning, N.Y., by Frederick Carder, who, like Tiffany, used the Fevrile process to create surfaces with iridescent colours. Another notable American glass artist was John La Farge, who created intricate and colourful stained glass windows on both religious and purely decorative themes.[194]
Examples of stained glass windows in churches can be found in the Art Nouveau religious buildings article.
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The 19th-century architectural theorist Viollet-le-Duc had advocated showing, rather than concealing the iron frameworks of modern buildings, but Art Nouveau architects Victor Horta and Hector Guimard went a step further: they added iron decoration in curves inspired by floral and vegetal forms both in the interiors and exteriors of their buildings. They took the form of stairway railings in the interior, light fixtures, and other details in the interior, and balconies and other ornaments on the exterior. These became some of the most distinctive features of Art Nouveau architecture. The use of metal decoration in vegetal forms soon also appeared in silverware, lamps, and other decorative items.[195]
In the United States, the designer George Grant Elmslie made extremely intricate cast iron designs for the balustrades and other interior decoration of the buildings of Chicago architect Louis Sullivan.
While French and American designers used floral and vegetal forms, Joseph Maria Olbrich and the other Secession artists designed teapots and other metal objects in a more geometric and sober style.[196]
Art Nouveau jewellery's characteristics include subtle curves and lines. Its design often features natural objects including flowers, animals or birds. The female body is also popular often appearing on cameos. It frequently included long necklaces made of pearls or sterling-silver chains punctuated by glass beads or ending in a silver or gold pendant, itself often designed as an ornament to hold a single, faceted jewel of amethyst, peridot, or citrine.[197]
The Art Nouveau period brought a notable stylistic revolution to the jewellery industry, led largely by the major firms in Paris. For the previous two centuries, the emphasis in fine jewellery had been creating dramatic settings for diamonds. During the reign of Art Nouveau, diamonds usually played a supporting role. Jewellers experimented with a wide variety of other stones, including agate, garnet, opal, moonstone, aquamarine and other semi-precious stones, and with a wide variety of new techniques, among others enamelling, and new materials, including horn, moulded glass, and ivory.
Early notable Paris jewellers in the Art Nouveau style included Louis Aucoc, whose family jewellery firm dated to 1821. The most famous designer of the Art Nouveau period, René Lalique, served his apprenticeship in the Aucoc studio from 1874 to 1876. Lalique became a central figure of Art Nouveau jewellery and glass, using nature, from dragonflies to grasses, as his models. Artists from outside of the traditional world of jewellery, such as Paul Follot, best known as a furniture designer, experimented with jewellery designs. Other notable French Art Nouveau jewellery designers included Jules Brateau and Georges Henry. In the United States, the most famous designer was Louis Comfort Tiffany, whose work was shown at the shop of Siegfried Bing and also at the 1900 Paris Exposition.
In Britain, the most prominent figure was the Liberty & Co. & Cymric designer Archibald Knox, who made a variety of Art Nouveau pieces, including silver belt buckles. C. R. Ashbee designed pendants in the shapes of peacocks. The versatile Glasgow designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh also made jewellery, using traditional Celtic symbols. In Germany, the centre for Jugendstil jewellery was the city of Pforzheim, where most of the German firms, including Theodor Fahrner, were located. They quickly produced works to meet the demand for the new style.[197]
Art Nouveau architecture was a reaction against the eclectic styles that dominated European architecture in the second half of the 19th century. It was expressed through decoration: either ornamental (based on flowers and plants, e.g. thistles,[198] irises,[199] cyclamens, orchids, water lilies etc.) or sculptural (see the respective section below). While faces of people (or mascarons) are referred to ornament, the use of people in different forms of sculpture (statues and reliefs: see the respective section below) was also common in some forms of Art Nouveau. Before Vienna Secession, Jugendstil and the various forms of the National romantic style façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and the ornament.[200] A curling or "whiplash" motif, based on the forms of plants and flowers, was widely used in the early Art Nouveau, but decoration became more abstract and symmetrical in Vienna Secession and other later versions of the style, as in the Stoclet Palace in Brussels (1905–1911).[201]
The style first appeared in Brussels' Hankar House by Paul Hankar (1893) and Hôtel Tassel (1892–93) of Victor Horta. The Hôtel Tassel was visited by Hector Guimard, who used the same style in his first major work, the Castel Béranger (1897–98). Horta and Guimard also designed the furniture and the interior decoration, down to the doorknobs and carpeting. In 1899, based on the fame of the Castel Béranger, Guimard received a commission to design the entrances of the stations of the new Paris Métro, which opened in 1900. Though few of the originals survived, these became the symbol of the Art Nouveau movement in Paris.
In Paris, the architectural style was also a reaction to the strict regulations imposed on building façades by Georges-Eugène Haussmann, the prefect of Paris under Napoleon III. Bow windows were finally allowed in 1903, and Art Nouveau architects went to the opposite extreme, most notably in the houses of Jules Lavirotte, which were essentially large works of sculpture, completely covered with decoration. An important neighbourhood of Art Nouveau houses appeared in the French city of Nancy, around the Villa Majorelle (1901–02), the residence of the furniture designer Louis Majorelle. It was designed by Henri Sauvage as a showcase for Majorelle's furniture designs.[200]
Many Art Nouveau buildings were included in UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list as a part of their city centres (in Bern, Budapest, Lviv, Paris, Porto, Prague, Riga, Saint Petersburg, Strasbourg (Neustadt), Vienna). Along with them, there were buildings that were included in the list as separate objects:
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Belgium: the works of Victor Horta (Hôtel Tassel, Hôtel Solvay, Hôtel van Eetvelde, Maison and Atelier Horta)[5] and the Stoclet Palace by Josef Hoffmann in Brussels;
Spain: the works of Lluís Domènech i Montaner[121] (Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona), and the works of Antoni Gaudí[202] (Park Güell, Palau Güell, Sagrada Família, Casa Batlló, Casa Milá, Casa Vicens in Barcelona; Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló).
Sculpture was another form of expression for Art Nouveau artists, crossing with ceramics sometimes. The porcelain figurine Dancer with a Scarf by Agathon Léonard won recognition both in ceramics and in sculpture at the Paris Exposition in 1900. Sculptors of other countries also created ceramic sculptures: Bohemian Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun, Belgian Charles Van der Stappen and Catalan Lambert Escaler, who created statues of polychrome terracotta. Another notable sculptor of that time was Agustí Querol Subirats from Catalonia who created statues in Spain, Mexico, Argentina, and Cuba.[203]
In architectural sculpture not only statues but also reliefs were used. Art Nouveau architects and sculptors found inspiration in animal motifs (butterflies,[204] peacocks,[205] swans,[206] owls,[207] bats,[208] dragons,[209] bears[210]). Atlantes,[211] caryatids,[212] putti,[213] and gargoyles[214] were also used.
Furniture design in the Art Nouveau period was closely associated with the architecture of the buildings; the architects often designed the furniture, carpets, light fixtures, doorknobs, and other decorative details. The furniture was often complex and expensive; a fine finish, usually polished or varnished, was regarded as essential, and continental designs were usually very complex, with curving shapes that were expensive to make. It also had the drawback that the owner of the home could not change the furniture or add pieces in a different style without disrupting the entire effect of the room. For this reason, when Art Nouveau architecture went out of style, the style of furniture also largely disappeared.
In France, the centre for furniture design and manufacture was in Nancy, where two major designers, Émile Gallé and Louis Majorelle had their studios and workshops, and where the Alliance des industries d'art (later called the School of Nancy) had been founded in 1901. Both designers based on their structure and ornamentation on forms taken from nature, including flowers and insects, such as the dragonfly, a popular motif in Art Nouveau design. Gallé was particularly known for his use of marquetry in relief, in the form of landscapes or poetic themes. Majorelle was known for his use of exotic and expensive woods, and for attaching bronze sculpted in vegetal themes to his pieces of furniture. Both designers used machines for the first phases of manufacture, but all the pieces were finished by hand. Other notable furniture designers of the Nancy School included Eugène Vallin and Émile André; both were architects by training, and both designed furniture that resembled the furniture from Belgian designers such as Horta and Van de Velde, which had less decoration and followed more closely the curving plants and flowers.
Other notable French designers included Henri Bellery-Desfontaines, who took his inspiration from the neo-Gothic styles of Viollet-le-Duc; and Georges de Feure, Eugène Gaillard, and Édouard Colonna, who worked together with art dealer Siegfried Bing to revitalize the French furniture industry with new themes. Their work was known for "abstract naturalism", its unity of straight and curved lines, and its rococo influence. The furniture of de Feure at the Bing pavilion won a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition. The most unusual and picturesque French designer was François-Rupert Carabin, a sculptor by training, whose furniture featured sculpted nude female forms and symbolic animals, particularly cats, who combined Art Nouveau elements with Symbolism. Other influential Paris furniture designers were Charles Plumet, and Alexandre Charpentier.[215] In many ways the old vocabulary and techniques of classic French 18th-century Rococo furniture were re-interpreted in a new style.[10]
In Belgium, the pioneer architects of the Art Nouveau movement, Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, designed furniture for their houses, using vigorous curving lines and a minimum of decoration. The Belgian designer Gustave Serrurier-Bovy added more decoration, applying brass strips in curving forms. In the Netherlands, where the style was called Nieuwe Kunst or New Art, H. P. Berlag, Lion Cachet and Theodor Nieuwenhuis followed a different course, that of the English Arts and Crafts movement, with more geometric rational forms.
In Britain, the furniture of Charles Rennie Mackintosh was purely Arts and Crafts, austere and geometrical, with long straight lines and right angles and a minimum of decoration.[216] Continental designs were much more elaborate, often using curved shapes both in the basic shapes of the piece, and in applied decorative motifs. In Germany, the furniture of Peter Behrens and the Jugendstil was largely rationalist, with geometric straight lines and some decoration attached to the surface. Their goal was exactly the opposite of French Art Nouveau; simplicity of structure and simplicity of materials, for furniture that could be inexpensive and easily mass-manufactured. The same was true for the furniture of designers of the Wiener Werkstätte in Vienna, led by Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann, Josef Maria Olbrich and Koloman Moser. The furniture was geometric and had a minimum of decoration, though in style it often followed national historic precedent, particularly the Biedemeier style.[217]
Italian and Spanish furniture design went off in their own direction. Carlo Bugatti in Italy designed the extraordinary Snail Chair, wood covered with painted parchment and copper, for the Turin International Exposition of 1902. In Spain, following the lead of Antoni Gaudí and the Modernismo movement, the furniture designer Gaspar Homar designed works that were inspired by natural forms with touches of Catalan historic styles.[136]
In the United States, furniture design was more often inspired by the Arts and Crafts movement, or by historic American models, than by the Art Nouveau. One designer who did introduce Art Nouveau themes was Charles Rohlfs in Buffalo, N.Y., whose designs for American white oak furniture were influenced by motifs of Celtic Art and Gothic art, with touches of Art Nouveau in the metal trim applied to the pieces.[136]
![Hand-painted tile panel on the façade of the Grande Maison de Blanc in Brussels, designed by Privat Livemont and made by the Boch Frères Kéramis (1897–98)[218]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Grande_Maison_de_Blanc_Femme_2.JPG/1280px-Grande_Maison_de_Blanc_Femme_2.JPG)
Ceramic art, including faience, was another flourishing domain for Art Nouveau artists, in the English-speaking countries falling under the wider art pottery movement. The last part of the 19th century saw many technological innovations in the manufacture of ceramics, particularly the development of high temperature (grand feu) ceramics with crystallised and matte glazes. At the same time, several lost techniques, such as sang de boeuf glaze, were rediscovered. Art Nouveau ceramics were also influenced by traditional and modern Japanese and Chinese ceramics, whose vegetal and floral motifs fitted well with the Art Nouveau style. In France, artists also rediscovered the traditional stoneware (grés) methods and reinvented them with new motifs.[222]
Émile Gallé, in Nancy, created earthenware works in natural earth colors with naturalistic themes of plants and insects. Ceramics also found an important new use in architecture: Art Nouveau architects, Jules Lavirotte and Hector Guimard among them, began to decorate the façades of buildings with architectural ceramics, many of them made by the firm of Alexandre Bigot, giving them a distinct Art Nouveau sculptural look.[222]
One of the pioneer French Art Nouveau ceramists was Ernest Chaplet, whose career in ceramics spanned thirty years. He began producing stoneware influenced by Japanese and Chinese prototypes. Beginning in 1886, he worked with painter Paul Gauguin on stoneware designs with applied figures, multiple handles, painted and partially glazed, and collaborated with sculptors Félix Bracquemond, Jules Dalou and Auguste Rodin. His works were acclaimed at the 1900 Exposition.
The major national ceramics firms had an important place at the 1900 Paris Exposition: the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres outside Paris; Nymphenburg, Meissen, Villeroy & Boch in Germany, and Doulton in Britain. Other leading French ceramists included Taxile Doat, Pierre-Adrien Dalpayrat, Edmond Lachenal, Albert Dammouse and Auguste Delaherche.[223]
In France, Art Nouveau ceramics sometimes crossed the line into sculpture. The porcelain figurine Dancer with a Scarf by Agathon Léonard, made for the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres, won recognition in both categories at the 1900 Paris Exposition.
The Zsolnay factory in Pécs, Hungary, was founded by Miklós Zsolnay (1800–1880) in 1853 and led by his son, Vilmos Zsolnay (1828–1900) with chief designer Tádé Sikorski (1852–1940) to produce stoneware and other ceramics. In 1893, Zsolnay introduced porcelain pieces made of eosin. He led the factory to worldwide recognition by demonstrating its innovative products at world fairs and international exhibitions, including the 1873 World Fair in Vienna, then at the 1878 World Fair in Paris, where Zsolnay received a Grand Prix. Frost-resisting Zsolnay building decorations were used in numerous buildings, specifically during the Art Nouveau movement.[224]
Ceramic tiles were also a distinctive feature of Portuguese Arte Nova that continued the long azulejo tradition of the country.
Mosaics were used by many Art Nouveau artists of different movements, especially of Catalan Modernisme (Hospital de Sant Pau, Palau de la Música Catalana, Casa Lleó-Morera and many others). Antoni Gaudí invented a new technique in the treatment of materials called trencadís, which used waste ceramic pieces.
Colourful Maiolica tile in floral designs were a distinctive feature of the Majolica House in Vienna by Otto Wagner, (1898) and of the buildings of the works of the Russian Abramtsevo Colony, especially those by Mikhail Vrubel.
Textiles and wallpapers were an important vehicle of Art Nouveau from the beginning of the style, and an essential element of Art Nouveau interior design. In Britain, the textile designs of William Morris had helped launch the Arts and Crafts movement and then Art Nouveau. Many designs were created for the Liberty department store in London, which popularized the style throughout Europe. One such designer was the Silver Studio, which provided colourful stylised floral patterns. Other distinctive designs came from Glasgow School, and Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh. The Glasgow school introduced several distinctive motifs, including stylised eggs, geometric forms and the "Rose of Glasgow".
In France, a major contribution was made by designer Eugène Grasset who in 1896 published La Plante et ses applications ornamentales, suggesting Art Nouveau designs based on different flowers and plants. Many patterns were designed for and produced by for the major French textile manufacturers in Mulhouse, Lille and Lyon, by German and Belgian workshops. The German designer Hermann Obrist specialized in floral patterns, particularly the cyclamen and the "whiplash" style based on flower stems, which became a major motif of the style. The Belgian Henry van de Velde presented a textile work, La Veillée d'Anges, at the Salon La Libre Esthéthique in Brussels, inspired by the symbolism of Paul Gauguin and of the Nabis. In the Netherlands, textiles were often inspired by batik patterns from the Dutch colonies in the East Indies. Folk art also inspired the creation of tapestries, carpets, embroidery and textiles in Central Europe and Scandinavia, in the work of Gerhard Munthe and Frida Hansen in Norway. The Five Swans design of Otto Eckmann appeared in more than one hundred different versions. The Hungarian designer János Vaszary combined Art Nouveau elements with folkloric themes.[226]
There are 4 types of museums featuring Art Nouveau heritage:
There are many other Art Nouveau buildings and structures that do not have museum status but can be officially visited for a fee or unofficially for free (e.g. railway stations, churches, cafes, restaurants, pubs, hotels, stores, offices, libraries, cemeteries, fountains as well as numerous apartment buildings that are still inhabited).
Criticized for "its primitive extravagances", Art Nouveau started to fade away after 1911.[230] In histories of European architecture in the 20th century, from the 1930s to the 1950s, influential historians, like Nikolaus Pevsner, Sigfried Giedion and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, did not take Art Nouveau into consideration. This left the first versions of Pevsner's The Genius of European Architecture without a mention of Hector Guimard or Antoni Gaudí. The first major works dealing with Art Nouveau were published at the end of the 1950s, with Johnny Watser.
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Art Nouveau was one of the factors that led to Art Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to create a new modern style around 1910. This is because Art Nouveau broke the supremacy of 19th-century revivalism and eclecticism, opposing academic conventions. Through its various manifestations, it invented new ornamental systems, no longer dependent on historical formulae, through curvy plant forms in most of the world, geometric decoration in Austria-Hungary and the UK, and reinterpretations of national tradition in the countries of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The idea of creating a new style, with new ornaments and shapes, was a significant contribution that Art Nouveau brought to the invention of Art Deco. Another aspect taken from Art Nouveau is the emphasis put on domestic luxury.
Some of the fine details and sinuous lines of Art Nouveau are also found in Art Deco architecture and design of the 1920s, but slightly simplified. Similarly, the flat colours and visible outlines popularized by Art Nouveau posters are very often used in Art Deco illustration. Compared to many Art Nouveau designs, where the vegetal motifs seem to grow and morph on the object or architectural ornament, most Art Deco works have a clear compositional structure, similar to Neoclassicism.
Aside from ideas taken from Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau, influence came also from the geometric motifs and volumes found in the UK and Vienna. The flowers, spirals and squares found here are very similar to the ones found in Art Deco. Charles Rennie Mackintosh even anticipated Art Deco forms in his later creations. One of the Secessionist works that best anticipates the style is the Stoclet Palace in Brussels, with its ziggurat-shaped setbacks, the vertical slit of the staircase window, and the overall simplicity and modest ornamentation.[236]
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During the 1960s, Postmodernism was born. This was and is a movement that questions Modernism (the status quo after World War II), and promoted the inclusion and reinterpretation of elements of historic styles in new designs. Although several international exhibitions on Art Nouveau happened in the 1950s, a successful revival appeared in the 1960s, and especially in the 1970s with the rise of Postmodernism. Aside from exhibitions, this revival might be connected with the "flower power" generation that set the tone at the time recognized its own life ideals in the floral ornament and the erotically "emancipated" art themes of the years around 1900.
Art Nouveau was also one of the main sources of inspiration for many posters of psychedelic rock from the same period. Leading proponents of the 1960s psychedelic art movement were San Francisco poster artists such as Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, Bonnie MacLean, Stanley Mouse, Alton Kelley, and Wes Wilson. Compared to the earthy colours that characterize Art Nouveau, these posters had highly saturated colours put in contrast, and also highly stylised text, sometimes hard to read. This style flourished from about 1966 to 1972.
On the downside, Gustav Klimt's iconic paintings are found today on many kitschy souvenirs: mugs, plates, napkins, key chains, and so on. This is problematic, as one of the definitions of kitsch is "reproduction or copying on an industrial scale of works of art, multiplied and exploited commercially."[238] The Kiss had been printed on countless sizes and materials. In a similar situation are Alphonse Mucha's posters.
One of the artists who found in Art Nouveau a major source of inspiration was the Austrian painter and architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser. He took inspiration from multiple sources, including Egon Schiele, Baroque and Persian miniature, and the curvy ornamentation of Art Nouveau.[239]
Viollet le Duc is the spokesman a rationalist mouvement where architecture becomes a true science, in which form stems from function.
Nature as a model
Construction for an architect means using materials for their quality and their own nature
It is fascinating to see how the style of his mural paintings at Notre Dame are precursors of Art Nouveau
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![«Королева мая» Маргарет Макдональд Макинтош (1900)[67]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/The_May_Queen,_by_Margaret_Macdonald_Mackintosh,_1900,_pencil,_watercolour,_and_bodycolour,_heightened_with_silver,_on_oiled_tracing_paper,_33_x_69.2_cm,_private_collection.jpg/1280px-thumbnail.jpg)
![Внутренний вид холла, Hill House, Хеленсбург, Шотландия, спроектирован и построен Уолтером Блэки (1902–1904)[68]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hill_House_7_(37376578142).jpg/1280px-Hill_House_7_(37376578142).jpg)
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![Brück House in Timișoara, today in Romania (1911). Along with Oradea, Timișoara is part of the Art Nouveau European Route[92]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Timisoara,_Casa_Br%C3%BCck.jpg/1280px-Timisoara,_Casa_Br%C3%BCck.jpg)
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![Romulus Porescu House (Strada Doctor Paleologu no. 12) in Bucharest by Dimitrie Maimarolu (1905)[101]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Old_photo_of_the_Romulus_Porescu_House_in_Bucharest_(01).jpg/1280px-Old_photo_of_the_Romulus_Porescu_House_in_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
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