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Рабство в Соединенных Штатах

Порка раба (гравюра на дереве, 1834 г.); избитая спина Петра (1863 г.); картина Томаса Саттеруайта Нобла , вдохновленная Маргарет Гарнер ; межштатный караван работорговцев из Вирджинии в Теннесси; вольноотпущенники, покидающие Южную Каролину на корабле USS Vermont в 1862 г.; Делия Гарлик в возрасте 100 лет; «надсмотрщик, исполняющий свой долг» (1798 г.); беженцы от американского рабства, обосновавшиеся в Виндзоре, Онтарио ; Пол Дженнингс , аболиционист; объявление о проведении аукциона рабов (1769 г.)

Правовой институт человеческого движимого рабства , включающий порабощение в первую очередь африканцев и афроамериканцев , был распространен в Соединенных Штатах Америки с момента их основания в 1776 году до 1865 года, преимущественно на Юге . Рабство было установлено на протяжении всей европейской колонизации в Америке . С 1526 года, в ранний колониальный период , оно практиковалось в том, что стало британскими колониями , включая Тринадцать колоний , которые образовали Соединенные Штаты. Согласно закону, порабощенный человек рассматривался как собственность, которую можно было купить, продать или отдать. Рабство продолжалось примерно в половине штатов США до его отмены в 1865 году, и вопросы, касающиеся рабства, просочились во все аспекты национальной политики, экономики и социальных обычаев. [1] В течение десятилетий после окончания Реконструкции в 1877 году многие экономические и социальные функции рабства были продолжены посредством сегрегации , издольщины и аренды осужденных .

Ко времени Американской войны за независимость (1775–1783) статус рабов был институционализирован как расовая каста , связанная с африканским происхождением. [2] Во время и сразу после Революции в большинстве северных штатов были приняты законы об отмене рабства , и развернулось движение за отмену рабства. Роль рабства в Конституции Соединенных Штатов (1789) была самым спорным вопросом во время ее разработки. Пункт «Три пятых» Конституции давал рабовладельческим штатам несоразмерную политическую власть, [3] в то время как Пункт о беглых рабах ( статья IV, раздел 2, пункт 3 ) предусматривал, что если раб сбегал в другой штат, другой штат не мог помешать возвращению раба человеку, утверждающему, что он является его или ее владельцем. Все северные штаты в той или иной степени отменили рабство к 1805 году, иногда с завершением в будущем, иногда с промежуточным статусом неоплачиваемого кабального слуги.

Отмена рабства во многих случаях была постепенным процессом. Некоторые рабовладельцы, в основном на Верхнем Юге , освобождали своих рабов, а благотворительные группы покупали и освобождали других. Атлантическая работорговля была запрещена отдельными штатами, начиная с Американской революции. Импортная торговля была запрещена Конгрессом в 1808 году , хотя контрабанда была распространена и после этого, [4] [5] после чего Служба налоговых катерных перевозок США (береговая охрана) начала обеспечивать соблюдение закона в открытом море. [6] Было подсчитано, что до 1820 года большинство действующих конгрессменов владели рабами, и что около 30 процентов конгрессменов, родившихся до 1840 года (некоторые из которых служили в 20 веке), в какой-то момент своей жизни были владельцами рабов. [7]

Быстрое расширение хлопковой промышленности на Глубоком Юге после изобретения хлопкоочистительной машины значительно увеличило спрос на рабский труд, и южные штаты продолжили существовать как рабовладельческие общества. США, разделенные на рабовладельческие и свободные штаты , стали еще более поляризованными по вопросу рабства. Движимые требованиями рабочей силы от новых хлопковых плантаций на Глубоком Юге , Верхний Юг продал более миллиона рабов, которых увезли на Глубокий Юг. Общее количество рабов на Юге в конечном итоге достигло четырех миллионов. [8] [ нужна страница ] [9] По мере расширения США южные штаты пытались распространить рабство на новые западные территории, чтобы позволить силам, выступающим за рабство, сохранить власть в Конгрессе. Новые территории , приобретенные в результате покупки Луизианы и мексиканской уступки, стали предметом крупных политических кризисов и компромиссов. [10] Рабство защищалось на Юге как «позитивное благо» , и крупнейшие религиозные конфессии разделились по вопросу рабства на региональные организации Севера и Юга.

К 1850 году недавно разбогатевший, выращивающий хлопок Юг пригрозил выходом из Союза . Кровопролитные бои разгорелись из-за рабства на территории Канзаса . Когда Авраам Линкольн победил на выборах 1860 года на платформе прекращения расширения рабства, рабовладельческие штаты отделились, чтобы сформировать Конфедерацию . Вскоре после этого началась Гражданская война , когда войска Конфедерации атаковали форт Самтер армии США в Чарльстоне, Южная Каролина. Во время войны некоторые юрисдикции отменили рабство , и благодаря мерам Союза, таким как Законы о конфискации и Прокламация об освобождении , война фактически положила конец рабству в большинстве мест. После победы Союза 6 декабря 1865 года была ратифицирована Тринадцатая поправка к Конституции Соединенных Штатов , запрещающая «рабство [и] подневольное услужение, за исключением наказания за преступление». [11]

Фон

Маркетинг изображений табака XVIII века, произведенного рабами в колонии Вирджиния (Фонд колониального Уильямсбурга)

В течение большей части британского колониального периода рабство существовало во всех колониях. Люди, порабощенные на Севере, обычно работали в качестве домашней прислуги, ремесленников, рабочих и мастеров, причем большее число в городах. Многие мужчины работали в доках и на судоходстве. В 1703 году более 42 процентов домохозяйств Нью-Йорка держали рабов в неволе, что является второй по величине долей среди всех городов в колониях, уступая только Чарльстону, Южная Каролина . [12] Рабы также использовались в качестве сельскохозяйственных рабочих в фермерских общинах, особенно на Юге , но также в северной части штата Нью-Йорк и Лонг-Айленде , Коннектикуте и Нью-Джерси . К 1770 году насчитывалось 397 924 чернокожих из 2,17 миллиона населения того, что вскоре стало Соединенными Штатами. Рабы колониальной эпохи были распределены неравномерно: 14 867 жили в Новой Англии , где они составляли три процента населения; 34 679 человек жили в среднеатлантических колониях , где они составляли шесть процентов населения; и 347 378 человек в пяти южных колониях , где они составляли 31 процент населения. [13]

Юг развил аграрную экономику, зависящую от товарных культур . Его плантаторы быстро приобрели значительно большее количество и долю рабов в общей численности населения, поскольку его товарные культуры были трудоемкими. [14] Вначале рабы на Юге работали в основном на фермах и плантациях, выращивая индиго , рис и табак ( хлопок не стал основной культурой до 1790-х годов). В 1720 году около 65 процентов населения Южной Каролины были рабами. [15] Плантаторы (определяемые историками Верхнего Юга как те, кто держал 20 или более рабов) использовали рабов для выращивания товарных культур. Они также работали в ремесленных промыслах на крупных плантациях и во многих портовых городах Юга. Поздняя волна поселенцев в 18 веке, которые поселились вдоль Аппалачских гор и в глубинке, были фермерами, ведущими натуральное хозяйство , и они редко держали рабов.

Деталь кирпичной кладки церкви колониальной эпохи в Мэриленде; мастера по кирпичной кладке в Балтиморе были преимущественно чернокожими и часто рабами [16]

Начиная со второй половины XVIII века, возникли дебаты по поводу продолжающегося импорта африканских рабов в американские колонии. Многие в колониях, включая южную славократию , выступали против дальнейшего импорта рабов из-за опасений, что это дестабилизирует колонии и приведет к новым восстаниям рабов . В 1772 году видные виргинцы подали петицию Короне , требуя отмены работорговли в Вирджинии; она была отклонена. [17] Род-Айленд запретил импорт рабов в 1774 году. Влиятельные революционные резолюции Фэрфакса призвали положить конец «злой, жестокой и противоестественной» атлантической работорговле. [18] Все колонии запретили импорт рабов во время Войны за независимость. [19]

Рабство в эпоху Американской революции и ранней республики

«Старая плантация» , акварель, приписываемая Джону Роузу, возможно, написана в 1785–1795 годах в округе Бофорт , Южная Каролина ( Музей народного искусства Эбби Олдрич Рокфеллер )

Рабство существовало тысячи лет по всему миру. В Соединенных Штатах и ​​во многих частях мира оно было законной практикой и укоренилось социально и экономически во многих обществах. Идеалы и принципы, пропагандировавшиеся в эпоху Просвещения и Американской революции, помогли поставить рабство и стремление к его отмене на политическую повестку дня. Как выразился историк Кристофер Л. Браун, рабство «никогда не стояло на повестке дня всерьез», но Американская революция «заставила его стать общественным вопросом с этого момента». [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]

После того, как независимость новой страны была обеспечена, рабство стало предметом спора на Конституционном конвенте 1787 года . Многие из отцов-основателей Соединенных Штатов были владельцами плантаций, которые владели большим количеством рабов; первоначальная Конституция сохранила их право владеть рабами, и они дополнительно получили политическое преимущество, владея рабами. Хотя рабы ранней Республики считались разумной собственностью, не имели права голоса и не имели права голоса, они должны были быть перечислены в переписях населения и подсчитаны как три пятых человека для целей представительства в национальном законодательном органе, Конгрессе США .

Рабы и свободные чернокожие, поддерживавшие Континентальную армию

Эта почтовая марка, выпущенная во время Двухсотлетия, посвящена Сейлему Пуру , рабу-афроамериканцу, который выкупил свою свободу, стал солдатом и прославился как герой войны во время битвы при Банкер-Хилле . [25]

Повстанцы начали предлагать свободу в качестве стимула, чтобы мотивировать рабов сражаться на их стороне. Вашингтон разрешил освободить рабов, которые сражались в составе Американской континентальной армии . Род-Айленд начал вербовать рабов в 1778 году и обещал компенсацию владельцам, чьи рабы завербовались и выжили, чтобы обрести свободу. [26] [27] В ходе войны около одной пятой части Северной армии были чернокожими. [28] В 1781 году барон Клоузен, немецкий офицер во французском королевском полку Дё-Пон в битве при Йорктауне , оценил, что американская армия примерно на четверть состояла из чернокожих. [29] Среди этих людей были как бывшие рабы, так и свободнорожденные чернокожие. Тысячи свободных чернокожих в северных штатах сражались в ополчениях штата и Континентальной армии. На Юге обе стороны предлагали свободу рабам, которые несли военную службу. Примерно 20 000 рабов сражались в Американской революции. [25] [30] [31] [32] [33]

Черные лоялисты

Халат, похожий на тот, что носили черные лоялисты в Эфиопском полку .

После начала Войны за независимость британцы поняли, что им не хватает рабочей силы, необходимой для ведения войны. В ответ британские командиры начали выпускать прокламации для рабов, принадлежащих патриотам, предлагая свободу, если они сбегут на британские позиции и окажут помощь британским военным усилиям. [34] Такие прокламации неоднократно выпускались в ходе конфликта, что привело к тому, что до 100 000 американских рабов сбежали на британские позиции. [35] Самоосвобожденные рабы, достигшие британских позиций, были организованы в различные воинские части, которые служили на всех театрах военных действий. Ранее порабощенные женщины и дети, вместо военной службы, работали в качестве рабочих и домашней прислуги. В конце войны освобожденные рабы на британских позициях либо были эвакуированы в другие британские колонии или в саму Британию, либо были повторно порабощены победившими американцами, либо бежали в сельскую местность. [36]

В начале 1775 года королевский губернатор Вирджинии лорд Данмор написал графу Дартмуту о своем намерении освободить рабов, принадлежащих американским патриотам, в случае, если они поднимут восстание. [37] [38] 7 ноября 1775 года Данмор издал Прокламацию Данмора , которая обещала свободу всем рабам американских патриотов, которые оставят своих хозяев и присоединятся к британским войскам. [39] Историки сходятся во мнении, что прокламация была разработана в основном по практическим, а не по моральным причинам, и рабы, принадлежавшие американским лоялистам, не были затронуты прокламацией. Около 1500 рабов, принадлежавших патриотам, сбежали и присоединились к войскам Данмора. Всего с плантации Джорджа Вашингтона сбежало 18 рабов , один из которых, Гарри, служил в полностью черном лоялистском полку Данмора под названием «Черные пионеры». [40] Беглецы, которые присоединились к Данмору, имели на своих куртках вышитую надпись «Свобода рабам». [41] Большинство из них умерли от болезней, прежде чем смогли принять участие в боевых действиях, но триста из этих освобожденных рабов добрались до свободы в Британии. [42] Историк Джилл Лепор пишет, что «от восьмидесяти до ста тысяч (почти каждый пятый чернокожий раб) покинули свои дома... делая ставку на победу Британии», но Кассандра Пибус утверждает, что от 20 000 до 30 000 — более реалистичное число рабов, перешедших на сторону Британии во время войны. [40]

Многие рабы воспользовались перерывом в войне, чтобы сбежать со своих плантаций на британские линии или слиться с общим населением. При первом же появлении британских судов тысячи рабов в Мэриленде и Вирджинии бежали от своих владельцев. [43] : 21  По всему Югу потери рабов были высокими, многие из них были связаны с побегами. [44] Рабы также бежали по всей Новой Англии и Средней Атлантике, многие из них присоединились к британцам, оккупировавшим Нью-Йорк. [40] В последние месяцы войны британцы эвакуировали вольноотпущенников , а также забрали рабов, принадлежавших лоялистам. Около 15 000 чернокожих лоялистов ушли с британцами, большинство из них в конечном итоге стали свободными людьми в Англии или ее колониях. [45] Вашингтон нанял ловца рабов во время войны, и в ее конце он надавил на британцев, чтобы они вернули рабов их хозяевам. [40] Имея в своих вещах британские свидетельства о свободе, чернокожие лоялисты, включая раба Вашингтона Гарри, отплыли вместе со своими белыми коллегами из гавани Нью-Йорка в Новую Шотландию . [40] Более 3000 человек были переселены в Новую Шотландию, где им в конечном итоге предоставили землю, и они сформировали сообщество чернокожих новошотландцев .

Ранний аболиционизм в Соединенных Штатах

Аргументы за и против рабства стали причиной продолжающегося конфликта в течение первых 89 лет существования Соединенных Штатов ( Историческая география , Джон Дж. Смит, 1888)

В первые два десятилетия после Американской революции законодательные органы штатов и отдельные лица принимали меры по освобождению рабов. Северные штаты приняли новые конституции, содержащие положения о равных правах или конкретно отменяющие рабство; некоторые штаты, такие как Нью-Йорк и Нью-Джерси, где рабство было более распространено, к концу XVIII века приняли законы о постепенной отмене рабства. К 1804 году все северные штаты приняли законы, запрещающие рабство, либо немедленно, либо с течением времени. В Нью-Йорке последние рабы были освобождены в 1827 году (это было отмечено большим  парадом 5 июля). Кабальное рабство , которое было широко распространено в колониях (когда-то половина населения Филадельфии была кабальными слугами ), резко сократилось и исчезло к 1800 году. Однако в 1860 году в Нью-Джерси все еще были принудительно кабальные слуги. Ни один южный штат не отменил рабство, но некоторые отдельные владельцы, более чем горстка, освобождали своих рабов по личному решению, часто предусматривая освобождение в завещаниях, но иногда подавая акты или судебные документы для освобождения людей. Многочисленные рабовладельцы, которые освободили своих рабов, ссылались на революционные идеалы в своих документах; другие освобождали рабов в качестве обещанной награды за службу. С 1790 по 1810 год доля свободных чернокожих в Соединенных Штатах увеличилась с 8 до 13,5 процентов, а на Верхнем Юге — с менее чем одного до почти десяти процентов в результате этих действий. [46] [47] [48]

Начиная с 1777 года, мятежники запретили импорт рабов в каждом штате. Все они действовали, чтобы положить конец международной торговле, но после войны она была возобновлена ​​в Северной Каролине (открыта до 1794 года), Джорджии (открыта до 1798 года) и Южной Каролине (открыта до 1787 года, а затем снова возобновлена ​​в 1803 году.) [49] В 1807 году Конгресс Соединенных Штатов действовал по совету президента Томаса Джефферсона и, без споров, сделал импорт рабов из-за рубежа федеральным преступлением, вступившим в силу в первый день, когда Конституция Соединенных Штатов разрешила этот запрет: 1 января 1808 года. [50]

Во время Революции и в последующие годы все штаты к северу от Мэриленда ( линия Мейсона-Диксона ) предприняли шаги по отмене рабства. В 1777 году Республика Вермонт , которая все еще не была признана Соединенными Штатами, приняла конституцию штата, запрещающую рабство . Общество отмены рабства Пенсильвании , частично возглавляемое Бенджамином Франклином , было основано в 1775 году, и Пенсильвания начала постепенную отмену рабства в 1780 году. В 1783 году Верховный суд Массачусетса постановил в деле Содружество против Дженнисона , что рабство является неконституционным в соответствии с новой конституцией штата 1780 года . В Нью-Гэмпшире постепенная эмансипация началась в 1783 году, в то время как Коннектикут и Род-Айленд последовали этому примеру в 1784 году. В 1785 году было основано Нью-Йоркское общество освобождения , которое возглавляли Джон Джей , Александр Гамильтон и Аарон Берр . В штате Нью-Йорк постепенная эмансипация началась в 1799 году, а в Нью-Джерси — в 1804 году.

Вскоре после Революции Манассия Катлер и Руфус Патнэм (который был главным инженером Джорджа Вашингтона) основали Северо-Западную территорию . И Катлер, и Патнэм были выходцами из пуританской Новой Англии. Пуритане твердо верили, что рабство было морально неправильным. Их влияние на вопрос рабства было длительным, и Революция придала этому значительно больший импульс. Северо-Западная территория (которая стала Огайо, Мичиганом, Индианой, Иллинойсом, Висконсином и частью Миннесоты) удвоила площадь Соединенных Штатов и была создана по настоянию Катлера и Патнэма как «свободная земля» — без рабства. Это оказалось решающим несколько десятилетий спустя. Если бы эти штаты были рабовладельческими штатами, и их голоса избирателей достались бы главному противнику Авраама Линкольна, Линкольн не стал бы президентом. Гражданская война не началась бы. Даже если бы она в конечном итоге началась, Север вполне мог бы проиграть. [51] [52] [53] [54] [55]

Конституция Соединенных Штатов

Реклама в газете Pennsylvania Gazette от 24 мая 1796 года с просьбой вернуть Онея Джаджа , беглого раба , сбежавшего из дома Джорджа Вашингтона.

Рабство было спорным вопросом при написании и утверждении Конституции Соединенных Штатов . [56] Слова «раб» и «рабство» не появлялись в Конституции в первоначально принятом виде, хотя несколько положений явно ссылались на рабов и рабство. До принятия 13-й поправки в 1865 году Конституция не запрещала рабство. [57]

Раздел 9 Статьи I запрещал федеральному правительству запрещать импорт рабов, описываемых как «такие лица, которых любой из ныне существующих штатов сочтет нужным принять», в течение двадцати лет после ратификации Конституции (до 1 января 1808 года). Закон о запрете импорта рабов 1807 года , принятый Конгрессом и подписанный президентом Томасом Джефферсоном (который призвал к его принятию в своем обращении о положении страны в 1806 году), вступил в силу 1 января 1808 года, самая ранняя дата, когда импорт рабов мог быть запрещен в соответствии с Конституцией. [58]

Делегаты одобрили статью Конституции о беглых рабах ( статья IV, раздел 2, пункт 3 ), которая запрещала штатам освобождать тех, «удерживаемых для работы или обслуживания» (имея в виду рабов, контрактников и учеников), которые бежали к ним из другого штата, и требовала, чтобы они были возвращены своим владельцам. [59] Закон о беглых рабах 1793 года и Закон о беглых рабах 1850 года ввели в действие статью о беглых рабах. [60] Салмон П. Чейз считал законы о беглых рабах неконституционными, поскольку «статья о беглых рабах была соглашением между штатами, а не предоставлением полномочий федеральному правительству». [61]

Компромисс в три пятых

На портрете Джорджа Вашингтона , написанном Джоном Трамбуллом в 1780 году, также изображен мужчина, которого считают рабом-камердинером Вашингтона Уильямом Ли ( Метрополитен-музей, 24.109.88)

В разделе, согласованном Джеймсом Мэдисоном из Вирджинии, Раздел  2 Статьи  I определил «других лиц» (рабов), которые должны быть добавлены к общему количеству свободного населения штата в размере трех пятых от их общего числа, чтобы установить официальное население штата для целей распределения представительства в Конгрессе и федерального налогообложения. [62] «Компромисс трех пятых» был достигнут после дебатов, в которых делегаты из южных (рабовладельческих) штатов утверждали, что рабы должны учитываться в переписи так же, как и все другие лица, в то время как делегаты из северных (свободных) штатов возражали, что рабы вообще не должны учитываться. Компромисс усилил политическую власть южных штатов, поскольку три пятых (не голосующего) рабского населения были учтены для распределения в Конгрессе и в Коллегии выборщиков , хотя он не усилил южные штаты так, как это было бы, если бы Конституция предусматривала равный подсчет всех лиц, будь то рабы или свободные.

Кроме того, многие части страны были связаны с экономикой Юга. Как отметил историк Джеймс Оливер Хортон, видные политики-рабовладельцы и товарные культуры Юга оказали сильное влияние на политику и экономику Соединенных Штатов. Хортон сказал:

За 72 года между избранием Джорджа Вашингтона и избранием Авраама Линкольна, 50 из этих лет президентом Соединенных Штатов был рабовладелец , и за весь этот период времени ни разу не было человека, избранного на второй срок, который не был бы рабовладельцем. [63]

Власть южных штатов в Конгрессе продолжалась до Гражданской войны , влияя на национальную политику, законодательство и назначения. [63] Одним из результатов было то, что большинство судей, назначенных в Верховный суд, были рабовладельцами. Плантаторская элита доминировала в южных делегациях в Конгрессе и в президентстве Соединенных Штатов в течение почти пятидесяти лет. [63]

Рабство в 19 веке

Продается: 51 голова раба, 12 пар тягловых волов, 32 лошади или мула; 5 голов рабов, 2 пары тягловых волов; 11 голов рабов, 4 пары волов — в ранней Америке с рабами обращались юридически и социально так же, как если бы они были сельскохозяйственными животными ( Louisiana State Gazette , Новый Орлеан, 1 ноября 1819 г.)

Рабство в Соединенных Штатах было изменчивым явлением, находящимся в «постоянном движении, движимым жестоким стремлением к все большей прибыли». [64] Согласно демографическим расчетам Дж. Дэвида Хакера из Университета Миннесоты, приблизительно четыре из пяти всех рабов, которые когда-либо жили в Соединенных Штатах или на территории, которая стала Соединенными Штатами (начиная с 1619 года и включая все колонии, которые в конечном итоге были приобретены или завоеваны Соединенными Штатами), родились или были импортированы в Соединенные Штаты в 19 веке. [65] Рабы были рабочей силой Юга, но рабовладение также было основой, на которой строилось американское белое превосходство . Историк Уолтер Джонсон утверждает, что «одним из многих чудесных дел, которые мог сделать раб, было сделать домашнее хозяйство белым...», имея в виду, что ценность белизны в Америке в некотором роде измерялась способностью покупать и содержать черных рабов. [66]

Гарриет Бичер-Стоу описала рабство в Соединенных Штатах в 1853 году: [67]

Что же такое американское рабство, как мы видели его проявленным законом и решением судов? Давайте начнем с того, чем оно не является:

1. Это не ученичество.

2. Это не опека.

3. Это ни в коем случае не система обучения более слабой расы более сильной.

4. Счастье управляемых ни в коем случае не является его целью.

5. Временное улучшение или вечное благополучие управляемых ни в коем случае не являются его целью.

Цель этого была четко сформулирована в одном предложении судьей Раффином : «Цель — прибыль хозяина, его безопасность и общественная безопасность».

Таким образом, рабство — это абсолютный деспотизм в самой крайней форме.

Оправдания на Юге

Одним из многочисленных доводов в защиту американского рабства было утверждение, что воображаемый « благожелательный патернализм » плантаторов был полезен или необходим [68] [69] [70] (Подробности, Антирабовладельческий альманах , 1840)

Американское рабство как «необходимое зло»

В 19 веке сторонники рабства часто защищали этот институт как «необходимое зло». В то время существовали опасения, что освобождение чернокожих рабов будет иметь более пагубные социальные и экономические последствия, чем сохранение рабства. 22 апреля 1820 года Томас Джефферсон , один из отцов-основателей Соединенных Штатов , написал в письме Джону Холмсу , что с рабством,

Мы держим волка за ухо, и мы не можем ни удержать его, ни безопасно отпустить. Справедливость на одной чаше весов, а самосохранение на другой. [71]

Французский писатель и путешественник Алексис де Токвиль в своей влиятельной работе «Демократия в Америке» (1835) выразил несогласие с рабством, наблюдая за его влиянием на американское общество. Он считал, что многорасовое общество без рабства несостоятельно, поскольку считал, что предубеждение против чернокожих увеличивается по мере предоставления им больших прав (например, в северных штатах). Он считал, что отношение белых южан и концентрация черного населения на Юге приводят белое и черное население в состояние равновесия и представляют опасность для обеих рас. Из-за расовых различий между хозяином и рабом он считал, что последний не может быть освобожден. [72]

В письме к жене от 27 декабря 1856 года, в ответ на послание президента Франклина Пирса , Роберт Э. Ли писал:

Я полагаю, что в этот просвещенный век найдется немного тех, кто не признает, что рабство как институт является моральным и политическим злом. Бесполезно распространяться о его недостатках. Я думаю, что это большее зло для белой расы, чем для цветной. Хотя мои чувства решительно направлены на защиту последней, мои симпатии более глубоко направлены на первую. Чернокожие здесь неизмеримо лучше, чем в Африке, в моральном, физическом и социальном плане. Болезненная дисциплина, которой они подвергаются, необходима для их дальнейшего обучения как расы и подготовит их, я надеюсь, к лучшим вещам. Насколько долго их рабство может быть необходимым, известно и предписано милосердным Провидением. [73] [74]

Американское рабство как «позитивное благо»

Конфедеративная купюра в 100 долларов, 1862–63 гг., изображающая рабов, занимающихся фермерством; было более 125 тщательно выполненных гравюр с изображением работающих рабов, сделанных для валюты, выпущенной южными банками и Конфедеративными штатами в 19 веке, [75] изображения, которые давали уверенность в том, что рабство «защищалось как законом, так и традицией». [76] В 1860 году южные рабовладельцы владели рабами как личной собственностью [a], общая стоимость которой составляла более 3 миллиардов долларов (около 97 миллиардов долларов в 2022 году) [78] ( Национальная нумизматическая коллекция , Национальный музей американской истории )
Рабские кандалы, найденные во время раскопок на участке на улице Баронн в Новом Орлеане; переданы в музей исторического дома Кида Ори

Однако по мере того, как росло движение аболиционистов и расширялись площади, освоенные для плантаций, на Юге становилось все менее убедительным оправдание рабства. Лидеры тогда описывали рабство как выгодную схему управления трудом. Джон К. Кэлхун в своей знаменитой речи в Сенате в 1837 году заявил, что рабство было «не злом, а добром — позитивным добром». Кэлхун подкрепил свою точку зрения следующими рассуждениями: в каждом цивилизованном обществе одна часть общества должна жить за счет труда другой; обучение, наука и искусство строятся на досуге; африканский раб, к которому хорошо относятся его хозяин и хозяйка и о котором заботятся в старости, живет лучше, чем свободные рабочие Европы; и при рабовладельческой системе избегаются конфликты между капиталом и трудом. Преимущества рабства в этом отношении, заключил он, «будут становиться все более и более очевидными, если их не трогать вмешательством извне, по мере того, как страна растет в богатстве и численности». [79]

Газетные списки складов рабов в Новом Орлеане на Баррон и Гравьер-стрит, а также на Баррон 54, 58, 68 и 78 представляли собой лишь малую часть торговли в городе [80] ( New Orleans Crescent , 10 января 1861 г.)

Офицер армии Южной Каролины, плантатор и руководитель железной дороги Джеймс Гадсден называл рабство «социальным благословением», а аболиционистов — «величайшим проклятием нации». [81] Гадсден выступал за отделение Южной Каролины в 1850 году и был лидером в попытках разделить Калифорнию на два штата: один рабовладельческий и один свободный .

Другими южными писателями, которые также начали изображать рабство как положительное благо, были Джеймс Генри Хаммонд и Джордж Фицхью . Они представили несколько аргументов в защиту практики рабства на Юге. [82] Хаммонд, как и Кэлхун, считал, что рабство было необходимо для построения остального общества. В речи в Сенате 4 марта 1858 года Хаммонд разработал свою «теорию Мадсилла», защищая свою точку зрения на рабство, заявляя: «Такой класс у вас должен быть, иначе у вас не было бы того другого класса, который ведет прогресс, цивилизацию и утонченность. Он составляет самую основу общества и политического правительства; и вы могли бы с таким же успехом пытаться построить дом в воздухе, как и построить либо то, либо другое, кроме как на этой основе». Хаммонд считал, что в каждом классе одна группа должна выполнять все подчиненные обязанности, потому что без них лидеры в обществе не могли бы прогрессировать. [82] Он утверждал, что наемные рабочие Севера также были рабами: «Разница  ... в том, что наши рабы наняты на всю жизнь и хорошо оплачиваются; нет голода, нет попрошайничества, нет нужды в работе», в то время как на Севере им приходилось искать работу. [82]

Джордж Фицхью использовал предположения о превосходстве белых, чтобы оправдать рабство, написав, что «негр — всего лишь взрослый ребенок, и им нужно управлять как ребенком». В «Всеобщем законе рабства » Фицхью утверждает, что рабство обеспечивает всем необходимым для жизни и что раб не может выжить в свободном мире, потому что он ленив и не может конкурировать с разумной европейской белой расой. Он утверждает, что «негры-рабы Юга — самые счастливые и, в некотором смысле, самые свободные люди в мире». [83] Без Юга «он (раб) стал бы невыносимым бременем для общества» и «общество имеет право предотвратить это, и может сделать это, только подвергнув его домашнему рабству». [83]

21 марта 1861 года Александр Стивенс , вице-президент Конфедерации, произнес свою Краеугольную речь . Он объяснил различия между Конституцией Конфедеративных Штатов и Конституцией Соединенных Штатов , изложил причину Гражданской войны в Америке, как он ее видел, и защищал рабство: [84]

Новая [Конфедеративная] Конституция навсегда положила конец всем волнующим вопросам, касающимся наших особых институтов — африканского рабства, как оно существует у нас, — надлежащего статуса негра в нашей форме цивилизации. Это было непосредственной причиной недавнего разрыва и нынешней революции. Джефферсон в своем прогнозе предвидел это как «скалу, о которую расколется старый Союз». Он был прав. То, что было для него догадкой, теперь стало осознанным фактом. Но можно сомневаться, полностью ли он понимал великую истину, на которой стояла и стоит эта скала. Преобладающие идеи, которых придерживался он и большинство ведущих государственных деятелей во время формирования старой Конституции, заключались в том, что порабощение африканцев было нарушением законов природы; что это было неправильно в принципе, социально, морально и политически. Это было зло, с которым они не знали, как бороться; но общее мнение людей того времени было таково, что, так или иначе, по воле Провидения, этот институт будет недолговечным и исчезнет  ... Однако эти идеи были в корне неверными. Они основывались на предположении о равенстве рас. Это было ошибкой. Это был песчаный фундамент, и идея правительства, построенная на нем, — когда «пришла буря и подул ветер, оно рухнуло».

Наше новое [Конфедеративное] правительство основано на совершенно противоположных идеях; его фундамент заложен, его краеугольный камень покоится на великой истине, что негр не равен белому человеку; что рабство, подчинение высшей расе — его естественное и моральное состояние. [84]

Этот взгляд на «негритянскую расу» был подкреплен псевдонаукой . [85] Ведущим исследователем был доктор Сэмюэл А. Картрайт , южанин и изобретатель психических заболеваний драпетомании (желания раба убежать) и дизестезии эфиопики («мошенничество»), которые, по его словам, излечивались поркой. Медицинская ассоциация Луизианы создала комитет, председателем которого он был, для исследования «Болезней и физических особенностей негритянской расы». Их отчет, впервые представленный Медицинской ассоциации в обращении, был опубликован в их журнале в 1851 году, [86] а затем частично перепечатан в широко распространенном DeBow's Review . [87]

Предлагаемое расширение рабства

Темно-зеленый цвет указывает на размах Золотого круга , амбициозной империи американских рабовладельцев.

Будет ли рабство ограничено южными штатами, в которых оно уже было, или же оно будет разрешено в новых штатах, созданных из земель Луизианской покупки и мексиканской уступки , было важным вопросом в 1840-х и 1850-х годах. Он был рассмотрен в Компромиссе 1850 года и в период Кровоточащего Канзаса .

Также относительно известны предложения, включая Остендский манифест , аннексировать Кубу как рабовладельческое государство , а также финансируемое из частных источников вторжение Нарсисо Лопеса на Кубу . Также шли разговоры о создании рабовладельческих государств в Мексике, Никарагуа (см. дело Уокера и Война флибустьеров ) и других странах вокруг так называемого Золотого кольца . Менее известно сегодня, хотя и хорошо известно в то время, что сторонники рабства на Юге:

Ни одна из этих идей не получила широкого распространения, но они встревожили северян и способствовали растущей поляризации страны.

Аболиционизм на Севере

Рабство — это вулкан, огонь которого невозможно погасить, а его натиск — контролировать. Мы уже чувствуем его судороги, и если мы будем сидеть и смотреть на его пламя, которое поднимается все выше и выше, наша счастливая республика будет погребена в руинах под его подавляющей энергией.

—  Уильям Эллсворт , адвокат Пруденс Крэндалл , 1834 [94] : 193–194 
Некоторые американские аболиционисты 19-го века: Уэнделл Филлипс и Уильям Ллойд Гаррисон (с британским аболиционистом Джорджем Томпсоном ), Уильям Уэллс Браун , Фредерик Дуглас , собрание Пенсильванского общества аболиционистов 1851 года (включая Оливера Джонсона , Мэри Грю , Роберта Первиса и Лукрецию Мотт ), Джон Браун и Гарриет Табмен

Начиная с Революции и в первые два десятилетия послевоенной эпохи, каждый штат на Севере отменил рабство. Это были первые аболиционистские законы в Атлантическом мире . [95] [96] Однако отмена рабства не обязательно означала, что существующие рабы стали свободными. В некоторых штатах они были вынуждены оставаться со своими бывшими владельцами в качестве кабальных слуг : свободные только по названию, хотя их нельзя было продать, и, таким образом, семьи не могли быть разделены, а их дети рождались свободными. Конец рабства наступил в Нью-Йорке только 4 июля 1827 года, когда он был отмечен (5 июля) большим парадом. [97] Однако по переписи 1830 года единственным штатом, где не было рабов, был Вермонт. В переписи 1840 года рабы все еще были в Нью-Гемпшире (1), Род-Айленде (5), Коннектикуте (17), Нью-Йорке (4), Пенсильвании (64), Огайо (3), Индиане (3), Иллинойсе (331), Айове (16) и Висконсине (11). В переписи 1850 года в этих штатах их не было . [98]

Большинство северных штатов приняли законодательство о постепенной отмене, сначала освободив детей, рожденных от матерей-рабынь (и потребовав от них отбывать длительные контракты у хозяев своих матерей, часто до 20 лет в качестве молодых взрослых). В 1845 году Верховный суд Нью-Джерси получил пространные аргументы в пользу «освобождения четырех тысяч человек от рабства». [99] Последние рабы Пенсильвании были освобождены в 1847 году, Коннектикута — в 1848 году, и хотя ни в Нью-Гэмпшире, ни в Нью-Джерси не было рабов по переписи 1850 года , а в Нью-Джерси — только один, а в Нью-Гэмпшире — ни одного по переписи 1860 года , рабство никогда не запрещалось ни в одном из штатов до ратификации 13-й поправки в 1865 году [100] (и Нью-Джерси был одним из последних штатов, ратифицировавших ее).

Создание Северо-Западной территории как свободной земли, где не было рабства, Манассией Катлером и Руфусом Патнэмом, сыграло решающую роль в исходе Гражданской войны [51] [52] ( художник Бюро гравировки и печати США , марка номиналом 3 цента, выпущенная 13 июля 1937 г.)

Ни один из южных штатов не отменил рабство до 1865 года, но для отдельных рабовладельцев на Юге было обычным делом освобождать многочисленных рабов, часто ссылаясь на революционные идеалы в своих завещаниях. Методистские , квакерские и баптистские проповедники путешествовали по Югу, призывая рабовладельцев освободить своих рабов, и в некоторых южных штатах существовали «общества освобождения». К 1810 году количество и доля свободных чернокожих в населении Соединенных Штатов резко возросли. Большинство свободных чернокожих жили на Севере, но даже на Верхнем Юге доля свободных чернокожих выросла с менее одного процента от всех чернокожих до более десяти процентов, даже несмотря на то, что общее число рабов увеличивалось за счет импорта. [101]

Аболиционист Сэмюэл Сьюэлл был главным судьей Высшего суда Массачусетса , высшего суда в Массачусетсе. (Музей изящных искусств, Бостон, Массачусетс)

Африканские рабы прибыли в колонию залива Массачусетс в 1630-х годах, а рабство было юридически санкционировано пуританами в 1641 году. [102] Жители Массачусетса участвовали в работорговле, и были приняты законы, регулирующие перемещение и браки между рабами. [102] В 1700 году Сэмюэл Сьюэлл , пуританин-аболиционист и член Верховного суда Массачусетса , написал работу «Продажа Иосифа» , в которой он осудил рабство и работорговлю и опроверг многие типичные оправдания рабства той эпохи. [103] [104] Влияние пуритан на рабство было все еще сильным во время Американской революции и вплоть до Гражданской войны. Из первых семи президентов Америки двое, которые не владели рабами, Джон Адамс и его сын Джон Куинси Адамс , были выходцами из пуританской Новой Англии. Они были достаточно богаты, чтобы владеть рабами, но решили этого не делать, поскольку считали, что это было бы морально неправильно. В 1765 году колониальный лидер Сэмюэл Адамс и его жена получили в подарок рабыню. Они немедленно освободили ее. Сразу после Революции, в 1787 году, Северо-Западная территория (которая стала штатами Огайо, Мичиган, Индиана, Иллинойс, Висконсин и частью Миннесоты) была открыта для заселения. Двумя мужчинами, ответственными за создание этой территории, были Манассия Катлер и Руфус Патнэм . Они приехали из пуританской Новой Англии и настаивали на том, что эта новая территория, которая удвоила размер Соединенных Штатов, будет «свободной землей» — без рабства. Это должно было оказаться решающим в последующие десятилетия. Если бы эти штаты стали рабовладельческими штатами, а их голоса избирателей достались бы главному противнику Авраама Линкольна , Линкольн не был бы избран президентом. [51] [52] [53]

Аболиционист и политик Джошуа Рид Гиддингс был осужден Палатой представителей США в 1842 году за внесение резолюции против рабства, сочтенной подстрекательской и нарушающей правило Палаты, запрещающее обсуждение рабства. [105]

В десятилетия, предшествовавшие Гражданской войне, аболиционисты, такие как Теодор Паркер , Ральф Уолдо Эмерсон , Генри Дэвид Торо и Фредерик Дуглас , неоднократно использовали пуританское наследие страны для поддержки своего дела. Самая радикальная антирабовладельческая газета, The Liberator , ссылалась на пуритан и пуританские ценности более тысячи раз. Паркер, призывая конгрессменов Новой Англии поддержать отмену рабства, писал, что «сын пуританина  ... отправлен в Конгресс, чтобы отстаивать Правду и Право  ...» [106] [107]

Северяне преобладали в движении на запад на территорию Среднего Запада после Американской революции; по мере организации штатов они голосовали за запрет рабства в своих конституциях, когда добились статуса штата: Огайо в 1803 году, Индиана в 1816 году и Иллинойс в 1818 году. В результате образовался северный блок свободных штатов, объединенных в одну непрерывную географическую область, которая в целом разделяла культуру антирабовладения. Исключением были районы вдоль реки Огайо, заселенные южанами: южные части Индианы, Огайо и Иллинойса. Жители этих районов в целом разделяли южную культуру и взгляды. Кроме того, эти районы были посвящены сельскому хозяйству дольше, чем индустриализирующиеся северные части этих штатов, и некоторые фермеры использовали рабский труд. В Иллинойсе, например, хотя торговля рабами была запрещена, было законно привозить рабов из Кентукки в Иллинойс и использовать их там, при условии, что рабы покидали Иллинойс один день в году (они были «гостевыми»). Освобождение рабов на Севере привело к росту популяции свободных чернокожих на Севере с нескольких сотен в 1770-х годах до почти 50 000 к 1810 году. [108]

Саймон Легри и дядя Том: сцена из «Хижины дяди Тома» (1852), влиятельного аболиционистского романа

В течение первой половины XIX века аболиционизм, движение за отмену рабства, набирал силу; большинство аболиционистских обществ и сторонников находились на Севере. Они работали над повышением осведомленности о пороках рабства и заручились поддержкой отмены рабства. После 1830 года аболиционист и издатель газеты Уильям Ллойд Гаррисон пропагандировал эмансипацию, характеризуя рабовладение как личный грех. Он требовал, чтобы рабовладельцы раскаялись и начали процесс эмансипации. Его позиция усилила оборонительную позицию со стороны некоторых южан, которые отмечали долгую историю рабства во многих культурах. Несколько аболиционистов, таких как Джон Браун , выступали за использование вооруженной силы для разжигания восстаний среди рабов, как он пытался сделать в Харперс-Ферри . Большинство аболиционистов пытались привлечь общественную поддержку для изменения законов и оспаривания законов о рабах. Аболиционисты активно выступали с лекциями на Севере и часто представляли беглых рабов в своих выступлениях. Писатель и оратор Фредерик Дугласс стал важным лидером аболиционистов после побега из рабства. Роман Гарриет Бичер-Стоу «Хижина дяди Тома » (1852) стал международным бестселлером и, наряду с сопутствующим ему документальным произведением «Ключ к хижине дяди Тома» , пробудил в народе настроения против рабства. [109] Он также спровоцировал публикацию многочисленных антитомовских романов южанами в годы, предшествовавшие Гражданской войне в США.

Карта известных маршрутов подземной железной дороги , составленная историком в 1898 году.

Эта борьба происходила на фоне сильной поддержки рабства среди белых южан, которые извлекали огромную выгоду из системы рабского труда. Но рабство было тесно связано с национальной экономикой; например, банковское дело, судоходство, страхование и обрабатывающая промышленность Нью-Йорка имели сильные экономические интересы в рабстве, как и аналогичные отрасли в других крупных портовых городах на Севере. Северные текстильные фабрики в Нью-Йорке и Новой Англии обрабатывали южный хлопок и производили одежду для рабов. К 1822 году половина экспорта Нью-Йорка была связана с хлопком. [110]

Рабовладельцы стали называть рабство «особым институтом», чтобы отличать его от других примеров принудительного труда . Они оправдывали его как менее жестокое, чем свободный труд Севера.

Страница из «Антирабовладельческого алфавита» (1846–1849)

Основными организованными организациями, выступавшими за отмену рабства и реформы против рабства на севере, были Пенсильванское общество отмены рабства и Нью-Йоркское общество освобождения рабов . До 1830-х годов антирабовладельческие группы призывали к постепенному освобождению. [111] К концу 1820-х годов под влиянием религиозных евангелистов, таких как Берия Грин , возникло ощущение, что владение рабами является грехом, и владелец должен немедленно освободить себя от этого тяжкого греха путем немедленного освобождения. [112]

Запрет международной торговли

Новости о судоходстве в Чарльстоне в декабре 1805 года включали 900 недавно импортированных рабов-африканцев с Золотого Берега , Наветренного Берега и Бонни , а также доставку хлопка в Ливерпуль и поставку ткани салампура , которая была обменена на «первоклассных негров» в регионах Африки, где исламские законы о питании делали американский ром нежелательным [113]

Согласно Конституции, Конгресс не мог запретить импортную работорговлю, которая была разрешена в Южной Каролине до 1808 года. Однако третий Конгресс принял меры против нее в Законе о работорговле 1794 года , который запрещал американское судостроение и оснащение для торговли. Последующие акты в 1800 и 1803 годах были направлены на то, чтобы воспрепятствовать торговле, запрещая американские инвестиции в торговлю и американскую занятость на судах, занимающихся торговлей, а также запрещая импорт в штаты, отменившие рабство, которое было во всех штатах, кроме Южной Каролины, к 1807 году. [114] [115] Окончательный Закон о запрете импорта рабов был принят в 1807 году и вступил в силу в 1808 году. Однако незаконный импорт африканских рабов (контрабанда) был обычным явлением. [4] В кубинской работорговле между 1796 и 1807 годами доминировали американские рабовладельческие суда. Несмотря на Акт 1794 года, владельцы рабовладельческих судов Род-Айленда нашли способы продолжать поставлять рабов в штаты, где они были. Общий флот рабовладельческих судов США в 1806 году оценивался почти в 75% от размера британского. [116] : 63, 65 

После того, как Великобритания и США запретили международную работорговлю в 1807 году, в 1808 году началась британская деятельность по подавлению работорговли посредством дипломатических усилий и формирования в 1809 году Западноафриканской эскадры Королевского флота . Соединенные Штаты отказали Королевскому флоту в праве останавливать и обыскивать американские корабли, подозреваемые в том, что они перевозят рабов, поэтому не только американские корабли не встречали препятствий со стороны британских патрулей, но и работорговцы из других стран плавали под американским флагом, чтобы избежать остановки. Сотрудничество между Соединенными Штатами и Великобританией было невозможно во время войны 1812 года или в период плохих отношений в последующие годы. В 1820 году ВМС США отправили USS  Cyane под командованием капитана Эдварда Тренчарда патрулировать рабовладельческие побережья Западной Африки. Cyane захватила четыре американских рабовладельческих судна в первый год своего пребывания на станции. Тренчард наладил хороший уровень сотрудничества с Королевским флотом. Четыре дополнительных военных корабля США были отправлены к африканскому побережью в 1820 и 1821 годах. Всего за этот период ВМС США захватили 11 американских работорговцев. Затем американская принудительная деятельность снизилась. Между Соединенными Штатами и Великобританией по-прежнему не было соглашения о взаимном праве высаживаться на суда подозреваемых работорговцев, плавающих под флагом друг друга. Попытки достичь такого соглашения зашли в тупик в 1821 и 1824 годах в Сенате Соединенных Штатов . Присутствие ВМС США, хотя и спорадическое, привело к тому, что американские работорговцы плавали под испанским флагом, но все равно в качестве обширной торговли. Договор Вебстера-Эшбертона 1842 года установил гарантированный минимальный уровень патрульной активности ВМС США и Королевского флота и формализовал уровень сотрудничества, существовавший в 1820 году. Однако его последствия были минимальными [b] , а возможности для более тесного сотрудничества не были использованы. Трансатлантическая работорговля в США не была эффективно подавлена ​​до 1861 года, во время президентства Линкольна, когда был подписан договор с Великобританией, положения которого включали разрешение Королевскому флоту высаживаться на борт, обыскивать и арестовывать работорговцев, работающих под американским флагом. [116] : 399–400, 449, 1144, 1149  [117]

Война 1812 года

Эндрю Джексон и работорговля в Соединенных Штатах : Джексон, которому вскоре предстояло стать «героем Нового Орлеана», объясняет, сколько должна стоить перевозка партии рабов в Натчез для продажи ( Переписка Эндрю Джексона , 1926)

Во время войны 1812 года командиры британского Королевского флота, блокировавшего флот, получили указание предложить свободу дезертировавшим американским рабам, как это сделала Корона во время Войны за независимость. Тысячи сбежавших рабов перешли на сторону Короны вместе со своими семьями. [118] Мужчин набирали в Корпус колониальной морской пехоты на оккупированном острове Танжер в Чесапикском заливе . Многие освобожденные американские рабы были набраны непосредственно в существующие полки Вест-Индии или недавно созданные подразделения британской армии . Позже британцы переселили несколько тысяч освобожденных рабов в Новую Шотландию. Их потомки вместе с потомками чернокожих людей, переселенных туда после Революции, основали Музей наследия черных лоялистов. [119]

Рабовладельцы, в первую очередь на Юге, понесли значительные «имущественные потери», поскольку тысячи рабов бежали на британские линии или корабли в поисках свободы, несмотря на трудности. [119] Самоуспокоенность плантаторов относительно «довольства» рабов была шокирована тем, что рабы готовы были так многим рисковать, чтобы стать свободными. [119] Впоследствии, когда некоторые освобожденные рабы были поселены на Бермудских островах , рабовладельцы, такие как майор Пирс Батлер из Южной Каролины, пытались убедить их вернуться в Соединенные Штаты, но безуспешно.

Американцы протестовали, утверждая, что неспособность Британии вернуть всех рабов нарушила Гентский договор . После арбитража, проведенного царем России , британцы выплатили 1 204 960 долларов США в качестве компенсации (около 32,4 миллионов долларов США в сегодняшних деньгах) Вашингтону, который возместил убытки рабовладельцам. [120]

Восстания рабов

Открытие Ната Тернера [в 1831 году], гравюра на дереве 1881 года Уильяма Генри Шелтона  [d]

По словам Герберта Аптекера, «было немного периодов довоенной жизни и истории Юга, на которые не оказал бы влияние страх перед вооруженными действиями рабов или их фактическое возникновение». [121]

Историки 20-го века насчитали от 250 до 311 восстаний рабов в истории США и колоний. [122] После 1776 года произошли следующие восстания:

В 1831 году Нат Тернер , грамотный раб, утверждавший, что у него есть духовные видения , организовал восстание рабов в округе Саутгемптон, штат Вирджиния ; его иногда называли Саутгемптонским восстанием. Тернер и его последователи убили около шестидесяти белых жителей, в основном женщин и детей. Многие мужчины в этом районе посещали религиозное мероприятие в Северной Каролине. [127] В конце концов Тернер был схвачен вместе с 17 другими мятежниками, которых усмирила милиция. [127] Тернер и его последователи были повешены , а тело Тернера было содрано с кожи . В безумии страха и возмездия милиция убила более 100 рабов, которые не участвовали в восстании. Плантаторы избили плетями сотни невинных рабов, чтобы подавить сопротивление. [127]

Это восстание побудило Вирджинию и другие рабовладельческие штаты ввести больше ограничений для рабов и свободных цветных людей, контролируя их передвижения и требуя большего надзора со стороны белых за собраниями. В 1835 году Северная Каролина отозвала право голоса для свободных цветных людей, и они потеряли право голоса.

Известно о четырех мятежах на судах, участвовавших в прибрежной работорговле: «Декатур» (1826), «Губернатор Стронг» (1826), «Лафайет» (1829) и « Креол» (1841). [128]

Южные освобождения после революции

Документы об освобождении Филлис Мюррей, чернокожей женщины примерно 25 лет, подписанные Уильямом Глазгоу, 31 декабря 1833 г. ( Музей истории Миссури )

Хотя Вирджиния, Мэриленд и Делавэр были рабовладельческими штатами, в последних двух уже была высокая доля свободных чернокожих к началу войны. После Революции три законодательных органа упростили освобождение , разрешив его по акту или завещанию. Квакерские и методистские священники в частности призывали рабовладельцев освобождать своих рабов. Количество и доля освобожденных рабов в этих штатах резко возросли до 1810 года. Более половины числа свободных чернокожих в Соединенных Штатах были сосредоточены на Верхнем Юге. Доля свободных чернокожих среди черного населения Верхнего Юга выросла с менее 1 процента в 1792 году до более 10 процентов к 1810 году. [101] В Делавэре к 1810 году почти 75 процентов чернокожих были свободны. [129]

В целом в Соединенных Штатах число свободных чернокожих достигло 186 446 человек, или 13,5 процентов от общего числа чернокожих к 1810 году. [130] После этого периода было освобождено лишь несколько рабов, поскольку развитие хлопковых плантаций с использованием коротковолокнистого хлопка на Глубоком Юге привело к росту внутреннего спроса на рабов во внутренней работорговле и повышению цен, которые за них платили. [131]

Южная Каролина усложнила освобождение, требуя законодательного одобрения каждого освобождения. [ требуется ссылка ] Алабама запретила въезд свободных чернокожих в штат с 1834 года; свободные цветные люди, пересекавшие границу штата, подлежали порабощению. [132] Свободные чернокожие в Арканзасе после 1843 года должны были купить залог за хорошее поведение в размере 500 долларов, и ни одному не порабощенному чернокожему человеку не разрешалось законно переезжать в штат. [133]

Женщины-рабовладельцы

Работорговля превратила похищение цветных детей в прибыльный преступный бизнес — банда Пэтти Кэннон действовала в Нортвест-Форк-Хандред, штат Делавэр, до 1829 года, когда четыре тела были найдены захороненными на принадлежавшей им территории («Награда за похищение — 250 долларов», Конституционный виг , 27 апреля 1827 г.)

Женщины осуществляли свое право владеть и контролировать человеческую собственность без вмешательства или разрешения своих мужей, и они были активными участниками работорговли. [134] Например, в Южной Каролине 40% счетов купли-продажи рабов с 1700-х годов по настоящее время включали женщину-покупателя или продавца. [135] Женщины также управляли своими рабами таким же образом, как и мужчины, занимаясь теми же уровнями физической дисциплины. Как и мужчины, они подавали иски против тех, кто ставил под угрозу их право собственности на своих рабов. [136]

Черные рабовладельцы

Несмотря на давнюю цветную границу в Соединенных Штатах, некоторые афроамериканцы сами были рабовладельцами, некоторые в городах, а другие как владельцы плантаций в сельской местности. [137] Владение рабами означало как богатство, так и повышение социального статуса. [137] Однако чернокожие рабовладельцы были редкостью, поскольку «из двух с половиной миллионов афроамериканцев, проживавших в Соединенных Штатах в 1850 году, подавляющее большинство [были] рабами». [137]

Коренные американские рабовладельцы

После 1800 года некоторые чероки и другие четыре цивилизованных племени Юго-Востока начали покупать и использовать черных рабов в качестве рабочей силы. Они продолжили эту практику после переселения на Индейскую территорию в 1830-х годах, когда с ними было взято до 15 000 черных рабов. [138]

Природа рабства в обществе чероки часто отражала природу белого рабовладельческого общества. Закон запрещал смешанные браки чероки и порабощенных афроамериканцев, но мужчины чероки вступали в союзы с порабощенными женщинами, что приводило к появлению детей смешанной расы. [139] [140] Чероки, которые помогали рабам, наказывались сотней ударов плетью по спине. В обществе чероки лицам африканского происхождения было запрещено занимать должности, даже если они также были по расе и культуре чероки. Им также было запрещено носить оружие и владеть имуществом. Чероки запрещали обучать афроамериканцев чтению и письму. [141] [142]

Напротив, семинолы приветствовали в своей стране афроамериканцев, которые избежали рабства ( черных семинолов ). Исторически черные семинолы жили в основном отдельными группами рядом с индейскими семинолами. Некоторые из них были рабами определенных вождей семинолов. Практика семинолов во Флориде признавала рабство, хотя и не модель рабства движимого имущества, распространенную в других местах. На самом деле, это было больше похоже на феодальную зависимость и налогообложение. [143] [144] [145] Отношения между чернокожими семинолами и коренными жителями изменились после их переселения в 1830-х годах на территорию, контролируемую криками , у которых была система рабства движимого имущества. Давление со стороны криков и семинолов, поддерживающих криков, и набеги за рабами привели к тому, что многие черные семинолы бежали в Мексику. [146] [147] [148] [149] [150]

Высокий спрос и контрабанда

Американский бриг «Перри» сталкивается с рабовладельческим судном «Марта» у берегов Амбриза 6 июня 1850 г. ( литография Sarony & Co. , «Африка и американский флаг» Эндрю Х. Фута , 1854 г.)

Конституция Соединенных Штатов , принятая в 1787 году, не позволяла Конгрессу полностью запретить импорт рабов до 1808 года, хотя Конгресс регулировал торговлю в Законе о работорговле 1794 года и в последующих Законах 1800 и 1803 годов. [114] [151] Во время и после Революции штаты по отдельности принимали законы против импорта рабов. Напротив, штаты Джорджия и Южная Каролина возобновили свою торговлю из-за спроса со стороны своих плантаторов на возвышенностях, которые развивали новые хлопковые плантации: Джорджия с 1800 года по 31 декабря 1807 года и Южная Каролина с 1804 года. За этот период торговцы из Чарльстона импортировали около 75 000 рабов, больше, чем было ввезено в Южную Каролину за 75 лет до Революции. [152] Около 30 000 были импортированы в Джорджию.

К 1 января 1808 года, когда Конгресс запретил дальнейший импорт , Южная Каролина была единственным штатом, который все еще разрешал импорт рабов. Внутренняя торговля стала чрезвычайно прибыльной, поскольку спрос вырос с расширением возделывания хлопка и сахарного тростника на Глубоком Юге. Рабство в Соединенных Штатах стало, более или менее, самоподдерживающимся за счет естественного прироста среди нынешних рабов и их потомков. Мэриленд и Вирджиния считали себя производителями рабов, рассматривая «производство рабов» как нечто похожее на животноводство. Рабочих, включая многих детей, насильно переселяли с верхнего на нижний Юг.

Несмотря на запрет, импорт рабов продолжался через контрабандистов, ввозивших рабов мимо патруля африканской работорговли ВМС США в Южную Каролину, а также по суше из Техаса и Флориды, которые находились под контролем Испании. [153] Конгресс ужесточил наказание, связанное с импортом рабов, классифицируя его в 1820 году как акт пиратства, при этом контрабандисты подвергались суровым наказаниям, включая смерть в случае поимки. После этого «маловероятно, что более 10 000 [рабов] были успешно высажены в Соединенных Штатах». [154] Однако некоторая контрабанда рабов в Соединенные Штаты продолжалась вплоть до начала Гражданской войны.

Колонизационное движение

На карте Либерии Митчелла 1839 года показаны колониальные поселения, включая Нью-Джорджию , колонию Пенсильвания, колонию Миссисипи , колонию Луизиана и колонию Мэриленд.
"Only think of it!—There is actually a scheme on foot for transporting to the shores of Africa a large portion of the yeomanry of this country! And why? Because it is said they can never attain to respectability or happiness here—among their own countrymen!!—Hail, Columbia! happy land!" (The Liberator, December 1, 1832)

In the early part of the 19th century, other organizations were founded to take action on the future of black Americans. Some advocated removing free black people from the United States to places where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization in Africa, while others advocated emigration, usually to Haiti. During the 1820s and 1830s, the American Colonization Society (ACS) was the primary organization to implement the "return" of black Americans to Africa.[155] The ACS was made up mostly of Quakers and slaveholders, and they found uneasy common ground in support of what was incorrectly called "repatriation". By this time, however, most black Americans were native-born and did not want to emigrate, saying they were no more African than white Americans were British. Rather, they wanted full rights in the United States, where their families had lived and worked for generations.

In 1822, the ACS and affiliated state societies established what would become the colony of Liberia, in West Africa.[156] The ACS assisted thousands of freedmen and free blacks (with legislated limits) to emigrate there from the United States. Many white people considered this preferable to emancipation in the United States. Henry Clay, one of the founders and a prominent slaveholder politician from Kentucky, said that blacks faced:

...unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off.[157]

Deportation would also be a way to prevent reprisals against former slaveholders and white people in general, as had occurred in the 1804 Haiti massacre, which had contributed to a consuming fear amongst whites of retributive black violence, a phobia dubbed Haitianism.

Domestic slave trade and forced migration

Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia  [d], painting by Eyre Crowe based on a sketch made 1853 while visiting the United States with William Thackeray
Movement of slaves between 1790 and 1860

The U.S. Constitution barred the federal government from prohibiting the importation of slaves for twenty years. Various states passed bans on the international slave trade during that period; by 1808, the only state still allowing the importation of African slaves was South Carolina. After 1808, legal importation of slaves ceased, although there was smuggling via Spanish Florida and the disputed Gulf Coast to the west.[158]: 48–49 [159]: 138  This route all but ended after Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821 (but see slave ships Wanderer and Clotilda).

The replacement for the importation of slaves from abroad was increased domestic production. Virginia and Maryland had little new agricultural development, and their need for slaves was mostly for replacements for decedents. Normal reproduction more than supplied these: Virginia and Maryland had surpluses of slaves. Their tobacco farms were "worn out"[160] and the climate was not suitable for cotton or sugar cane. The surplus was even greater because slaves were encouraged to reproduce (though they could not marry). The pro-slavery Virginian Thomas Roderick Dew wrote in 1832 that Virginia was a "negro-raising state"; i.e. Virginia "produced" slaves.[161] According to him, in 1832 Virginia exported "upwards of 6,000 slaves" per year, "a source of wealth to Virginia".[162]: 198  A newspaper from 1836 gives the figure as 40,000, earning for Virginia an estimated $24,000,000 per year.[163][162]: 201  Demand for slaves was the strongest in what was then the southwest of the country: Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and, later, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri. Here there was abundant land suitable for plantation agriculture, which young men with some capital established. This was expansion of the white, monied population: younger men seeking their fortune.

The most valuable crop that could be grown on a plantation in that climate was cotton. That crop was labor-intensive, and the least-costly laborers were slaves. Demand for slaves exceeded the supply in the southwest; therefore slaves, never cheap if they were productive, went for a higher price. As portrayed in Uncle Tom's Cabin (the "original" cabin was in Maryland),[164] "selling South" was greatly feared. A recently (2018) publicized example of the practice of "selling South" is the 1838 sale by Jesuits of 272 slaves from Maryland, to plantations in Louisiana, to benefit Georgetown University, which has been described as "ow[ing] its existence" to this transaction.[165][166][167]

The growing international demand for cotton led many plantation owners further west in search of suitable land. In addition, the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 enabled profitable processing of short-staple cotton, which could readily be grown in the uplands. The invention revolutionized the cotton industry by increasing fifty-fold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day. At the end of the War of 1812, fewer than 300,000 bales of cotton were produced nationally. By 1820, the amount of cotton produced had increased to 600,000 bales, and by 1850 it had reached 4,000,000. There was an explosive growth of cotton cultivation throughout the Deep South and greatly increased demand for slave labor to support it.[168] As a result, manumissions decreased dramatically in the South.[169]

Most of the slaves sold from the Upper South were from Maryland, Virginia and the Carolinas, where changes in agriculture decreased the need for their labor and the demand for slaves. Before 1810, primary destinations for the slaves who were sold were Kentucky and Tennessee, but, after 1810, the Deep South states of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas received the most slaves. This is where cotton became "king".[170] Meanwhile, the Upper South states of Kentucky and Tennessee joined the slave-exporting states.

By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a major economic activity in the United States; it lasted until the 1860s.[171] Between 1830 and 1840, nearly 250,000 slaves were taken across state lines.[171] In the 1850s, more than 193,000 enslaved persons were transported, and historians estimate nearly one million in total took part in the forced migration of this new "Middle Passage". By 1860, the slave population in the United States had reached four million.[171] Of the 1,515,605 free families in the fifteen slave states in 1860, nearly 400,000 held slaves (roughly one in four, or 25%),[172] amounting to 8% of all American families.[173]

Ashley's Sack is a cloth that recounts a slave sale separating a mother and her daughter. The sack belonged to a nine-year-old girl Ashley and was a parting gift from her mother, Rose, after Ashley had been sold. Rose filled the sack with a dress, braid of her hair, pecans, and "my love always". (Middleton Place Foundation, South Carolina)

The historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration of slaves the "Second Middle Passage" because it reproduced many of the same horrors as the Middle Passage (the name given to the transportation of slaves from Africa to North America). These sales of slaves broke up many families and caused much hardship. Characterizing it as the "central event" in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that, whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free".[174] Individuals lost their connection to families and clans. Added to the earlier colonists combining slaves from different tribes, many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa. Most were descended from families that had been in the United States for many generations.[171]

The firm of Franklin and Armfield was a leader in this trade. In the 1840s, almost 300,000 slaves were transported, with Alabama and Mississippi receiving 100,000 each. During each decade between 1810 and 1860, at least 100,000 slaves were moved from their state of origin. In the final decade before the Civil War, 250,000 were transported. Michael Tadman wrote in Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (1989) that 60–70% of inter-regional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820, a slave child in the Upper South had a 30 percent chance of being sold South by 1860.[175] The death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination across the American South was less than that suffered by captives shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, but mortality nevertheless was higher than the normal death rate.

Slave traders transported two-thirds of the slaves who moved West.[176] Only a minority moved with their families and existing master. Slave traders had little interest in purchasing or transporting intact slave families; in the early years, planters demanded only the young male slaves needed for heavy labor. Later, in the interest of creating a "self-reproducing labor force", planters purchased nearly equal numbers of men and women. Berlin wrote:

The internal slave trade became the largest enterprise in the South outside the plantation itself, and probably the most advanced in its employment of modern transportation, finance, and publicity. The slave trade industry developed its own unique language, with terms such as "prime hands, bucks, breeding wenches, and "fancy girls" coming into common use.[177]

The expansion of the interstate slave trade contributed to the "economic revival of once depressed seaboard states" as demand accelerated the value of slaves who were subject to sale.[178] Some traders moved their "chattels" by sea, with Norfolk to New Orleans being the most common route, but most slaves were forced to walk overland. Others were shipped downriver from such markets as Louisville on the Ohio River, and Natchez on the Mississippi. Traders created regular migration routes served by a network of slave pens, yards and warehouses needed as temporary housing for the slaves. In addition, other vendors provided clothes, food and supplies for slaves. As the trek advanced, some slaves were sold and new ones purchased. Berlin concluded, "In all, the slave trade, with its hubs and regional centers, its spurs and circuits, reached into every cranny of southern society. Few southerners, black or white, were untouched."[179]

Once the trip ended, slaves faced a life on the frontier significantly different from most labor in the Upper South. Clearing trees and starting crops on virgin fields was harsh and backbreaking work. A combination of inadequate nutrition, bad water and exhaustion from both the journey and the work weakened the newly arrived slaves and produced casualties. New plantations were located at rivers' edges for ease of transportation and travel. Mosquitoes and other environmental challenges spread disease, which took the lives of many slaves. They had acquired only limited immunities to lowland diseases in their previous homes. The death rate was so high that, in the first few years of hewing a plantation out of the wilderness, some planters preferred whenever possible to use rented slaves rather than their own.[180]

The harsh conditions on the frontier increased slave resistance and led owners and overseers to rely on violence for control. Many of the slaves were new to cotton fields and unaccustomed to the "sunrise-to-sunset gang labor" required by their new life. Slaves were driven much harder than when they had been in growing tobacco or wheat back East. Slaves had less time and opportunity to improve the quality of their lives by raising their own livestock or tending vegetable gardens, for either their own consumption or trade, as they could in the East.[181]

Broadside for an 1858 slave sale at the St. Louis Hotel in New Orleans (Museum of African American History and Culture 2011.155.305)

In Louisiana, French colonists had established sugar cane plantations and exported sugar as the chief commodity crop. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Americans entered the state and joined the sugar cultivation. Between 1810 and 1830, planters bought slaves from the North and the number of slaves increased from fewer than 10,000 to more than 42,000. Planters preferred young males, who represented two-thirds of the slave purchases. Dealing with sugar cane was even more physically demanding than growing cotton. The largely young, unmarried male slave force made the reliance on violence by the owners "especially savage".[182]

Crawford, Frazer & Co., a slave trading business in Georgia, photographed by George N. Barnard just prior to the 1864 burning of Atlanta

New Orleans became nationally important as a slave market and port, as slaves were shipped from there upriver by steamboat to plantations on the Mississippi River; it also sold slaves who had been shipped downriver from markets such as Louisville. By 1840, the New Orleans slave market was the largest in North America. It became the wealthiest and the fourth-largest city in the nation, based chiefly on the slave trade and associated businesses.[66] The trading season was from September to May, after the harvest.[183]

The notion that slave traders were social outcasts of low reputation, even in the South, was initially promulgated by defensive southerners and later by figures like historian Ulrich B. Phillips.[184] Historian Frederic Bancroft, author of Slave-Trading in the Old South (1931) found — to the contrary of Phillips's position — that many traders were esteemed members of their communities.[185] Contemporary researcher Steven Deyle argues that the "trader's position in society was not unproblematic and owners who dealt with the trader felt the need to satisfy themselves that they acted honorably," while Michael Tadman contends that "'trader as outcast' operated at the level of propaganda" whereas white slave owners almost universally professed a belief that slaves were not human like them, and thus dismissed the consequences of slave trading as beneath consideration.[184] Similarly, historian Charles Dew read hundreds of letters to slave traders and found virtually zero narrative evidence for guilt, shame, or contrition about the slave trade: "If you begin with the absolute belief in white supremacy—unquestioned white superiority/unquestioned black inferiority—everything falls neatly into place: the African is inferior racial 'stock,' living in sin and ignorance and barbarism and heathenism on the 'Dark Continent' until enslaved...Slavery thus miraculously becomes a form of 'uplift' for this supposedly benighted and brutish race of people. And once notions of white supremacy and black inferiority are in place in the American South, they are passed on from one generation to the next with all the certainty and inevitability of a genetic trait."[186]

In the 1828 presidential election, candidate Andrew Jackson was strongly criticized by opponents as a slave trader who transacted in slaves in defiance of modern standards or morality.[187]

Treatment

Peter, formerly enslaved on a cotton plantation along the Atchafalaya River, photo taken at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1863; after the whipping, Peter's wounds were salted, a common practice;[188][189] the overseer who whipped Peter was fired by slave owner Capt. John Lyons[190] (original carte de visite by McPherson & Oliver)

The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, time, and place, but in general it was brutal, especially on plantations. Whippings and rape were routine. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites that had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave.[191] Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders, conditions permitting abuses.

William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick eighty pounds per day of cotton, while women were required to pick seventy pounds; if any slave failed in his or her quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales.[192] A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping.[193] By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.[194]

Historian Lawrence M. Friedman wrote: "Ten Southern codes made it a crime to mistreat a slave. ... Under the Louisiana Civil Code of 1825 (art. 192), if a master was "convicted of cruel treatment", the judge could order the sale of the mistreated slave, presumably to a better master.[195] Masters and overseers were seldom prosecuted under these laws. No slave could give testimony in the courts.

Wilson Chinn, a branded slave from Louisiana—also exhibiting instruments of torture used to punish slaves (carte de visite by Charles Paxson, Metropolitan Museum of Art 2019.521)

According to Adalberto Aguirre's research, 1,161 slaves were executed in the United States between the 1790s and 1850s.[196] Quick executions of innocent slaves as well as suspects typically followed any attempted slave rebellions, as white militias overreacted with widespread killings that expressed their fears of rebellions, or suspected rebellions.

Although most slaves had lives that were very restricted in terms of their movements and agency, exceptions existed to virtually every generalization; for instance, there were also slaves who had considerable freedom in their daily lives: slaves allowed to rent out their labor and who might live independently of their master in cities, slaves who employed white workers, and slave doctors who treated upper-class white patients.[197] After 1820, in response to the inability to import new slaves from Africa and in part to abolitionist criticism, some slaveholders improved the living conditions of their slaves, to encourage them to be productive and to try to prevent escapes.[198] It was part of a paternalistic approach in the antebellum era that was encouraged by ministers trying to use Christianity to improve the treatment of slaves. Slaveholders published articles in Southern agricultural journals to share best practices in treatment and management of slaves; they intended to show that their system was better than the living conditions of northern industrial workers.

Medical care for slaves was limited in terms of the medical knowledge available to anyone. It was generally provided by other slaves or by slaveholders' family members, although sometimes "plantation physicians", like J. Marion Sims, were called by the owners to protect their investment by treating sick slaves. Many slaves possessed medical skills needed to tend to each other, and used folk remedies brought from Africa. They also developed new remedies based on American plants and herbs.[199]

An estimated nine percent of slaves were disabled due to a physical, sensory, psychological, neurological, or developmental condition. However, slaves were often described as disabled if they were unable to work or bear a child, and were often subjected to harsh treatment as a result.[200]

According to Andrew Fede, an owner could be held criminally liable for killing a slave only if the slave he killed was "completely submissive and under the master's absolute control".[201] For example, in 1791 the North Carolina General Assembly defined the willful killing of a slave as criminal murder, unless done in resisting or under moderate correction (that is, corporal punishment).[202]

Sale at auction, by Alonzo J. White on the plaza north of the Exchange Building in Charleston on March 10, 1853, of 96 people who had previously been enslaved near the Combahee River (Eyre Crowe, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Havana, Cuba)

While slaves' living conditions were poor by modern standards, Robert Fogel argued that all workers, free or slave, during the first half of the 19th century were subject to hardship.[203] Unlike free individuals, however, enslaved people were far more likely to be underfed, physically punished, sexually abused, or killed, with no recourse, legal or otherwise, against those who perpetrated these crimes against them.

Commodification of human tissue

In a very grim fashion, the commodification of the human body was legal in the case of African slaves as they were not legally seen as fully human. The most popular means of commodifying slave tissues was through medical experimentation. Slaves were routinely used as medical specimens forced to take part in experimental surgeries, amputations, disease research, and developing medical techniques.[204] In many cases, slave cadavers were used in demonstrations and dissection tables,[205] oftentimes resulting in their tissues being sold for profit. For the reason of slave punishment, decoration, or self-expression, the skin of slaves was in many instances allowed to be made into leather for furniture, accessories, and clothing,[206] a famous example of which being that of wealthy clientele sending cadaver skin to tanners and shoemakers under the guise of animal leather.[207] Slave hair could be shaved and used for stuffing in pillows and furniture. In some instances, the inner body tissue of slaves (fat, bones, etc.) could be made into soap, trophies, and other commodities.[208]

Sexual abuse, reproductive exploitation, and breeding farms

Because of the power relationships at work, slave women in the United States were at high risk for rape and sexual abuse.[209][210] Their children were repeatedly taken away from them and sold as farm animals; usually they never saw each other again. Many slaves fought back against sexual attacks, and some died resisting. Others carried psychological and physical scars from the attacks.[211] Sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in a patriarchal Southern culture that treated black women as property or chattel.[210] Southern culture strongly policed against sexual relations between white women and black men on the purported grounds of racial purity but, by the late 18th century, the many mixed-race slaves and slave children showed that white men had often taken advantage of slave women.[210] Wealthy planter widowers, notably such as John Wayles and his son-in-law Thomas Jefferson, took slave women as concubines; each had six children with his partner: Elizabeth Hemings and her daughter Sally Hemings (the half-sister of Jefferson's late wife), respectively. Both Mary Chesnut and Fanny Kemble, wives of planters, wrote about this issue in the antebellum South in the decades before the Civil War. Sometimes planters used mixed-race slaves as house servants or favored artisans because they were their children or other relatives.[212] While publicly opposed to race mixing, in his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1785, Jefferson wrote: "The improvement of the blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".[213] Historians estimate that 58% of enslaved women in the U.S. aged 15–30 years were sexually assaulted by their slave owners and other white men.[214] As a result of centuries of slavery and such relationships, DNA studies have shown that the vast majority of African Americans also have historic European ancestry, generally through paternal lines.[215][216]

Portrayals of black men as hypersexual and savage, along with ideals of protecting white women, were predominant during this time[217] and masked the experiences of sexual violence faced by black male slaves, especially by white women. Subject not only to rape and sexual exploitation, slaves faced sexual violence in many forms. A black man could be forced by his slaveowner to rape another slave or even a free black woman.[218] Forced pairings with other slaves, including forced breeding, which neither slave might desire, were common.[218] Despite explicit bans on homosexuality and sodomy, it was not uncommon for male slaves and children to be sexually harassed and assaulted by their masters in secret.[219] Through sexual and reproductive abuse slaveowners could further enforce their control over their slaves.

The prohibition on the importation of slaves into the United States after 1808 limited the supply of slaves in the United States. This came at a time when the invention of the cotton gin enabled the expansion of cultivation in the uplands of short-staple cotton, leading to clearing lands cultivating cotton through large areas of the Deep South, especially the Black Belt. The demand for labor in the area increased sharply and led to an expansion of the internal slave market. At the same time, the Upper South had an excess number of slaves because of a shift to mixed-crops agriculture, which was less labor-intensive than tobacco. To add to the supply of slaves, slaveholders looked at the fertility of slave women as part of their productivity, and intermittently forced the women to have large numbers of children. During this time period, the terms "breeders", "breeding slaves", "child bearing women", "breeding period", and "too old to breed" became familiar.[220]

The Quadroon Girl (1878) oil painting by Henry Mosler (Cincinnati Art Museum 1976.25)

As it became popular on many plantations to breed slaves for strength, fertility, or extra labor, there grew many documented instances of "breeding farms" in the United States. Slaves were forced to conceive and birth as many new slaves as possible. The largest farms were located in Virginia and Maryland.[221] Because the industry of slave breeding came from a desire for larger than natural population growth of slaves, slaveowners often turned towards systematic practices for creating more slaves. Female slaves "were subjected to repeated rape or forced sex and became pregnant again and again",[222] even by incest. In horrific accounts of former slaves, some stated that hoods or bags were placed over their heads to prevent them from knowing who they were forced to have sex with. Journalist William Spivey wrote, "It could be someone they know, perhaps a niece, aunt, sister, or their own mother. The breeders only wanted a child that could be sold."[223]

In the United States in the early 19th century, owners of female slaves could freely and legally use them as sexual objects. This follows free use of female slaves on slaving vessels by the crews.[224]: 83 

The slaveholder has it in his power, to violate the chastity of his slaves. And not a few are beastly enough to exercise such power. Hence it happens that, in some families, it is difficult to distinguish the free children from the slaves. It is sometimes the case, that the largest part of the master's own children are born, not of his wife, but of the wives and daughters of his slaves, whom he has basely prostituted as well as enslaved.[225]: 38 

"This vice, this bane of society, has already become so common, that it is scarcely esteemed a disgrace."[226]

Andreas Byrenheidt, a 70-year-old physician,[227] placed an unusually long and detailed runaway slave ad in two Alabama newspapers in hopes of recovering a 20-year-old enslaved woman, whom he had purchased four years earlier, and her four-year-old daughter, who sometimes called herself Lolo ("$100 Reward" Cahawba Democrat, Cahaba, Alabama, June 16, 1838)

"Fancy" was a code word that indicated that the girl or young woman was suitable for or trained for sexual use.[228]: 56  In some cases, children were also abused in this manner. The sale of a 13-year-old "nearly a fancy" is documented.[229] Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr., bought his wife when she was 13.[230]: 191 

Furthermore, enslaved women who were old enough to bear children were encouraged to procreate, which raised their value as slaves, since their children would eventually provide labor or be sold, enriching the owners. Enslaved women were sometimes medically treated to enable or encourage their fertility.[231] The variations in skin color found in the United States make it obvious how often black women were impregnated by whites.[232] For example, in the 1850 Census, 75.4% of "free negros" in Florida were described as mulattos, of mixed race.[233] Nevertheless, it is only very recently, with DNA studies, that any sort of reliable number can be provided, and the research has only begun. Light-skinned girls, who contrasted with the darker field workers, were preferred.[229][234]

As Caroline Randall Williams was quoted in The New York Times: "You Want a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument." "I have rape-colored skin", she added.[235]

The sexual use of black slaves by either slave owners or by those who could purchase the temporary services of a slave took various forms. A slaveowner, or his teenage son, could go to the slave quarters area of the plantation and do what he wanted, with minimal privacy if any. It was common for a "house" female (housekeeper, maid, cook, laundress, or nanny) to be raped by one or more members of the household. Houses of prostitution throughout the slave states were largely staffed by female slaves providing sexual services, to their owners' profit. There were a small number of free black females engaged in prostitution, or concubinage, especially in New Orleans.[228]: 41 

Slave owners who engaged in sexual activity with female slaves "were often the elite of the community. They had little need to worry about public scorn." These relationships "appear to have been tolerated and in some cases even quietly accepted". "Southern women ... do not trouble themselves about it".[236] Franklin and Armfield, who were definitely the elite of the community, joked frequently in their letters about the black women and girls that they were raping. It never occurred to them that there was anything wrong in what they were doing.[237]

Light-skinned young girls were sold openly for sexual use; their price was much higher than that of a field hand.[228]: 38, 55 [238] Special markets for the fancy girl trade existed in New Orleans[228]: 55  and Lexington, Kentucky.[239][240] Historian Philip Shaw describes an occasion when Abraham Lincoln and Allen Gentry witnessed such sales in New Orleans in 1828:

Gentry vividly remembered a day in New Orleans when he and the nineteen-year-old Lincoln came upon a slave market. Pausing to watch, Gentry recalled looking down at Lincoln's hands and seeing that he "doubled his fists tightly; his knuckles went white". Men wearing black coats and white hats buy field hands, "black and ugly", for $500 to 800. And then the real horror begins: "When the sale of "fancy girls" began, Lincoln, "unable to stand it any longer", muttered to Gentry "Allen that's a disgrace. If I ever get a lick at that thing I'll hit it hard."[241]

Those girls who were "considered educated and refined, were purchased by the wealthiest clients, usually plantation owners, to become personal sexual companions". "There was a great demand in New Orleans for 'fancy girls'."[242]

The issue that did come up frequently was the threat of sexual intercourse between black males and white females. Just as the black women were perceived as having "a trace of Africa, that supposedly incited passion and sexual wantonness",[228]: 39  the men were perceived as savages, unable to control their lust, given an opportunity.[243]

Another approach to the question was offered by Quaker and Florida planter Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr. He advocated, and personally practiced, deliberate racial mixing through marriage, as part of his proposed solution to the slavery issue: racial integration, called "amalgamation" at the time. In an 1829 Treatise, he stated that mixed-race people were healthier and often more beautiful, that interracial sex was hygienic, and slavery made it convenient.[230]: 190  Because of these views, tolerated in Spanish Florida, he found it impossible to remain long in Territorial Florida, and moved with his slaves and multiple wives to a plantation, Mayorasgo de Koka, in Haiti (now in the Dominican Republic). There were many others who less flagrantly practiced interracial, common-law marriages with slaves (see Partus sequitur ventrem).

Slave codes

The inscription on the back of the case reads: This Daguerreotype was taken by Southworth Aug. 1845 it is a copy of Captain Jonathan Walker's hand as branded by the U.S. Marshall of the Dist. of Florida for having helped 7 men to obtain 'Life Liberty, and Happiness.' SS Slave Saviour Northern Dist. SS Slave Stealer Southern Dist. (image by Southworth & Hawes, Massachusetts Historical Society 1.373)
Tags to be used for identifying and tracking enslaved people of Charleston, South Carolina (National Museum of American History 1993.0503)

To help regulate the relationship between slave and owner, including legal support for keeping the slave as property, states established slave codes, most based on laws existing since the colonial era. The code for the District of Columbia defined a slave as "a human being, who is by law deprived of his or her liberty for life, and is the property of another".[244]

While each state had its own slave code, many concepts were shared throughout the slave states.[245] According to the slave codes, some of which were passed in reaction to slave rebellions, teaching a slave to read or write was illegal. This prohibition was unique to American slavery, believed to reduce slaves forming aspirations that could lead to escape or rebellion.[246] Informal education occurred when white children taught slave companions what they were learning; in other cases, adult slaves learned from free artisan workers, especially if located in cities, where there was more freedom of movement.

In Alabama, slaves were not allowed to leave their master's premises without written consent or passes. This was a common requirement in other states as well, and locally run patrols (known to slaves as pater rollers) often checked the passes of slaves who appeared to be away from their plantations. In Alabama slaves were prohibited from trading goods among themselves. In Virginia, a slave was not permitted to drink in public within one mile of his master or during public gatherings. Slaves were not permitted to carry firearms in any of the slave states.

Slaves were generally prohibited by law from associating in groups, with the exception of worship services (a reason why the Black Church is such a notable institution in black communities today). Following Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831, which raised white fears throughout the South, some states also prohibited or restricted religious gatherings of slaves, or required that they be officiated by white men. Planters feared that group meetings would facilitate communication among slaves that could lead to rebellion.[247] Slaves held private, secret "brush meetings" in the woods.

In Ohio, an emancipated slave was prohibited from returning to the state in which he or she had been enslaved. Other Northern states discouraged the settling of free blacks within their boundaries. Fearing the influence of free blacks, Virginia and other Southern states passed laws to require blacks who had been freed to leave the state within a year (or sometimes less time) unless granted a stay by an act of the legislature.

Religion

Eastman Johnson's 1863 oil painting painting The Lord is My Shepherd (Smithsonian American Art Museum 1979.5.13)

Africans brought their religions with them from Africa, including Islam,[248] Catholicism,[249] and traditional religions.

Prior to the American Revolution, masters and revivalists spread Christianity to slave communities, including Catholicism in Spanish Florida and California, and in French and Spanish Louisiana, and Protestantism in English colonies, supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In the First Great Awakening of the mid-18th century, Baptists and Methodists from New England preached a message against slavery, encouraged masters to free their slaves, converted both slaves and free blacks, and gave them active roles in new congregations.[250] The first independent black congregations were started in the South before the Revolution, in South Carolina and Georgia. Believing that, "slavery was contrary to the ethics of Jesus", Christian congregations and church clergy, especially in the North, played a role in the Underground Railroad, especially Wesleyan Methodists, Quakers and Congregationalists.[251][252]

Over the decades and with the growth of slavery throughout the South, some Baptist and Methodist ministers gradually changed their messages to accommodate the institution. After 1830, white Southerners argued for the compatibility of Christianity and slavery, with a multitude of both Old and New Testament citations.[253] They promoted Christianity as encouraging better treatment of slaves and argued for a paternalistic approach. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern organizations (see Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Southern Baptist Convention, and Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America).[254] Schisms occurred, such as that between the Wesleyan Methodist Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church.[255]

Southern slaves generally attended their masters' white churches, where they often outnumbered the white congregants. They were usually permitted to sit only in the back or in the balcony. They listened to white preachers, who emphasized the obligation of slaves to keep in their place, and acknowledged the slave's identity as both person and property.[253] Preachers taught the master's responsibility and the concept of appropriate paternal treatment, using Christianity to improve conditions for slaves, and to treat them "justly and fairly" (Col. 4:1). This included masters having self-control, not disciplining under anger, not threatening, and ultimately fostering Christianity among their slaves by example.[253]

Slaves also created their own religious observances, meeting alone without the supervision of their white masters or ministers. The larger plantations with groups of slaves numbering 20, or more, tended to be centers of nighttime meetings of one or several plantation slave populations.[253] These congregations revolved around a singular preacher, often illiterate with limited knowledge of theology, who was marked by his personal piety and ability to foster a spiritual environment. African Americans developed a theology related to Biblical stories having the most meaning for them, including the hope for deliverance from slavery by their own Exodus. One lasting influence of these secret congregations is the African American spiritual.[256]

Mandatory illiteracy

In a feature unique to American slavery, legislatures across the South enacted new laws to curtail the already limited rights of African Americans. For example, Virginia prohibited blacks, free or slave, from practicing preaching, prohibited them from owning firearms, and forbade anyone to teach slaves or free blacks how to read.[127] It specified heavy penalties for both student and teacher if slaves were taught, including whippings or jail.[257]

[E]very assemblage of negroes for the purpose of instruction in reading or writing, or in the night time for any purpose, shall be an unlawful assembly. Any justice may issue his warrant to any office or other person, requiring him to enter any place where such assemblage may be, and seize any negro therein; and he, or any other justice, may order such negro to be punished with stripes.[258]

Slave owners saw literacy as a threat to the institution of slavery and their financial investment in it; as a North Carolina statute passed in 1830-1831 stated, "Teaching slaves to read and write, tends to excite dissatisfaction in their minds, and to produce insurrection and rebellion."[259][260] Literacy enabled the enslaved to read the writings of abolitionists, which discussed the abolition of slavery and described the slave revolution in Haiti of 1791–1804 and the end of slavery in the British Empire in 1833. It also allowed slaves to learn that thousands of enslaved individuals had escaped, often with the assistance of the Underground Railroad. Literacy also was believed to make the enslaved unhappy at best, insolent and sullen at worst. As put by prominent Washington lawyer Elias B. Caldwell in 1822:

The more you improve the condition of these people, the more you cultivate their minds, the more miserable you make them, in their present state. You give them a higher relish for those privilegies which they can never attain, and turn what we intend for a blessing [slavery] into a curse. No, if they must remain in their present situation, keep them in the lowest state of degradation and ignorance. The nearer you bring them to the condition of brutes, the better chance do you give them of possessing their apathy.[261]

Unlike in the South, slave owners in Utah were required to send their slaves to school.[262] Black slaves did not have to spend as much time in school as Indian slaves.[263]

Freedom suits and Dred Scott

Allegorical liberation of a slave entering a free state, wood-engraving from Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, An American Slave, 1849[264]

With the development of slave and free states after the American Revolution, and far-flung commercial and military activities, new situations arose in which slaves might be taken by masters into free states. Most free states not only prohibited slavery, but ruled that slaves brought and kept there illegally could be freed. Such cases were sometimes known as transit cases.[265] Dred Scott and his wife Harriet Scott each sued for freedom in St. Louis after the death of their master, based on their having been held in a free territory (the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase from which slavery was excluded under the terms of the Missouri Compromise). (Later the two cases were combined under Dred Scott's name.) Scott filed suit for freedom in 1846 and went through two state trials, the first denying and the second granting freedom to the couple (and, by extension, their two daughters, who had also been held illegally in free territories). For 28 years, Missouri state precedent had generally respected laws of neighboring free states and territories, ruling for freedom in such transit cases where slaves had been held illegally in free territory. But in the Dred Scott case, the Missouri Supreme Court ruled against the slaves.[266]

After Scott and his team appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in a sweeping decision, denied Scott his freedom. The 1857 decision, decided 7–2, held that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state; Congress could not bar slavery from a territory; and people of African descent imported into the United States and held as slaves, or their descendants, could never be citizens and thus had no status to bring suit in a U.S. court. A state could not bar slaveowners from bringing slaves into that state. Many Republicans, including Abraham Lincoln, considered the decision unjust and evidence that the Slave Power had seized control of the Supreme Court. Anti-slavery groups were enraged and slave owners encouraged, escalating the tensions that led to civil war.[267]

1850 to the firing on Fort Sumter

1853 advertisement by the slave trader William F. Talbott of Lexington, Kentucky seeking to buy slaves to resell in the lucrative the New Orleans market
A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves, oil on paperboard, c. 1862 by Eastman Johnson (Brooklyn Museum 40.59a-b)

In 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act, as part of the Compromise of 1850, which required law enforcement and citizens of free states to cooperate in the capture and return of slaves. This met with considerable overt and covert resistance in free states and cities such as Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. Refugees from slavery continued to flee the South across the Ohio River and other parts of the Mason–Dixon line dividing North from South, to the North and Canada via the Underground Railroad. Some white Northerners helped hide former slaves from their former owners or helped them reach freedom in Canada.[268]

As part of the Compromise of 1850, Congress abolished the slave trade (though not the ownership of slaves) in the District of Columbia; fearing this would happen, Alexandria, regional slave trading center and port, successfully sought its removal from the District of Columbia and devolution to Virginia. After 1854, Republicans argued that the "Slave Power", especially the pro-slavery Democratic Party in the South, controlled two of the three branches of the Federal government.[269]

The abolitionists, realizing that the total elimination of slavery was unrealistic as an immediate goal, worked to prevent the expansion of slavery into the western territories that eventually would become new states. The Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and the Bleeding Kansas period dealt with whether new states would be slave or free, or how that was to be decided. Both sides were anxious about effects of these decisions on the balance of power in the Senate.

After the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, border fighting broke out in the Kansas Territory, where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave or free state was left to the inhabitants. Migrants from both free and slave states moved into the territory to prepare for the vote on slavery. Abolitionist John Brown, the most famous of the anti-slavery immigrants, was active in the fighting in "Bleeding Kansas", but so too were many white Southerners (many from adjacent Missouri) who opposed abolition.

Abraham Lincoln's and the Republicans' political platform in 1860 was to stop slavery's expansion. Historian James M. McPherson says that in his famous "House Divided" speech in 1858, Lincoln said American republicanism can be purified by restricting the further expansion of slavery as the first step to putting it on the road to 'ultimate extinction.' Southerners took Lincoln at his word. When he won the presidency, they left the Union to escape the 'ultimate extinction' of slavery."[270]

The divisions became fully exposed with the 1860 presidential election. The electorate split four ways. The Southern Democrats endorsed slavery, while the Republican Party denounced it. The Northern Democrats said democracy required the people to decide on slavery locally, state by state and territory by territory. The Constitutional Union Party said the survival of the Union was at stake and everything else should be compromised.[271]

Lincoln, the Republican, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of electoral votes. Lincoln, however, did not appear on the ballots of ten southern slave states. Many slave owners in the South feared that the real intent of the Republicans was the abolition of slavery in states where it already existed, and that the sudden emancipation of four million slaves would be disastrous for the slave owners and for the economy that drew its greatest profits from the labor of people who were not paid. The slave owners feared that ending the balance could lead to the domination of the federal government by the northern free states. This led seven southern states to secede from the Union. When the Confederate Army attacked a U.S. Army installation at Fort Sumter, the American Civil War began and four additional slave states seceded. Northern leaders had viewed the slavery interests as a threat politically, but with secession, they viewed the prospect of a new Southern nation, the Confederate States of America, with control over the Mississippi River and parts of the West, as politically unacceptable. Most of all, they could not accept this repudiation of American nationalism.[272]

Civil War and emancipation

Modification by G. W. Falen of Ben Franklin's Join, or Die graphic, advocating a confederation of slave states, with a quote from Jefferson Davis: "SLAVE STATES, once more let me repeat that the only way of preserving our slave property, or what we prize more than life, our LIBERTY, is by a UNION WITH EACH OTHER." (New-York Historical Society)
Pro-slavery activists Judah P. Benjamin, Henry A. Wise, R. Barnwell Rhett Jr., Alexander H. Stephens, James M. Mason, Jefferson Davis, John B. Floyd, John Slidell, William L. Yancey, Robert Toombs, and Isham G. Harris ("Confederate chieftans" engraving by J.C. Buttre, 1864)

American Civil War

The consequent American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of chattel slavery in America. Not long after the war broke out, through a legal maneuver by Union General Benjamin F. Butler, a lawyer by profession, slaves who fled to Union lines were considered "contraband of war". General Butler ruled that they were not subject to return to Confederate owners as they had been before the war. "Lincoln and his Cabinet discussed the issue on May 30 and decided to support Butler's stance".[273] Soon word spread, and many slaves sought refuge in Union territory, desiring to be declared "contraband". Many of the "contrabands" joined the Union Army as workers or troops, forming entire regiments of the U.S. Colored Troops. Others went to refugee camps such as the Grand Contraband Camp near Fort Monroe or fled to northern cities. General Butler's interpretation was reinforced when Congress passed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which declared that any property used by the Confederate military, including slaves, could be confiscated by Union forces.

Ambrotype of African-American woman with a flag, "believed to be a washerwoman for Union troops quartered outside Richmond, Virginia" (National Museum of American History 2005.0002)

At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As Congressman George W. Julian of Indiana put it in an 1862 speech in Congress, the slaves "cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."[274] Julian and his fellow Radical Republicans put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization.[275] Copperheads, the border states and War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the border states and War Democrats eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.

Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of three million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free". It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of his or her owner, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave's proclaimed freedom became actual. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all of the designated slaves.[276]

In 1861, Lincoln expressed the fear that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states. He believed that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[277] At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats.

Contrabands accompanying the line of Sherman's march through Georgia (unidentified war artist "F", Frank Leslie's Illustrated News, March 18, 1865)

On July 22, 1862, Lincoln told his cabinet of his plan to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Secretary of State William H. Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing the proclamation, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[278] On September 17, 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which provided that enslaved people in the states in rebellion against the United States on January 1, 1863, "shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free".[279] On September 24 and 25, the War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[280] Lincoln issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that

If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.[281]

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation promised freedom for slaves in the Confederate states and authorized the enlistment of African Americans in the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation did not free slaves in the border states, which were the slaveholding states that that remained in the Union. As a practical matter, the proclamation freed only those slaves who escaped to Union lines. But the proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal and was implemented as the Union took territory from the Confederacy. According to the Census of 1860, this policy would free nearly four million slaves, or over 12 percent of the total population of the United States.

Because the Emancipation Proclamation was issued under the president's war powers, it might not have continued in force after the war ended. Therefore, Lincoln played a leading role in getting the constitutionally required two-thirds majority of both houses of Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment,[282] which made emancipation universal and permanent.

Four generations of a formerly enslaved family, photographed by Timothy H. O'Sullivan on J. J. Smith's confiscated plantation at Beaufort, South Carolina (now U.S. Naval Hospital Beaufort) during the Port Royal Experiment, 1862

Enslaved African Americans had not waited for Lincoln before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From the early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in Union-controlled areas such as Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862 Virginia, Tennessee from 1862 on, and the line of Sherman's march. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance, establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations.

In addition, nearly 200,000 African-American men served with distinction in the Union forces as soldiers and sailors; most were escaped slaves. The Confederacy was outraged by armed black soldiers and refused to treat them as prisoners of war. They murdered many, as at the Fort Pillow massacre, and re-enslaved others.[283]

On February 24, 1863, the Arizona Organic Act abolished slavery in the newly formed Arizona Territory. Tennessee and all of the border states (except Kentucky and Delaware) abolished slavery by early 1865. Thousands of slaves were freed by the operation of the Emancipation Proclamation as Union armies marched across the South. Emancipation came to the remaining Southern slaves after the surrender of all the Confederate troops in spring 1865.

In spite of the South's shortage of manpower, until 1865, most Southern leaders opposed arming slaves as soldiers. However, a few Confederates discussed arming slaves. Finally, in early 1865, General Robert E. Lee said that black soldiers were essential, and legislation was passed. The first black units were in training when the war ended in April.[284]

End of slavery

A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men
First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln (1864) oil painting by Francis Bicknell Carpenter (U.S. Senate Collection 33.00005.000)

Booker T. Washington remembered Emancipation Day in early 1863, when he was a boy of nine in Virginia:[285]

As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom. ... Some man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper – the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.

Abolition of slavery in the various states of the United States over time:
  Abolition of slavery during or shortly after the American Revolution
  The Northwest Ordinance, 1787
  Gradual emancipation in New York (starting 1799) and New Jersey (starting 1804)
  The Missouri Compromise, 1821
  Effective abolition of slavery by Mexican or joint US/British authority
  Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1861
  Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1862
  Emancipation Proclamation as originally issued, 1 Jan 1863
  Subsequent operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863
  Abolition of slavery by state action during the Civil War
  Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1864
  Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865
  Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. constitution, 18 Dec 1865
  Territory incorporated into the U.S. after the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment

The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations.[286] Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021.[287]

The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery except as punishment for a crime, had been passed by the Senate in April 1864, and by the House of Representatives in January 1865.[288]

Color lithograph of Thomas Nast's 1863 woodblock etching Emancipation: The Past and the Future (Library Company of Philadelphia 1865-3 variant 101540.F)

The amendment did not take effect until it was ratified by three-fourths of the states, which occurred on December 6, 1865, when Georgia ratified it. On that date, the last 40,000–45,000 enslaved Americans in the remaining two slave states of Kentucky and Delaware, as well as the 200 or so perpetual apprentices in New Jersey left from the very gradual emancipation process begun in 1804, were freed.[289] The last Americans known to have been born into legal slavery died in the 1970s.

Reconstruction to the present

Against brutal (often physically brutal) opposition from the whites of the late rebel states, Radical Republicans like Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner, and black representatives elected by newly enfranchised former slaves, including Hiram Revels, who took Jeff Davis' old Senate seat, worked to realize the lofty goals of the abolitionists through Congressional legislation

Journalist Douglas A. Blackmon reported in his Pulitzer Prize-winning book Slavery By Another Name that many black persons were virtually enslaved under convict leasing programs, which started after the Civil War. Most Southern states had no prisons; they leased convicts to businesses and farms for their labor, and the lessee paid for food and board. Incentives for abuse were present.

The continued involuntary servitude took various forms, but the primary forms included convict leasing, peonage and sharecropping, with the latter eventually encompassing poor whites as well. By the 1930s, whites constituted most of the sharecroppers in the South. Mechanization of agriculture had reduced the need for farm labor, and many black people left the South in the Great Migration. Jurisdictions and states created fines and sentences for a wide variety of minor crimes and used these as an excuse to arrest and sentence black people. Under convict-leasing programs, African-American men, often guilty of petty crimes or even no crime at all, were arrested, compelled to work without pay, repeatedly bought and sold, and coerced to do the bidding of the leaseholder. Sharecropping, as it was practiced during this period, often involved severe restrictions on the freedom of movement of sharecroppers, who could be whipped for leaving the plantation. Both sharecropping and convict leasing were legal and tolerated by both the North and South. However, peonage was an illicit form of forced labor. Its existence was ignored by authorities while thousands of African Americans and poor white Americans were subjugated and held in bondage until the mid-1960s to the late 1970s. With the exception of cases of peonage, beyond the period of Reconstruction, the federal government took almost no action to enforce the Thirteenth Amendment until December 1941, when President Franklin Delano Roosevelt summoned his attorney general. Five days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, at the request of the President, Attorney General Francis Biddle issued Circular No. 3591 to all federal prosecutors, instructing them to investigate actively and try any case of involuntary servitude or slavery. Several months later, convict leasing was officially abolished. But aspects have persisted in other forms. Historians argue that other systems of penal labor were all created in 1865, and convict leasing was simply the most oppressive form. Over time, a large civil rights movement arose to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans.[290]

Convict leasing

Nathan Bedford Forrest transitioned effortlessly from being a slave trader before the war[291] to using convict labor on his farm on President's Island near Memphis after the war[292] (glass copy negative, Library of Congress LC-BH821-3061)
Prisoners pick cotton c. 1900 at Angola Prison Farm in Louisiana, which was built on land that had formerly been plantations owned by hugely successful interstate slave trader Isaac Franklin[293]

With emancipation a legal reality, white Southerners were concerned with both controlling the newly freed slaves and keeping them in the labor force at the lowest level. The system of convict leasing began during Reconstruction and was fully implemented in the 1880s, officially ending in the last state, Alabama, in 1928. It persisted in various forms until it was abolished in 1942 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, several months after the attack on Pearl Harbor involved the U.S. in the conflict. This system allowed private contractors to purchase the services of convicts from the state or local governments for a specific time period. African Americans, due to "vigorous and selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencing", made up the vast majority of the convicts leased.[294] Writer Douglas A. Blackmon writes of the system:

It was a form of bondage distinctly different from that of the antebellum South in that for most men, and the relatively few women drawn in, this slavery did not last a lifetime and did not automatically extend from one generation to the next. But it was nonetheless slavery – a system in which armies of free men, guilty of no crimes and entitled by law to freedom, were compelled to labor without compensation, were repeatedly bought and sold, and were forced to do the bidding of white masters through the regular application of extraordinary physical coercion.[295]

The constitutional basis for convict leasing is that the Thirteenth Amendment, while abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude generally, expressly permits it as a punishment for crime.

Educational issues

Historian Mark Summers Wahlgren notes that the estimated literacy rate among formerly enslaved southern blacks at the time of emancipation was five to 10 percent, but had reached a baseline of 40 to 50 percent (and higher in cities) by the turn of the century, representing a "great advance".[296] As W. E. B. Du Bois noted, the black colleges were not perfect, but "in a single generation they put thirty thousand black teachers in the South" and "wiped out the illiteracy of the majority of black people in the land".[297]

An industrial school set up for ex-slaves in Richmond during Reconstruction (Frank Leslie's illustrated newspaper, September 22, 1866)

Northern philanthropists continued to support black education in the 20th century, for example of a major donor to Hampton Institute and Tuskegee was George Eastman, who also helped fund health programs at colleges and in communities.[298]

Apologies

In the 21st century, various legislative bodies have issued public apologies for slavery in the United States.

Political legacy

A 2016 study, published in The Journal of Politics, finds that "[w]hites who currently live in Southern counties that had high shares of slaves in 1860 are more likely to identify as a Republican, oppose affirmative action, and express racial resentment and colder feelings toward blacks." The study contends that "contemporary differences in political attitudes across counties in the American South in part trace their origins to slavery's prevalence more than 150 years ago. "[299] The authors argue that their findings are consistent with the theory that "following the Civil War, Southern whites faced political and economic incentives to reinforce existing racist norms and institutions to maintain control over the newly freed African American population. This amplified local differences in racially conservative political attitudes, which in turn have been passed down locally across generations."[299]

Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon, Belzoni, Mississippi Delta, Mississippi
Original caption: "Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon, Belzoni, Mississippi Delta, Mississippi" (Marion Post Wolcott 35mm nitrate negative, Farm Security Administration, October 1939)

A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions to attract migrant workers to their colonies.[300]

An article published in the Journal of Economic History in 2022 finds that former slave owners remained politically dominant long after the abolition of slavery. Using data from Texas, the authors find that "[i]n 1900, still around 50 percent of all state legislators came from a slave-owning background."[301]

Economics

Prices noted in pencil on slave sale broadside with listing of names, ages and special skills; a note was made on an outer page "average $623.45"[302](Hutson Lee papers, South Carolina Historical Society via Lowcountry Digital Library)

Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, in their 1974 book Time on the Cross, argued that the rate of return of slavery at the market price was close to ten percent, a number close to investment in other assets. The transition from indentured servants to slaves is cited to show that slaves offered greater profits to their owners. A qualified consensus among economic historians and economists is that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming",[303] and it is the near-universal consensus among economic historians and economists that slavery was not "a system irrationally kept in existence by plantation owners who failed to perceive or were indifferent to their best economic interests".[304]

The relative price of slaves and indentured servants in the antebellum period did decrease. Indentured servants became more costly with the increase in the demand of skilled labor in England.[305] At the same time, slaves were mostly supplied from within the United States and thus language was not a barrier, and the cost of transporting slaves from one state to another was relatively low. However, as in Brazil and Europe, slavery at its end in the United States tended to be concentrated in the poorest regions of the United States,[306] with a qualified consensus among economists and economic historians concluding that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s."[307]

In the decades preceding the Civil War, the black population of the United States experienced a rapid natural increase.[308] Unlike the trans-Saharan slave trade with Africa, the slave population transported by the Atlantic slave trade to the United States was sex-balanced.[309] The slave population multiplied nearly fourfold between 1810 and 1860, despite the passage of the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves signed into law by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807 banning the international slave trade.[310] Thus, it is also the universal consensus among modern economic historians and economists that slavery in the United States was not "economically moribund on the eve of the Civil War".[311] In the 2010s, several historians, among them Edward E. Baptist, Sven Beckert, Walter Johnson and Calvin Schermerhorn, have posited that slavery was integral in the development of American capitalism.[312][313][314][315] Johnson wrote in River of Dark Dreams (2013): "The cords of credit and debt—of advance and obligation—that cinched the Atlantic economy together were anchored with the mutually defining values of land and slaves: without land and slaves, there was no credit, and without slaves, land itself was valueless. Promises made in the Mississippi Valley were backed by the value of slaves and fulfilled in their labor."[314] Other economic historians have rejected that thesis.[316][317][318][319][320]

A 2023 study estimates that prior to the onset of the US Civil War, the enslaved population produced 12.6% of US national product.[321]

Slavery had a long-lasting impact on wealth and racial inequality in the United States. Black families whose ancestors were freed before the start of the Civil War have substantially better socio-economic outcomes than families who were freed in the Civil War.[322]

Efficiency of slaves

"Weighing cotton after the day's picking" c. 1908 in Monticello, Florida, with a black man in a sack used as the counterweight; when a New York reporter visited a cotton gin in South Carolina in 1851, the managers reported that it cost an average of $75 a year to staff the gin with black slaves, whereas it would have cost $116 to use free whites[323]

Scholars disagree on how to quantify the efficiency of slavery. In Time on the Cross Fogel and Engerman equate efficiency to total factor productivity (TFP), the output per average unit of input on a farm. Using this measurement, Southern farms that enslaved black people using the gang system were 35% more efficient than Northern farms, which used free labor. Under the gang system, groups of slaves perform synchronized tasks under the constant vigilance of an overseer. Each group was like a part of a machine. If perceived to be working below his capacity, a slave could be punished. Fogel argues that this kind of negative enforcement was not frequent and that slaves and free laborers had a similar quality of life; however, there is controversy on this last point.[324] A critique of Fogel and Engerman's view was published by Paul A. David in 1976.[325]

In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association sought to study the views of economists and economic historians on the debate. The study found that 72 percent of economists and 65 percent of economic historians would generally agree that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming." 48 percent of the economists agreed without provisos, while 24 percent agreed when provisos were included in the statement. On the other hand, 58 percent of economic historians and 42 percent of economists disagreed with Fogel and Engerman's "proposition that the material (not psychological) conditions of the lives of slaves compared favorably with those of free industrial workers in the decades before the Civil War".[303]

Prices of slaves

The U.S. has a capitalist economy so the price of slaves was determined by the law of supply and demand. For example, following bans on the import of slaves after the UK's Slave Trade Act 1807 and the American 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, the prices for slaves increased. The markets for the products produced by slaves also affected the price of slaves (e.g. the price of slaves fell when the price of cotton fell in 1840). Anticipation of slavery's abolition also influenced prices. During the Civil War the price for slave men in New Orleans dropped from $1,381 in 1861 to $1,116 by 1862 (the city was captured by U.S. forces in the Spring of 1862).[326]

Survivors of the Wanderer: Ward Lee, Tucker Henderson, and Romeo—born Cilucängy, Pucka Gaeta, and Tahro in the Congo River basin—were purchased at a Portuguese-run African slave market in 1858 for an estimated US$50 (equivalent to $1,761 in 2023) each, and resold in the United States where the fair-market price for a healthy young enslaved male was easily US$1,000 (equivalent to $35,215 in 2023)[327] (Charles J. Montgomery, American Anthropologist, 1908)

Controlling for inflation, prices of slaves rose dramatically in the six decades prior to the Civil War, reflecting demand due to commodity cotton, as well as use of slaves in shipping and manufacturing. Although the prices of slaves relative to indentured servants declined, both got more expensive. Cotton production was rising and relied on the use of slaves to yield high profits. Fogel and Engeman initially argued that if the Civil War had not happened, the slave prices would have increased even more, an average of more than fifty percent by 1890.[324]: 96 

Prices reflected the characteristics of the slave; such factors as sex, age, nature, and height were all taken into account to determine the price of a slave. Over the life-cycle, the price of enslaved women was higher than their male counterparts up to puberty age, as they would likely bear children who their masters could sell as slaves and could be used as slave laborers. Men around the age of 25 were the most valued, as they were at the highest level of productivity and still had a considerable life-span.[citation needed] If slaves had a history of fights or escapes, their price was lowered reflecting what planters believed was risk of repeating such behavior. Slave traders and buyers would examine a slave's back for whipping scars; a large number of injuries would be seen as evidence of laziness or rebelliousness, rather than the previous master's brutality, and would lower the slave's price.[193] Taller male slaves were priced at a higher level, as height was viewed as a proxy for fitness and productivity.[324]

Effects on Southern economic development

Five-dollar banknote showing a plantation scene with enslaved people in South Carolina. Issued by the Planters Bank, Winnsboro, 1853. On display at the British Museum in London.

While slavery brought profits in the short run, discussion continues on the economic benefits of slavery in the long run. In 1995, a random anonymous survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that out of the forty propositions about American economic history that were surveyed, the group of propositions most disputed by economic historians and economists were those about the postbellum economy of the American South (along with the Great Depression). The only exception was the proposition initially put forward by historian Gavin Wright that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s." 62 percent of economists (24 percent with and 38 percent without provisos) and 73 percent of historians (23 percent with and 50 percent without provisos) agreed with this statement.[328][307] Wright has also argued that the private investment of monetary resources in the cotton industry, among others, delayed development in the South of commercial and industrial institutions. There was little public investment in railroads or other infrastructure. Wright argues that agricultural technology was far more developed in the South, representing an economic advantage of the South over the North of the United States.[329]

In Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville noted that "the colonies in which there were no slaves became more populous and more rich than those in which slavery flourished".[330] In 1857, in The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It, Hinton Rowan Helper made the same point.[331] Economists Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson, in a pair of articles published in 2012 and 2013, found that, despite the American South initially having per capita income roughly double that of the North in 1774, incomes in the South had declined 27% by 1800 and continued to decline over the next four decades, while the economies in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states vastly expanded. By 1840, per capita income in the South was well behind the Northeast and the national average (Note: this is also true in the early 21st century).[332][333]

Soils of the cotton-growing regions of the United States

Lindert and Williamson argue that this antebellum period is an example of what economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson call "a reversal of fortune".[334] In his essay "The Real History of Slavery", economist Thomas Sowell reiterated and augmented the observation made by de Tocqueville by comparing slavery in the United States to slavery in Brazil. He notes that slave societies reflected similar economic trends in those and other parts of the world, suggesting that the trend Lindert and Williamson identify may have continued until the American Civil War:

Both in Brazil and in the United States – the countries with the two largest slave populations in the Western Hemisphere – the end of slavery found the regions in which slaves had been concentrated poorer than other regions of these same countries. For the United States, a case could be made that this was due to the Civil War, which did so much damage to the South, but no such explanation would apply to Brazil, which fought no Civil War over this issue. Moreover, even in the United States, the South lagged behind the North in many ways even before the Civil War. Although slavery in Europe died out before it was abolished in the Western Hemisphere, as late as 1776 slavery had not yet died out all across the continent when Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that it still existed in some eastern regions. But, even then, Eastern Europe was much poorer than Western Europe. The slavery of North Africa and the Middle East, over the centuries, took more slaves from sub-Saharan Africa than the Western Hemisphere did ... But these remained largely poor countries until the discovery and extraction of their vast oil deposits.[306]

Market update, published on the eve of the American Civil War: Here the sell-side (Virginia) prepares the buy-side (Mississippi) for expected prices in the 1860–61 slave-trading season (The Wheeling Daily Intelligencer, August 11, 1860).

Sowell also notes in Ethnic America: A History, citing historians Clement Eaton and Eugene Genovese, that three-quarters of Southern white families owned no slaves at all.[335] Most slaveholders lived on farms rather than plantations,[336] and few plantations were as large as the fictional ones depicted in Gone with the Wind.[337] In "The Real History of Slavery", Sowell also notes in comparison to slavery in the Arab world and the Middle East (where slaves were seldom used for productive purposes) and China (where the slaves consumed the entire output they created), Sowell observes that many commercial slaveowners in the antebellum South tended to be spendthrift and many lost their plantations due to creditor foreclosures, and in Britain, profits by British slave traders only amounted to two percent of British domestic investment at the height of the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century.[338][339] Sowell draws the following conclusion regarding the macroeconomic value of slavery:

In short, even though some individual slaveowners grew rich and some family fortunes were founded on the exploitation of slaves, that is very different from saying that the whole society, or even its non-slave population as a whole, was more economically advanced than it would have been in the absence of slavery. What this means is that, whether employed as domestic servants or producing crops or other goods, millions suffered exploitation and dehumanization for no higher purpose than the ... aggrandizement of slaveowners.[340]

Eric Hilt noted that, while some historians have suggested slavery was necessary for the Industrial Revolution (on the grounds that American slave plantations produced most of the raw cotton for the British textiles market and the British textiles market was the vanguard of the Industrial Revolution), it is not clear if this is actually true; there is no evidence that cotton could not have been mass-produced by yeoman farmers rather than slave plantations if the latter had not existed (as their existence tended to force yeoman farmers into subsistence farming) and there is some evidence that they certainly could have. The soil and climate of the American South were excellent for growing cotton, so it is not unreasonable to postulate that farms without slaves could have produced substantial amounts of cotton; even if they did not produce as much as the plantations did, it could still have been enough to serve the demand of British producers.[341] Similar arguments have been made by other historians.[342]

Sexual economy of American slavery

Slave Market, artist unknown, date unknown (Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh)

Scholar Adrienne Davis articulates how the economics of slavery also can be defined as a sexual economy, specifically focusing on how black women were expected to perform physical, sexual and reproductive labor to provide a consistent enslaved workforce and increase the profits of white slavers. Davis writes that black women were needed for their "sexual and reproductive labor to satisfy the economic, political, and personal interest of white men of the elite class"[343] articulating that black women's reproductive capacity was important in the maintenance of the system of slavery due to its ability to perpetuate an enslaved workforce. She is also drawing attention to black women's labor being needed to maintain the aristocracy of a white ruling class, due to the intimate nature of reproduction and its potential for producing more enslaved peoples.

Due to the institution of partus sequitur ventrem, black women's wombs became the site where slavery was developed and transferred,[344] meaning that black women were not only used for their physical labor, but for their sexual and reproductive labor as well.

"The rule that the children's status follows their mothers' was a foundational one for our economy. It converted enslaved women's reproductive capacity into market capital"[345]

Divided-back era postcard: "The Old Slave Block in the Old St. Louis Hotel, New Orleans, La. The colored woman standing on the block was sold for $1500.00 on this same block when a little girl."

This articulation by Davis illustrates how black women's reproductive capacity was commodified under slavery, and that an analysis of the economic structures of slavery requires an acknowledgment of how pivotal black women's sexuality was in maintaining slavery's economic power. Davis writes how black women performed labor under slavery, writing: "[black women were] male when convenient and horrifically female when needed".[346] The fluctuating expectations of black women's gendered labor under slavery disrupted the white normative roles that were assigned to white men and white women. This ungendering black women received under slavery contributed to the systemic dehumanization experienced by enslaved black women, as they were unable to receive the expectations or experiences of either gender within the white binary.

Davis's arguments address the fact that, under slavery, black women's sexuality became linked to the economic and public sphere, making their intimate lives into public institutions. Black women's physical labor was gendered as masculine under slavery when they were needed to yield more profit, but their reproductive capacities and sexual labor were equally as important in maintaining white power over black communities and perpetuating an enslaved workforce.[346]

Geography and demography

"Fugitive Negroes, fording Rappahannock river following Pope's retreat, Aug. 1862" (New York Public Library)

Slave importation

About 600,000 slaves were transported to the United States, or five percent of the 12 million slaves taken from Africa. About 310,000 of these persons were imported into the Thirteen Colonies before 1776: 40 percent directly, and the rest from the Caribbean.

The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar plantations in the Caribbean and to Portuguese Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the United States, and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction, which was called "natural increase" by enslavers. The population of enslaved people in the United States grew to 4 million by the 1860 census. Historian J. David Hacker conducted research that estimated that the cumulative number of slaves in colonial America and the United States (1619–1865) was 10 million.[349]

Origins of American slaves

Distribution of slaves

Map showing the distribution of the slave population of the southern states of the United States (1861) created by Edwin Hergesheimer of the United States Coast Survey; Lincoln kept a copy of this map in the White House and studied it often, using it to track Union troop movements[352]
Evolution of the enslaved population of the United States as a percentage of the population of each state, 1790–1860

For various reasons, the census did not always include all of the slaves, especially in the West. California was admitted as a free state and reported no slaves. However, there were many slaves that were brought to work in the mines during the California Gold Rush.[355] Some Californian communities openly tolerated slavery, such as San Bernardino, which was mostly made up of transplants from the neighboring slave territory of Utah.[356] New Mexico Territory never reported any slaves on the census, yet sued the government for compensation for 600 slaves that were freed when Congress outlawed slavery in the territory.[357] Utah was actively trying to hide its slave population from Congress[358][359] and did not report slaves in several communities.[360] Additionally, the census did not traditionally include Native Americans, and hence did not include Native American slaves or Native African slaves owned by Native Americans. There were hundreds of Native American slaves in California,[361] Utah[362] and New Mexico[357] that were never recorded in the census.

Distribution of slaveholders

Sketches of enslaved Americans in Richmond and Charleston, made by British artist Eyre Crowe, March 1853

As of the 1860 census, one may compute the following statistics on slaveholding:[363]

Historiography

"Window grating of old slave prison cell" at Girod House, 500–506 Chartres, New Orleans (Richard Koch, Historic American Buildings Survey, April 1934)

The historian Peter Kolchin, writing in 1993, noted that until the latter decades of the 20th century, historians of slavery had primarily concerned themselves with the culture, practices and economics of the slaveholders, not with the slaves. This was in part due to the circumstance that most slaveholders were literate and left behind written records, whereas slaves were largely illiterate and not in a position to leave written records. Scholars differed as to whether slavery should be considered a benign or a "harshly exploitive" institution.[369]

Much of the history written prior to the 1950s had a distinctive racist slant to it.[369] By the 1970s and 1980s, historians were using archaeological records, black folklore and statistical data to develop a much more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Individuals were shown to have been resilient and somewhat autonomous in many of their activities, within the limits of their situation and despite its precariousness. Historians who wrote in this era include John Blassingame (Slave Community), Eugene Genovese (Roll, Jordan, Roll), Leslie Howard Owens (This Species of Property), and Herbert Gutman (The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom).[370]

See also

Histories of slavery in the Western Hemisphere

Notes

  1. ^ Slaves were considered personal property in all slave states except Louisiana, which deemed them real estate.[77]
  2. ^ The United States continued to prohibit Royal Navy ships from investigating U.S.-flagged vessels – even in instances when the U.S. flag was being used fraudulently. The British still insisted on the right to impress (i.e. force to serve in the Royal Navy) British citizens found on American ships – something that was a continued cause of grievance. Despite the intent of the treaty, the opportunity for additional co-operation was missed.

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