Арабы ( арабский : عَرَب , DIN 31635 : ʿarab , арабское произношение : [b] [ˈʕɑ.rɑb] ), также известные какарабский народ(الشَّعْبَ الْعَرَبِيّ), являютсяэтнической группой[c],в основном населяющейарабский мирвЗападной АзиииСеверной Африке. Значительнаяарабская диаспораприсутствует в различных частях мира.[74]
Арабы жили в Плодородном полумесяце на протяжении тысяч лет. [75] В 9 веке до нашей эры ассирийцы письменно упоминали арабов как жителей Леванта , Месопотамии и Аравии . [ 76] На всем Древнем Ближнем Востоке арабы основали влиятельные цивилизации, начиная с 3000 года до нашей эры, такие как Дильмун , Герра и Маган , играя важную роль в торговле между Месопотамией и Средиземноморьем . [ 77] Другие известные племена включают мидийцев , адитов и тамудовцев, упомянутых в Библии и Коране . Позже, в 900 году до нашей эры, кедариты поддерживали тесные отношения с соседними ханаанскими и арамейскими государствами, и их территория простиралась от Нижнего Египта до Южного Леванта. [78] С 1200 г. до н.э. по 110 г. до н.э. в Аравии возникли такие могущественные царства, как Саба , Лихьян , Минеан , Катабан , Хадрамаут , Авсан и Хомерит . [79] Согласно авраамической традиции, арабы являются потомками Авраама через его сына Измаила . [80]
В эпоху классической античности набатеи основали свое царство со столицей в Петре в 300 г. до н . э. [81] к 271 г. н. э. Пальмирская империя со столицей Пальмира , возглавляемая царицей Зенобией , охватывала Сирию Палестину , Аравию Петрею и Египет , а также большую часть Анатолии . [82] Арабские итурейцы населяли Ливан , Сирию и северную Палестину ( Галилею ) в эллинистический и римский периоды. [83] Осроена и Хатран были арабскими королевствами в Верхней Месопотамии около 200 г. н. э. [84] В 164 г. н. э. Сасаниды признали арабов « Арбайистаном », что означает «земля арабов», [85] поскольку они были частью Адиабены в верхней Месопотамии. [86] Арабские эмесены правили в 46 г. до н. э. Эмесой (Хомсом), Сирией. [87] В эпоху поздней античности танухиды, салихиды, лахмиды, кинды и гассаниды были доминирующими арабскими племенами в Леванте , Месопотамии и Аравии , они в основном приняли христианство . [ 88 ]
В средние века ислам способствовал созданию обширного арабского союза, что привело к значительным арабским миграциям в Магриб , Левант и соседние территории под властью арабских империй, таких как Рашидун , Омейяд , Аббасиды и Фатимиды , что в конечном итоге привело к упадку Византийской и Сасанидской империй . На пике своего развития арабские территории простирались от южной Франции до западного Китая , образуя одну из крупнейших империй в истории . [89] Великое арабское восстание в начале 20-го века помогло разрушить Османскую империю , что в конечном итоге привело к образованию Лиги арабских государств 22 марта 1945 года, в Уставе которой был закреплен принцип « единой арабской родины ». [90]
Арабы от Марокко до Ирака имеют общую связь, основанную на этнической принадлежности, языке , культуре , истории , идентичности , происхождении , национализме , географии , единстве и политике , [91] что придает региону особую идентичность и отличает его от других частей мусульманского мира . [92] У них также есть свои обычаи, литература , музыка , танцы , средства массовой информации , еда , одежда , общество, спорт , архитектура , искусство и мифология . [93] Арабы оказали значительное влияние и внесли свой вклад в человеческий прогресс во многих областях, включая науку , технологию , философию , этику , литературу , политику , бизнес , искусство , музыку , комедию , театр, кино , архитектуру , еду , медицину и религию . [94] До ислама большинство арабов следовали политеистической семитской религии , в то время как некоторые племена приняли иудаизм или христианство , а несколько человек, известных как ханифы , следовали форме монотеизма . [95] В настоящее время около 93% арабов являются мусульманами , в то время как остальные в основном являются арабами-христианами , а также арабскими группами друзов и бахаи . [96]
Самое раннее задокументированное использование слова «араб» в отношении народа появляется в « Монолитах Курха» , записи на аккадском языке об ассирийском завоевании Арама (IX в. до н. э.). «Монолиты» использовали этот термин для обозначения бедуинов Аравийского полуострова под предводительством царя Гиндибу , которые сражались в составе коалиции, выступавшей против Ассирии . [97] Среди добычи, захваченной армией ассирийского царя Салманасара III в битве при Каркаре (853 г. до н. э.), перечислены 1000 верблюдов «Гиндибу Арбайя » или « [ человека ] Гиндибу, принадлежащего арабам » ( ar-ba-aa является прилагательным нисба существительного ʿАраб ). [97]
Родственное слово ʾaʿrāb используется для обозначения бедуинов сегодня, в отличие от ʿarab , которое относится к арабам в целом. [98] Оба термина упоминаются около 40 раз в доисламских сабейских надписях. Термин ʿarab ('араб') встречается также в титулах химьяритских царей со времен 'Abu Karab Asad до MadiKarib Ya'fur. Согласно сабейской грамматике, термин ʾaʿrāb происходит от термина ʿarab . Термин также упоминается в коранических стихах, ссылаясь на людей, которые жили в Медине, и это может быть южноаравийским заимствованием в кораническом языке. [99]
Древнейшим сохранившимся указанием на арабскую национальную идентичность является надпись, сделанная на архаичной форме арабского языка в 328 году н. э. с использованием набатейского алфавита , в которой Имру аль-Кайс ибн Амр упоминается как «царь всех арабов». [100] [101] Геродот упоминает арабов на Синае, в южной Палестине и в регионе ладана (Южная Аравия). Другие древнегреческие историки, такие как Агафархид , Диодор Сицилийский и Страбон, упоминают арабов, живущих в Месопотамии (вдоль Евфрата ), в Египте (Синай и Красное море), на юге Иордании ( набатеи ), в сирийской степи и в восточной Аравии (народ Герры ). Надписи, датируемые VI веком до н. э. в Йемене, включают термин «араб». [102]
Самая популярная арабская версия гласит, что слово « араб» произошло от одноименного отца по имени Яруб , который, предположительно, был первым, кто заговорил на арабском языке. Абу Мухаммад аль-Хасан аль-Хамдани имел другую точку зрения; он утверждает, что арабы назывались гараб ('западные') жителями Месопотамии, потому что бедуины изначально проживали к западу от Месопотамии; затем этот термин был искажен до арабского .
Еще одной точки зрения придерживается аль-Масуди , что слово «араб» изначально применялось к исмаилитам долины Арава . В библейской этимологии слово «араб» (иврит: arvi ) происходит от пустынного происхождения бедуинов, которых оно первоначально описывало ( arava означает «пустыня»).
Корень ʿ-rb имеет несколько дополнительных значений в семитских языках, включая 'запад, закат', 'пустыня', 'смешивать', 'смешанный', 'торговец' и 'ворон', и они "понятны", и все они имеют различную степень релевантности для возникновения имени. Также возможно, что некоторые формы были метатетическими от ʿ-BR , 'перемещаться' (араб. ʿ-BR , 'пересекать') и, следовательно, как утверждается, 'кочевой'. [103]
Арабский язык является семитским языком, который принадлежит к афразийской языковой семье . Большинство ученых признают, что « Аравийский полуостров » уже давно признан изначальной прародиной (языковой родиной) семитских языков . [104] [105] [106] [107] некоторые ученые исследуют, находятся ли его истоки в Леванте . [108] Древние семитоязычные народы жили на древнем Ближнем Востоке , включая Левант, Месопотамию и Аравийский полуостров с 3-го тысячелетия до н. э. до конца античности. Протосемитский язык , вероятно, достиг Аравийского полуострова к 4-му тысячелетию до н. э., и его дочерние языки распространились оттуда, [109] в то время как древнеарабский язык начал отличаться от центральносемитского к началу 1-го тысячелетия до н. э. [110] Центральный семитский язык является ветвью семитского языка, включающего арабский, арамейский , ханаанский , финикийский , иврит и другие. [111] [112] Истоки протосемитского языка могут находиться на Аравийском полуострове, откуда язык распространился в другие регионы. Эта теория предполагает, что семитские народы достигли Месопотамии и других областей от пустынь на западе, например, аккадцы, которые вошли в Месопотамию около конца 4-го тысячелетия до н. э. [109] Считается, что происхождение семитских народов включает различные регионы Месопотамия , Левант, Аравийский полуостров и Северная Африка . Некоторые считают, что семитский язык мог возникнуть в Леванте около 3800 г. до н. э. и впоследствии распространился на Африканский Рог около 800 г. до н. э. из Аравии, а также в Северную Африку. [113] [114]
Согласно арабо -исламско-еврейским традициям, Измаил , сын Авраама и Агари , был «отцом арабов». [115] [116] [117] [118] [119] В Книге Бытия повествуется, что Бог обещал Агари родить от Измаила двенадцать принцев и превратить его потомков в « великий народ» . [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] Измаил считался предком исламского пророка Мухаммеда , основателя ислама . Племена Центральной Западной Аравии называли себя «народом Авраама и потомством Измаила». [126] Ибн Халдун , арабский ученый VIII века, описывал арабов как имеющих измаильское происхождение. [127]
В Коране упоминается, что Ибрагим (Авраам) и его жена Хаджар (Агарь) родили пророческого ребенка по имени Измаил, которому Бог даровал милость над другими народами. [128] Бог приказал Ибрагиму привести Хаджар и Измаила в Мекку , где он молился, чтобы их снабдили водой и фруктами. Хаджар побежала между холмами Сафа и Марва в поисках воды, и ангел явился им и дал им воду. Измаил вырос в Мекке. Позже Ибрагиму было приказано принести в жертву Измаила во сне, но Бог вмешался и заменил его козлом. Затем Ибрагим и Измаил построили Каабу в Мекке, которая изначально была построена Адамом . [129]
Согласно самаритянской книге Асатир добавляет: [130] : 262 «И после смерти Авраама Измаил правил двадцать семь лет; и все сыны Неваота правили один год при жизни Измаила; и тридцать лет после его смерти от реки Египетской до реки Евфрат ; и они построили Мекку ». [131] Иосиф Флавий также перечисляет сыновей и утверждает, что они «...населяют земли, которые находятся между Евфратом и Красным морем , название страны — Набатея ». [132] [133] Таргум Онкелоса комментирует ( Бытие 25:16 ), описывая масштабы их поселений: Измаильтяне жили от Хиндекаи ( Индия ) до Халуцы (возможно, в Аравии), рядом с Мицраимом (Египет) и от области вокруг Артура ( Ассирия ) вверх по направлению к северу. Это описание предполагает, что Измаильтяне были широко рассеянной группой, присутствующей на значительной части древнего Ближнего Востока. [134] [135]
Кочевники Аравии распространялись по пустынным окраинам Плодородного полумесяца по крайней мере с 3000 г. до н. э., но первое известное упоминание об арабах как об отдельной группе содержится в ассирийском писце, записывающем битву в 853 г. до н. э. [136] [137] История арабов в доисламский период в различных регионах, включая Аравию, Левант, Месопотамию и Египет. Арабы упоминались их соседями, такими как ассирийские и вавилонские царские надписи с 9 по 6 вв. до н. э., упоминают царя Кедара как царя арабов и царя исмаилитов. [138] [139] [140] [141] Из имен сыновей Измаила имена «Набат, Кедар, Абдеел, Дума, Масса и Теман» упоминались в ассирийских царских надписях как племена измаильтян. Иесур упоминался в греческих надписях в 1 веке до н. э. [142] Также есть записи из правления Саргона , в которых упоминаются продавцы железа людям, называемым арабами в Хузазе в Вавилоне , в результате чего Саргон запретил такую торговлю из страха, что арабы могут использовать этот ресурс для производства оружия против ассирийской армии. История арабов в связи с Библией показывает, что они были значительной частью региона и играли определенную роль в жизни израильтян. Исследование утверждает, что арабская нация является древней и значимой сущностью; однако оно подчеркивает, что у арабов не было коллективного осознания своего единства. Они не заявляли о своей идентичности как арабы и не заявляли об исключительном праве собственности на определенные территории. [143]
Маган , Мадиан и ʿĀd — все это древние племена или цивилизации, которые упоминаются в арабской литературе и имеют корни в Аравии. Маган ( араб . مِجَانُ , Majan ), известный своим производством меди и других металлов, регион был важным торговым центром в древние времена и упоминается в Коране как место, где Муса ( Моисей ) путешествовал во время своей жизни. [144] [145] Мадиан ( араб . مَدْيَن , Madyan ), с другой стороны, был регионом, расположенным в северо-западной части Аравии, народ Мадиан упоминается в Коране как поклонявшийся идолам и наказанный Богом за свое непослушание. [146] [147] Моисей также некоторое время жил в Мадиане, где он женился и работал пастухом. ʿĀd ( арабский : عَادَ , ʿĀd ), как упоминалось ранее, было древним племенем, которое жило в южной Аравии, племя было известно своим богатством, силой и передовыми технологиями, но в конечном итоге они были уничтожены мощным ураганом в наказание за их непослушание Богу . [ 148] ʿĀd считается одним из первоначальных арабских племен. [149] [150] Историк Геродот предоставил обширную информацию об Аравии, описав специи , ландшафт , фольклор , торговлю , одежду и оружие арабов. В своей третьей книге он упомянул арабов (Άραβες) как силу, с которой нужно считаться на севере Аравийского полуострова как раз перед походом Камбиза на Египет. Другие греческие и латинские авторы, писавшие об Аравии, включают Теофраста , Страбона , Диодора Сицилийского и Плиния Старшего . Еврейский историк Иосиф Флавий писал об арабах и их царе, упоминая их отношения с Клеопатрой , царицей Египта. Дань, выплачиваемая арабским царем Клеопатре, собиралась Иродом , царем иудеев, но арабский царь позже стал медлить с выплатами и отказался платить без дальнейших вычетов. Это проливает свет на отношения между арабами, евреями и Египтом в то время. [151] Гешем Араб был арабом, который выступал противНеемия в еврейской Библии ( Неем . 2:19 , 6:1 ). Он, вероятно, был вождем арабского племени «Гушаму» и был могущественным правителем, влияние которого простиралось от северной Аравии до Иудеи. Арабы и самаритяне приложили усилия, чтобы помешать Неемии восстановить стены Иерусалима . [152] [153] [154]
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Термин « сарацины » использовался в ранние века как в греческих , так и в латинских писаниях для обозначения «арабов», которые жили в и около того, что римляне называли Arabia Petraea ( Левант) и Arabia Deserta (Аравия). [155] [156] Христиане Иберии использовали термин мавр для описания всех арабов и мусульман того времени. Арабы Медины называли кочевые племена пустынь A'raab и считали себя оседлыми, но знали о своих тесных расовых связях. Hagarenes — термин, широко используемый ранними сирийскими , греческими и армянскими языками для описания ранних арабских завоевателей Месопотамии, Сирии и Египта, относится к потомкам Агари, которая родила Аврааму сына по имени Измаил в Ветхом Завете. В Библии Hagarenes упоминаются как «измаильтяне» или «арабы». [157] Арабские завоевания в 7 веке были внезапным и драматичным завоеванием, возглавляемым арабскими армиями, которые быстро завоевали большую часть Ближнего Востока, Северной Африки и Испании. Это был знаменательный момент для ислама , который считал себя преемником иудаизма и христианства. [158] Термин ʾiʿrāb имеет тот же корень и относится к бедуинским племенам пустыни, которые отвергли ислам и сопротивлялись Мухаммеду. ( Коран 9:97 ) В Кебра Нагаст 14-го века говорится: «И поэтому дети Измаила стали царями над Теребой , и над Кебетом , и над Нобой , и над Собой , и над Куэргой , и над Кифи , и над Макой , и над Морной , и над Финканой , и над 'Арсибаной , и над Либой , и над Масеей , ибо они были семенем Шема ». [159]
Ограниченное местное историческое освещение этих цивилизаций означает, что для реконструкции этого периода в значительной степени опираются на археологические свидетельства, иностранные отчеты и арабские устные традиции. Известные цивилизации того времени включали цивилизацию Дильмун , которая была важным торговым центром [162] , который на пике своего могущества контролировал торговые пути Персидского залива . [162] Шумеры считали Дильмун святой землей . [163] Дильмун считается одной из старейших древних цивилизаций на Ближнем Востоке . [164] [165] которая возникла около 4-го тысячелетия до н. э. и просуществовала до 538 г. до н. э. Герра была древним городом Восточной Аравии , на западной стороне залива, Герра была центром арабского королевства примерно с 650 г. до н. э. до примерно 300 г. н. э. Тамуд , которая возникла около 1-го тысячелетия до н. э. и просуществовала примерно до 300 г. н. э. С начала первого тысячелетия до нашей эры протоарабские или древние североаравийские тексты дают более ясную картину появления арабов. Самые ранние написаны вариантами эпиграфического южноаравийского письма муснад , включая хасейские надписи 8-го века до нашей эры в восточной Саудовской Аравии, тамудические тексты, найденные по всему Аравийскому полуострову и Синаю .
Кедариты были в основном кочевой древней арабской племенной конфедерацией с центром в Вади Сирхан в Сирийской пустыне . Они были известны своим кочевым образом жизни и своей ролью в караванной торговле, которая связывала Аравийский полуостров со средиземноморским миром. Кедариты постепенно расширяли свою территорию в течение 8-го и 7-го веков до н. э., и к 6-му веку до н. э. они объединились в королевство, которое охватывало большую территорию в северной Аравии, южной Палестине и Синайском полуострове . Кедариты были влиятельны на древнем Ближнем Востоке , и их королевство играло значительную роль в политических и экономических делах региона в течение нескольких столетий. [166]
Шеба ( арабский : سَبَأٌ Saba ) — царство, упомянутое в еврейской Библии ( Ветхом Завете ) и Коране , хотя Сабей был южноаравийским, а не арабским. Шеба фигурирует в иудейских , мусульманских и христианских традициях, чья родословная восходит к Кахтану , сыну Худа , одному из предков арабов, [167] [168] [169] Шеба упоминается в ассирийских надписях и в трудах греческих и римских писателей. [170] Одним из древних письменных источников, в котором также говорится о Шебе, является Ветхий Завет, в котором говорится, что народ Шебы поставлял в Сирию и Египет благовония, особенно ладан, и экспортировал в них золото и драгоценные камни. [171] Царица Савская, которая отправилась в Иерусалим , чтобы допросить царя Соломона , большой караван верблюдов , везущий дары золота , драгоценных камней и специй , [172] когда она прибыла, она была поражена мудростью и богатством царя Соломона, и она задала ему ряд сложных вопросов. [173] Царь Соломон смог ответить на все ее вопросы, и царица Савская была поражена его мудростью и богатством. (3 Царств 10)
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Сабейцы упоминаются несколько раз в еврейской Библии . В Коране [ 174] они описаны как Саба ( سَبَأ , не путать с Сабием , صَابِئ ), [168] [169] или как Qawm Tubbaʿ (араб. قَوْم تُبَّع , букв. «Люди Туббы»). [175] [176] Они были известны своей процветающей торговлей и сельскохозяйственной экономикой, которая была основана на выращивании ладана и мирры, эти высоко ценимые ароматические смолы экспортировались в Египет, Грецию и Рим , что делало сабейцев богатыми и могущественными, они также торговали специями, тканями и другими предметами роскоши. Плотина Мариб была одним из величайших инженерных достижений древнего мира, и она обеспечивала водой город Мариб и окружающие его сельскохозяйственные угодья. [177] [178] [170]
Лихьян, также называемый Дадан или Дедан, был могущественным и высокоорганизованным древним арабским королевством, которое играло важную культурную и экономическую роль в северо-западном регионе Аравийского полуострова и использовало даданитский язык. [179] Лихьяниты были известны своей развитой организацией и управлением, и они играли значительную роль в культурной и экономической жизни региона. Королевство было сосредоточено вокруг города Дедан (современный Аль-Ула ), и оно контролировало большую территорию, которая простиралась от Ятриба на юге до частей Леванта на севере. [180] [179] Арабские генеалогии считают Бану Лихьян исмаилитами и использовали даданитский язык. [181]
Королевство Маин было древним арабским королевством с наследственной монархической системой и акцентом на сельском хозяйстве и торговле . [182] Предлагаемые даты варьируются от 15-го века до н. э. до 1-го века н. э. Его история была записана с помощью надписей и классических греческих и римских книг, хотя точные даты начала и конца королевства все еще являются предметом споров. У народа Маин была местная система управления с советами, называемыми «мазуд», и в каждом городе был свой храм, в котором размещался один или несколько богов. Они также приняли финикийский алфавит и использовали его для записи своего языка. Королевство в конечном итоге перешло к арабскому народу сабеев . [183] [184]
Катабан был древним королевством, расположенным в Южной Аравии , которое существовало с начала 1-го тысячелетия до н. э. до конца 1-го или 2-го веков н. э. [186] [186] [187] Оно превратилось в централизованное государство в 6-м веке до н. э. с двумя соправителями, правящими полюсами. [186] [188] Катабан расширил свою территорию, включая завоевание Маина и успешные кампании против сабеев. [187] [185] [189] Он бросил вызов превосходству сабеев в регионе и вел успешную войну против Хадрамаута в 3-м веке до н. э. [185] [190] Могущество Катабана пришло в упадок в последующие столетия, что привело к его аннексии Хадрамаутом и Химьяром в 1-м веке н. э. [191] [187] [185] [ 186] [192] [185]
Королевство Хадрамаут было известно своим богатым культурным наследием , а также своим стратегическим расположением вдоль важных торговых путей , которые соединяли Ближний Восток , Южную Азию и Восточную Африку . [193] Королевство было основано около 3-го века до н. э. и достигло своего пика во 2-м веке н. э., когда оно контролировало большую часть южного Аравийского полуострова. Королевство было известно своей впечатляющей архитектурой , в частности своими отличительными башнями, которые использовались в качестве сторожевых вышек, оборонительных сооружений и домов для богатых семей. [194] Жители Хадрамаута были искусны в сельском хозяйстве, особенно в выращивании ладана и мирры. У них была сильная морская культура, и они торговали с Индией, Восточной Африкой и Юго-Восточной Азией. [195] Хотя королевство пришло в упадок в 4-м веке, Хадрамаут оставался культурным и экономическим центром. Его наследие все еще можно увидеть сегодня. [196]
Древнее королевство Авсан (VIII–VII вв. до н. э.) действительно было одним из важнейших малых королевств Южной Аравии , а его столица Хаджар Яхирр была значимым центром торговли и коммерции в древнем мире. Интересно узнать о богатой истории этого региона и культурном наследии , которое сохранилось благодаря археологическим памятникам, таким как Хаджар Асфаль. Разрушение города в VII в. до н. э. королем и Мукарибом из Саба Караб Эль Ватар является значительным событием в истории Южной Аравии. Оно подчеркивает сложную политическую и социальную динамику, характерную для региона в то время, и борьбу за власть между различными королевствами и правителями. Победа сабеев над Авсаном также является свидетельством военной мощи и стратегической доблести сабеев, которые были одним из самых могущественных и влиятельных королевств в регионе. [197]
Химьяритское царство или Химьяр было древним царством, существовавшим примерно со 2-го века до н. э. по 6-й век н. э. Его центром был город Зафар , который находится в современном Йемене. Химьяриты были арабским народом, говорившим на южноаравийском языке и известными своей доблестью в торговле и мореплавании, [198] они контролировали южную часть Аравии и имели процветающую экономику, основанную на сельском хозяйстве, торговле и морской торговле, они были искусны в ирригации и террасировании, что позволяло им выращивать урожай в засушливой среде. Химьяриты обратились в иудаизм в 4-м веке н. э., и их правители стали известны как «цари евреев», это обращение, вероятно, было обусловлено их торговыми связями с еврейскими общинами региона Красного моря и Леванта, однако химьяриты также терпимо относились к другим религиям, включая христианство и местные языческие религии. [198]
Набатеи были кочевыми арабами , которые поселились на территории, сосредоточенной вокруг их столицы Петры в том, что сейчас является Иорданией. [199] [200] Их ранние надписи были на арамейском языке , но постепенно перешли на арабский, и поскольку у них была письменность, именно они сделали первые надписи на арабском языке. Набатейский алфавит был принят арабами на юге и превратился в современный арабский алфавит около 4-го века. Об этом свидетельствуют сафитские надписи (начиная с 1-го века до н. э.) и множество арабских личных имен в набатейских надписях. Примерно со 2-го века до н. э. несколько надписей из Карьят-аль-Фау показывают диалект, который больше не считается протоарабским , а доклассическим арабским . Пять сирийских надписей, упоминающих арабов, были найдены в Суматар-Харабеси , одна из которых датируется 2-м веком н. э. [201] [202]
Арабы впервые упоминаются в Пальмире в конце первого тысячелетия до н. э. [203] Солдаты шейха Забдибела , которые помогали Селевкидам в битве при Рафии (217 г. до н. э.), были описаны как арабы; Забдибел и его люди на самом деле не были идентифицированы как пальмирцы в текстах, но имя «Забдибел» является пальмирским именем, что приводит к выводу, что шейх был родом из Пальмиры. [204] После битвы при Эдессе в 260 г. н. э. пленение Валериана сасанидским царем Шапуром I стало значительным ударом для Рима и сделало империю уязвимой для дальнейших атак. Зенобия смогла захватить большую часть Ближнего Востока, включая Египет и части Малой Азии. Однако их империя была недолговечной, так как Аврелиан смог победить пальмирцев и вернуть утраченные территории. Пальмирцам помогали их арабские союзники, но Аврелиан также смог использовать свои собственные союзы, чтобы победить Зенобию и ее армию. В конечном итоге Пальмирская империя просуществовала всего несколько лет, но она оказала значительное влияние на историю Римской империи и Ближнего Востока.
Большинство ученых идентифицируют итуреев как арабский народ, населявший регион Итурея, [205] [206] [207] [208] ставший заметной силой в регионе после упадка империи Селевкидов во II веке до н. э., со своей базы вокруг Ливанской горы и долины Бекаа они стали доминировать на обширных участках сирийской территории , [209] и, по-видимому, проникли в северные части Палестины вплоть до Галилеи . [83] Танухиды были арабской племенной конфедерацией , которая жила в центральной и восточной части Аравийского полуострова в позднедревний и раннесредневековый периоды. Как упоминалось ранее, они были ветвью племени Рабиа , которое было одним из крупнейших арабских племен в доисламский период. Они были известны своей военной доблестью и сыграли значительную роль в ранний исламский период, сражаясь в битвах против Византийской и Сасанидской империй и способствуя расширению Арабской империи. [210]
Арабы Осроены , также известные как Абгариды , [211] [212] [213] владели городом Эдесса на древнем Ближнем Востоке в течение значительного периода времени. Эдесса находилась в регионе Осроена, который был древним королевством, существовавшим со 2-го века до н. э. по 3-й век н. э. Они основали династию, известную как Абгариды, которая правила Эдессой в течение нескольких столетий. Самым известным правителем династии был Абгар V , который, как говорят, переписывался с Иисусом Христом и, как полагают, обратился в христианство . [214] Абгариды сыграли важную роль в ранней истории христианства в регионе, и Эдесса стала центром христианского обучения и учености . [215] Королевство Хатра было древним городом, расположенным в регионе Месопотамия , оно было основано во 2-м или 3-м веке до н. э. и процветало как крупный центр торговли и культуры во времена Парфянской империи . Правители Хатры были известны как династия Аршакидов, которая была ветвью парфянской правящей семьи. Однако во 2-м веке н. э. арабское племя Бану Танух захватило контроль над Хатрой и основало свою собственную династию. Арабские правители Хатры приняли титул «малка», что означает царь на арабском языке, и они часто называли себя «царем арабов». [216]
Осроены и Хатраны были частью нескольких арабских групп или общин в верхней Месопотамии, которые также включали арабов Адиабены , которая была древним царством в северной Месопотамии , ее главным городом была Арбела ( Арба-илу ), где у Мар Укбы была школа, или соседний Хаззах, под этим названием поздние арабы также называли Арбелу. [217] [218] Это тщательно продуманное арабское присутствие в верхней Месопотамии было признано Сасанидами , которые называли этот регион Арбайистан , что означает «земля арабов», впервые засвидетельствовано как провинция в надписи Кааба-йе Зартошт второго сасанидского царя царей ( шаханшаха ) Шапура I ( правил в 240–270 гг . ), [219] которая была возведена в ок. 262. [220] [86] Эмесены были династией арабских жрецов-царей, которые правили городом Эмеса (современный Хомс , Сирия) в римской провинции Сирия с I века н. э. по III век н. э . Династия примечательна тем, что произвела ряд верховных жрецов бога Эль-Габала , которые также оказали влияние на римскую политику и культуру. Первым правителем династии Эмесен был Сампсицерам I , пришедший к власти в 64 году н. э. Его сменил его сын Ямвлих , за которым последовал его собственный сын Сампсицерам II . При Сампсицераме II Эмеса стала королевством-клиентом Римской империи , и династия стала более тесно связана с римскими политическими и культурными традициями. [221]
Гассаниды , Лахмиды и Киндиты были последней крупной миграцией доисламских арабов из Йемена на север. Гассаниды увеличили семитское присутствие в тогдашней эллинизированной Сирии , большинство семитов были арамейскими народами. Они в основном поселились в регионе Хауран и распространились в современный Ливан , Палестину и Иорданию . Греки и римляне называли все кочевое население пустыни на Ближнем Востоке Arabi. Римляне называли Йемен « Arabia Felix ». [222] Римляне называли вассальные кочевые государства в пределах Римской империи Arabia Petraea , по названию города Петра , и называли непокоренные пустыни, граничащие с империей на юге и востоке Arabia Magna .
Лахмиды как династия унаследовали свою власть от Танухидов , региона среднего Тигра вокруг их столицы Аль-Хира . В конечном итоге они объединились с Сасанидами против Гассанидов и Византийской империи . Лахмиды оспаривали контроль над центральноаравийскими племенами с Киндитами, и Лахмиды в конечном итоге уничтожили королевство Кинда в 540 году после падения их главного союзника Химьяра . Персидские Сасаниды распустили династию Лахмидов в 602 году, оказавшись под властью марионеточных царей, а затем под их прямым контролем. [223] Киндиты мигрировали из Йемена вместе с Гассанидами и Лахмидами, но были возвращены в Бахрейн племенем Абдул Кайс Рабиа . Они вернулись в Йемен и объединились с химьяритами, которые сделали их вассальным королевством, правившим Центральной Аравией из «Карья Дхат Кахль» (современное название Карьят аль-Фау). Они правили большей частью Северного/Центрального Аравийского полуострова, пока не были уничтожены королем Лахмидов Аль-Мундиром и его сыном Амром .
Гассаниды были арабским племенем в Леванте в начале третьего века. Согласно арабской генеалогической традиции, они считались ветвью племени Азд . Они сражались вместе с византийцами против Сасанидов и арабских Лахмидов. Большинство Гассанидов были христианами, принявшими христианство в первые несколько веков, а некоторые слились с эллинизированными христианскими общинами. После мусульманского завоевания Леванта немногие Гассаниды стали мусульманами, и большинство остались христианами и присоединились к мелькитским и сирийским общинам на территории нынешних Иордании, Палестины, Сирии и Ливана. [224] Салихиды были арабскими федератами в V веке, были ревностными христианами, и их период менее задокументирован , чем предшествующие и последующие периоды из-за нехватки источников. Большинство ссылок на Салихидов в арабских источниках взяты из работы Хишама ибн аль-Кальби , при этом Тарих Якуби считается ценным для определения падения Салихидов и условий их войны с византийцами. [225]
В средние века арабская цивилизация процветала, и арабы внесли значительный вклад в области науки , математики , медицины , философии и литературы , с возникновением таких крупных городов, как Багдад , Каир и Кордова , они стали центрами обучения, привлекая ученых, естествоиспытателей и интеллектуалов. [226] [227] Арабы создали множество империй и династий, в частности, империю Рашидунов, империю Омейядов, империю Аббасидов, империю Фатимидов и другие. Эти империи характеризовались своей экспансией, научными достижениями и культурным расцветом, простиравшимися от Испании до Индии . [226] Регион был ярким и динамичным в средние века и оставил неизгладимое влияние на мир. [227]
The rise of Islam began when Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in an event known as the Hijra. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.[228] During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of Basra, and under the leadership of Umar, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was Midian, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to Kufa. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of Uthman, the Arab empire expanded through the conquest of Persia, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of Khorasan in 651.[229] The conquest of Armenia also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire Sassanid Empire and more than two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by the First Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with Hassan ibn Ali and the suppression of early Kharijite disturbances, Muawiyah I became the Caliph.[230] This marked a significant transition in leadership.[229][231]
After the death of Muhammad in 632, Rashidun armies launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the Caliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire Tanukhids of Queen Mawia or the Arab Palmyrene Empire. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the Himyarite, Lakhmids or Ghassanids.
During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.[232] These caliphs are Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.[232][233]
Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a rebellion by some tribes who refused to pay Zakat, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.[232] Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history, the caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized justice and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.[234]
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the Umayyad dynasty and Damascus was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at Ramla, Raqqa, Basra, Kufa, Mosul and Samarra, all of which developed into major cities.[235] Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.[236] Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the disparity, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to Baghdad.
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including Punics, Vandals and Romans. After the Abbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.
Their last holding became known as the Emirate of Córdoba. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the Caliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture and the library of Al-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, Al-Andalus was divided into small kingdoms.[237]
The Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the Battle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.[235] The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city of Baghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "House of Wisdom" (Arabic: بيت الحكمة) in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[238] The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when Wilayas began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the Mongols, who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the Caliph Al-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the Mamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.
The Fatimid caliphate was founded by al-Mahdi Billah, a descendant of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in Cairo, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, and Palestine. The Fatimid state took shape among the Kutama, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to Al-Mansuriya, near Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the Islamic world. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the Al-Azhar Mosque and Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the Ayyubid dynasty, led by Saladin. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.[239]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of Marj Dabiq and Ridaniya. They entered the Levant and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the Young Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.[240] However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.[241]
The Arab Revolt was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by Sherif Hussein bin Ali, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.[242][243] The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I, the Sykes–Picot Agreement had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.[244]
The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.[245][246][247] The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Siege of Baghdad in 1258.[248] During this time, Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the Renaissance.[249]
The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with Europe, including translations of Arabic texts.[250] These translations had a significant impact on culture of Europe, leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, agriculture, alchemy, music, and pottery, and traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such as sugar, camphor, cotton, coffee, etc.[251][252][253][254]
From the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably Averroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia, most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.[255]
During the Timurid Renaissance spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.[256] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Arab Renaissance, also known as the Nahda, was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.[257][258][259]
The modern period in Arab history refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the Arab world experienced significant political, economic, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new nation-states in the Arab world.[260][261]
Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the Allies in World War I, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the independence of the Hejaz and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.[262]
Arab nationalism emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.[264] This movement gained momentum after World War II, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. Pan-Arabism that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single nation or state. It emphasized on a shared ancestry, culture, history, language and identity and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.[265][266]
The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the Arab Renaissance or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, Gamal Abdel Nasser, who led the 1952 revolution in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of Arab socialism, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other Arab leaders, such as Hafiz al-Assad, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Faisal I of Iraq, Muammar Gaddafi, Saddam Hussein, Gaafar Nimeiry and Anwar Sadat.[267]
Many proposed unions aimed to create a unified Arab entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.[268] The United Arab Republic (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the Arab Republic of Egypt. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the Arab Federation, was established between Jordan and Iraq, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the 14 July Revolution. A confederation called the United Arab States, which included the UAR and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.[269] Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the Federation of Arab Republics, which was formed by Egypt, Libya, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the Arab Islamic Republic with Tunisia, aiming to include Algeria and Morocco,[270] instead the Arab Maghreb Union was formed in 1989.[271]
During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The Arab-Israeli conflict remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of globalization.[272] The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.[273]
Arab identity is defined independently of religious identity, and pre-dates the spread of Islam, with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jewish tribes. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely Christianity, but also Druze and Baháʼí.[274][275] Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in the Arab world when it comes to membership into an ethnic group or clan.[276]
Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions.[277] Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall of empires, colonization, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.[278] Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved by communities around the world.[279]
Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.[280][278][281]
The Arabs of the Levant are traditionally divided into Qays and Yaman tribes. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they include Banu Kalb, Kinda, Ghassanids, and Lakhmids.[282] The Qays were made up of tribes such as Banu Kilab, Banu Tayy, Banu Hanifa, and Banu Tamim, among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such as Banu Hashim, Banu Makhzum, Banu Umayya, and Banu Zuhra, among others.
There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before the Arab conquest of Persia in 633 CE.[283] The largest group of Iranian Arabs are the Ahwazi Arabs, including Banu Ka'b, Bani Turuf and the Musha'sha'iyyah sect. Smaller groups are the Khamseh nomads in Fars Province and the Arabs in Khorasan. As a result of the centuries-long Arab migration to the Maghreb, various Arab tribes (including Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym and Maqil) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. The Banu Hilal spent almost a century in Egypt before moving to Libya, Tunisia and Algeria, and another century later moved to Morocco.[284]
According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.[285][286][287][288][289]
They are:[287]
The total number of Arabs living in the Arab nations is estimated at 366 million by the CIA Factbook (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast.
Arab diaspora refers to descendants of the Arab immigrants who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily in East Africa, South America, Europe, North America, Australia and parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and West Africa. According to the International Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.[299] The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in West Africa is the largest non-African group in the region.[300][301] Arab traders have long operated in Southeast Asia and along the East Africa's Swahili coast. Zanzibar was once ruled by Omani Arabs.[302] Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Arabia in the Hadramawt coastal region.[303]
There are millions of Arabs living in Europe, mostly concentrated in France (about 6,000,000 in 2005[304]). Most Arabs in France are from the Maghreb but some also come from the Mashreq areas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largest ethnic group after French people.[305] In Italy, Arabs first arrived on the southern island of Sicily in the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population.[306] The modern Arab population of Spain numbers 1,800,000,[307][308][309][310] and there have been Arabs in Spain since the early 8th century when the Muslim conquest of Hispania created the state of Al-Andalus.[311][312][313] Arabs In Germany the Arab population numbers over 1,401,950.[314][315] in the United Kingdom between 366,769[316] and 500,000,[317] and in Greece between 250,000 and 750,000[318]). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g. refugees of the Syrian civil war).[319] In the Netherlands 180,000,[38] and in Denmark 121,000. Other countries are also home to Arab populations, including Norway, Austria, Bulgaria, Switzerland, North Macedonia, Romania and Serbia.[320] As of late 2015, Turkey had a total population of 78.7 million, with Syrian refugees accounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000[321] to 2,000,000 Arab residents,[12] Turkey's Arab population is now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.[12][322]
Arab immigration to the United States began in larger numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 3.7 million Americans have some Arabic background.[14][323][324] Arab Americans are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live in Los Angeles, Detroit, and New York City specifically.[14][325] Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.[326][327][328][329]
Arabs immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Their immigration was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.[330] According to the website "Who are Arab Canadians", Montreal, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.[331]
Latin America has the largest Arab population outside of the Arab World.[332] Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world.[333][334] The Brazilian and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million Brazilians of Lebanese descent.[335][336] Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million Brazilians of Syrian descent.[335][7][337][338][339][340] Other large Arab communities includes Argentina (about 3,500,000[15][341][342])
The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity.[343] Colombia (over 3,200,000[344][345][346]), Venezuela (over 1,600,000),[25][347] Mexico (over 1,100,000),[348] Chile (over 800,000),[349][350][351] and Central America, particularly El Salvador, and Honduras (between 150,000 and 200,000).[352][31][32] Arab Haitians (257,000[353]) a large number of whom live in the capital are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses.[354]
In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated the Caspian shores of Mughan (in present-day Azerbaijan) and spoke a mixed Turkic-Arabic language.[355] It is believed that these groups migrated to the South Caucasus in the 16th century.[356] The 1888 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire.[357] They retained an Arabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century,[358] there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab (for example, Arabgadim, Arabojaghy, Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the South Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in Dagestan. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west of Derbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.[356] Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic Turkicisation, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azeri village.[359][360]
According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region, leaving only the locals.[361] However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example, Tajiks, Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such as Sayyid, Khoja or Siddiqui.[362]
There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, the Chaush of the Deccan region and the Chavuse of Gujarat.[364][365] These groups are largely descended from Hadhrami migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration to Eastern Arabia and thus a re-adoption of Arabic.[366] In South Asia, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following the Shafi'i madhab (in contrast to other South Asian Muslims who follow the Hanafi madhab) claim descent from Arab traders like the Konkani Muslims of the Konkan region, the Mappilla of Kerala, and the Labbai and Marakkar of Tamil Nadu and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state of Kerala.[367] South Asian Iraqi biradri may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. The Sri Lankan Moors are the third largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, constituting 9.23% of the country's total population.[368] Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri Lankan Moors to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.[369][370][371] There are about 118,866 Arab-Indonesians[372] of Hadrami descent in the 2010 Indonesian census.[373]
Afro-Arabs are individuals and groups from Africa who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit the Swahili Coast in the African Great Lakes region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.[374][375] Large numbers of Arabs migrated to West Africa, particularly Côte d'Ivoire (home to over 100,000 Lebanese),[376] Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese),[377] Sierra Leone (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak of civil war in 1991), Liberia, and Nigeria.[378] Since the end of the civil war in 2002, Lebanese traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.[379][380][381] The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called the Baggara grouping of Arab ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa's Sahel. There are 171,000 in Cameroon, 150,000 in Niger[382]), and 107,000 in the Central African Republic.[383]
Arabs are mostly Muslims with a Sunni majority and a Shia minority, one exception being the Ibadis, who predominate in Oman.[384] Arab Christians generally follow Eastern Churches such as the Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches, though a minority of Protestant Church followers also exists.[385] There are also Arab communities consisting of Druze and Baháʼís.[386][387] Historically, there were also sizeable populations of Arab Jews around the Arab World.
Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, including Hubal,[388] Wadd, Allāt,[389] Manat, and Uzza. A few individuals, the hanifs, had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the Ghassanid and Lakhmid kingdoms.[390] When the Himyarite king converted to Judaism in the late 4th century,[391] the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the Kindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly Islamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.[392][393]
Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in Bahrain and southern Iraq while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist in Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,[394] northern Syria and Al-Batinah Region in Oman. There are small numbers of Ibadi and non-denominational Muslims too.[384] The Druze community is concentrated in Levant.[395]
Christianity had a prominent presence In pre-Islamic Arabia among several Arab communities, including the Bahrani people of Eastern Arabia, the Christian community of Najran, in parts of Yemen, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as the Ghassanids, Lakhmids, Taghlib, Banu Amela, Banu Judham, Tanukhids and Tayy. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known as Arabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."[396] Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.[397] In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.[398] In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.[399] Christians in Palestine make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.[400][401] In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.[402]
In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).[403] Arab Christians make up 8% of the population of Jordan.[404] Most North and South American Arabs are Christian,[405] so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community is Saint Abo, martyr and the patron saint of Tbilisi, Georgia.[406] Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such as Nazareth, Bethlehem and the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem and many other villages with holy Christian sites.
Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout their history and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to the ethnogenesis and formation of modern Arab culture. Language, literature, gastronomy, art, architecture, music, spirituality, philosophy and mysticism are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.[407]
Arabic is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic Family.[408] The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as a lingua franca for more than 500 million people. It is also a liturgical language for 1.7 billion Muslims.[409][410] Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations,[411] and is revered in Islam as the language of the Quran.[409][412]
Arabic has two main registers. Classical Arabic is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects of Arab tribes. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,[413] while the lexis and stylistics of Modern Standard Arabic are different from Classical Arabic. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.[414]
Arabic mythology comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.[415][416]
The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology are Bahamut, Dandan, Falak, Ghoul, Hinn, Jinn, Karkadann, Marid, Nasnas, Qareen, Roc, Shadhavar, Werehyena and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly polytheistic environment of pre-Islamic.[417]
The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is the Jinn or genie.[418] Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.[419][420] They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. The jinn, humans, and angels make up the known sapient creations of God.[421]
Ghouls also feature in the mythology as a monster or evil spirit associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.[422][423] In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retained donkey's hooves.[424]
The Quran, the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[425][426] As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.[425]
Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 suwar (chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat (verses). It contains injunctions, narratives, homilies, parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in An-Nahl, the 16th surah.
Al-Jahiz (born 776, in Basra – December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature, Mu'tazili theology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, including Arabic grammar, zoology, poetry, lexicography, and rhetoric. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguist Ibn Maḍāʾ took up the matter two hundred years later.[427]
There is a small remnant of pre-Islamic poetry, but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in the Middle Ages, during the Golden Age of Islam.[428] Imru' al-Qais was a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king of Kindite. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father of Arabic poetry.[429] Kitab al-Aghani by Abul-Faraj was called by the 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun the register of the Arabs.[430] Literary Arabic is derived from Classical Arabic, based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed by Arabic grammarians beginning in the 8th century.[431]
A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj or rhymed prose.[432] The ghazal or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.[433] In the Sufi tradition the love poem would take on a wider, mystical and religious importance.
Arabic epic literature was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so. Maqama or rhymed prose is intermediate between poetry and prose, and also between fiction and non-fiction.[434] Maqama was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.[435]
Arabic literature and culture declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit of Turkish and Persian. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongside resistance against Ottoman rule. The literary revival is known as al-Nahda in Arabic, and was centered in Egypt and Lebanon. Two distinct trends can be found in the nahda period of revival.[436]
The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the maqama—and works like One Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.[437] A tradition of modern Arabic poetry was established by writers such as Francis Marrash, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim. Iraqi poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab is considered to be the originator of free verse in Arabic poetry.[438][439][440]
Arab cuisine is largely divided into Khaleeji cuisine, Levantine cuisine and Maghrebi cuisine.[441] Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, including Ottoman, Persian, and Andalusian.
It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, including cumin, coriander, cinnamon, sumac, za'atar, cardamom, mint, saffron, sesame, thyme turmeric and parsley.[442][443] Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such as Knafeh, Baklava, Halva, and Qatayef. Arabic coffee, or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates.
Arabic art has taken various forms, including, among other things, jewelry, textiles and architecture.[444][445] Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorful Arabic calligraphy, with one notable and widely used example being Kufic script.[446] Arabic miniatures (Arabic: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة, Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are small paintings on paper, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several Arab caliphates.
Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the Ottoman occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (Persian miniatures, Ottoman miniatures and Mughal miniatures) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.[447][448][449][450][451]
Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early Umayyad Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include Ismail al-Jazari, who illustrated his own Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.[452]
The Abbasid artist, Yahya Al-Wasiti, who probably lived in Baghdad in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the book Maqamat (also known as the Assemblies or the Sessions), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by Al-Hariri of Basra.[453] The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.[454]
With most surviving Arabic manuscripts in western museums,[455] Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.[456] Arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,[457] often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".[458] It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.[459][460]
The Arab world is home to around 8%[461] of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states). The oldest examples of architecture include those of pre-Islamic Arabia,[462] as well as Nabataean architecture that developed in the ancient kingdom of the Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of the Middle East from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[463][464] The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city of Petra, which is located in modern-day Jordan, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.[465]
Prior to the start of the Arab conquests, Arab tribal client states, the Lakhmids and Ghassanids, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.[466][467] They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.[468][469]
The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.[470][471]
Arabic music, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.[473] Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE. Arab poets of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.[474] It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.[474] By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout France, influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. The English words lute, rebec, and naker are derived from Arabic oud, rabab, and naqareh.[475][476]
A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the Oud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from the Maghreb rebab, the guitar from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian Tar, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,[477] the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,[478] the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),[479] the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,[480] the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,[481] geige (violin) from ghichak,[482] and the theorbo from the tarab.[483]
During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artists Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, and Shadia along with composers Mohamed Abd al-Wahab and Baligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Lydia Canaan, musical pioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of the Middle East[484][485]
Arab polytheism was the dominant religion in pre-Islamic Arabia. Gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-'Uzzá and Manāt, were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion.[486][487][488] Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.[489] Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.[490] Although significant Jewish and Christian minorities developed, polytheism remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.[491]
The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic bedouin were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as Mecca.[492] Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included fetishism, totemism and veneration of the dead but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger philosophical questions such as the afterlife.[492] Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complex pantheon of deities.[492] While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of the Hejaz worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.[493]
Most notable Arab gods and goddesses: 'Amm, A'ra, Abgal, Allah, Al-Lat, Al-Qaum, Almaqah, Anbay, ʿAṯtar, Basamum, Dhu l-Khalasa, Dushara, Haukim, Hubal, Isāf and Nā'ila, Manaf, Manāt, Nasr, Nuha, Quzah, Ruda, Sa'd, Shams, Samas, Syn, Suwa', Ta'lab, Theandrios, al-‘Uzzá, Wadd, Ya'uq, Yaghūth, Yatha, Aglibol, Astarte, Atargatis, Baalshamin, Bēl, Bes, Ēl, Ilāh, Inanna/Ishtar, Malakbel, Nabū, Nebo, Nergal, Yarhibol.
The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic Philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought include Avicennism and Averroism. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to be al-Kindi (801–873 A.D.), a Neo-Platonic philosopher, mathematician and scientist who lived in Kufa and Baghdad (modern day Iraq). After being appointed by the Abbasid Caliphs to translate Greek scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic, he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from metaphysics and ethics to mathematics and pharmacology.[494]
Much of his philosophical output focuses on theological subjects such as the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medieval Scholasticism in Europe. The Arabic tradition combines Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabs al-Farabi and Avicenna. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed by Moses Maimonides and Ibn Khaldun.[495][496]
Arabic science underwent considerable development during the Middle Ages (8th to 13th centuries CE), a source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was Arabic. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the Muslim world. These accomplishments occurred after Muhammad united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.[497]
Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to North Africa to Central Asia and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; al-Andalus was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in Baghdad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the Islamic world during a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (~750 to 1258 CE).[498]
This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,[499] and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.[500] The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the ulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields of Sharia law, speculative thought and theology.[501] Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.[502] These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.[502] Other subjects of scientific inquiry included physics, alchemy and chemistry, cosmology, ophthalmology, geography and cartography, sociology, and psychology.[503]
Al-Battani was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the Islamic Golden Age. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.[504] In mathematics, al-Battānī produced a number of trigonometrical relationships.[504] Al-Zahrawi, regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages.[505] His surgical treatise "De chirurgia" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.[506] The book helped lay the foundation to establish surgery as a scientific discipline independent from medicine, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.[507]
Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of organic chemistry by Jābir ibn Hayyān,[508] establishing the science of cryptology and cryptanalysis by al-Kindi,[509][510][511] the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham,[512][513] who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",[514] the discovery of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn al-Nafis,[515][516] the discovery of the itch mite parasite by Ibn Zuhr,[517][page needed] the first use of irrational numbers as an algebraic objects by Abū Kāmil,[518] the first use of the positional decimal fractions by al-Uqlidisi,[519][520] the development of the Arabic numerals and an early algebraic symbolism in the Maghreb,[521][522] the Thabit number and Thābit theorem by Thābit ibn Qurra,[523] the discovery of several new trigonometric identities by Ibn Yunus and al-Battani,[524][525] the mathematical proof for Ceva's theorem by Ibn Hűd,[526] the invention of the equatorium by al-Zarqali,[527] the discovery of the physical reaction by Avempace,[528] the identification of more than 200 new plants by Ibn al-Baitar[529] the Arab Agricultural Revolution, and the Tabula Rogeriana, which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by al-Idrisi.[530]
Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the University of Al Quaraouiyine, Al Azhar University, and Al Zaytuna University are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by Fatima al Fihri in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fez is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records[531][532] and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.[533]
There are many scientific Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French.[534] This includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, alcohol, alkali, cipher, zenith, etc.
Under Ottoman rule, cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include Ahmed Zewail and Elias Corey (Nobel Prize), Michael DeBakey and Alim Benabid (Lasker Award), Omar M. Yaghi (Wolf Prize), Huda Zoghbi (Shaw Prize), Zaha Hadid (Pritzker Prize), and Michael Atiyah (both Fields Medal and Abel Prize). Rachid Yazami was one of the co-inventors of the lithium-ion battery,[535] and Tony Fadell was important in the development of the iPod and the iPhone.[536]
Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancient Arabic poetry and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In the early Arabic period, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.[537][538]
During the Islamic Golden Age in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of Baghdad emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.[539]
Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role of women in Arab society, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.[540]
Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxurious fabrics and intricate embroidery. Traditional garments, such as the Abaya and Thobe, are often made from high-quality fabrics like silk, satin, brocade, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.[541] In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers like Elie Saab, Zuhair Murad, and Reem Acra showcasing their designs on international runways.[542]
These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometric patterns, calligraphy, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.[543] Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and the arabesque, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.[544]
Arabic weddings have changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-day Bedouin weddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice of marrying of relatives is a common feature of Arab culture.[545]
In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages are consanguineous or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.[546][547] In Egypt, around 40% of the population marry a cousin. A 1992 survey in Jordan found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.[548] 67% of marriages in Saudi Arabia are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in Kuwait, whereas 18% of all Lebanese were between blood relatives.[549] Due to the actions of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in Islam and the Quran itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.[550] Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the phenomenon should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between Christian Arabs or Muslim Arabs when comparing the occurrence of consanguinity.[549]
Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.[551][552] Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist across northeastern Africa with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along the Nile river valley across Sudan and South Sudan the more they go south.[553] This genetic cline of admixture is dated to the time of Arab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb and northeast Africa.[553] Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs and Jews share common genetic ancestry and are closely related.[554][555][556][557][558][559][560][561] According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established by Out of Africa migrations. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.[562]
According to estimates by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), countersigned by the League of Arab States, Brazil has the largest Arab colony outside their countries of origin. There are estimated 15 million Arabs living in Brazil today, with some researchers suggesting numbers around 20 million.
there are, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than sixteen million Arabs and descendants of Arabs in Brazil, constituting the largest community of Arabs descent outside the Middle East.
Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent, primarily of Lebanese, Syrian, Iraqi and Palestinian heritage.
{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Origen, in the third century, was the first Christian to identify the Ishmaelites with the Arabs, but he only does so in a cursory fashion
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)ISHMAEL, or, in Hebrew, Yishmaʿeʾl; eldest son of Abraham. Ishmael's mother was Agar, an Egyptian slave-girl whom Sarah had as her maid and eventually donated to Abraham because this royal couple were aged and childless but they were unaware then of God's plan and Israel; in accordance with Mesopotamian law, the offspring of such a union would be credited to Sarah (Gn. 16:2). The name Yishmaʿeʾl is known from various ancient Semitic cultures and means "God has hearkened," suggesting that a child so named was regarded as the answer to a request. Ishmael was circumcised at the age of thirteen by Abraham and expelled with his mother Agar at the instigation of Sarah, Abraham's wife, who wanted to ensure that Isaac would be Abraham's heir (Gn. 21). In the New Testament, Paul uses this incident to symbolize the relationship between Judaism and Christianity (Gal. 4:21–31). In the Genesis account, God blessed Ishmael, promising that he would be the founder of a great nation and a "wild ass of a man" always at odds with others (Gn. 16:12). So Abraham rose up in the morning, and taking bread and a bottle of water, put it upon her shoulder, and delivered the boy, and sent her away. And she departed, and wandered in the wilderness of Bersabee. [15] And when the water in the bottle was spent, she cast the boy under one of the trees that were there. Genesis chapter 21: [16] And she went her way, and sat over against him a great way off as far as a bow can carry, for she said: I will not see the boy die: and sitting over against, she lifted up her voice and wept. [17] And God heard the voice of the boy: and an angel of God called to Agar from heaven, saying: What art thou doing, Agar? fear not: for God hath heard the voice of the boy, from the place wherein he is. [18] Arise, take up the boy, and hold him by the hand: for I will make him a great nation. [19] And God opened her eyes: and she saw a well of water, and went and filled the bottle, and gave the boy to drink. [20] And God was with him: and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, and became a young man, an archer. [21] And he dwelt in the wilderness of Pharan, and his mother took a wife for him out of the land of Egypt. [22] At the same time Abimelech, and Phicol the general of his army said to Abraham: God is with thee in all that thou dost. [23] Swear therefore by God, that thou wilt not hurt me, nor my posterity, nor my stock: but according to the kindness that I have done to thee, thou shalt do to me, and to the land wherein thou hast lived a stranger. [24] And Abraham said: I will swear. [25] And he reproved Abimelech for a well of water, which his servants had taken away by force. [26] And Abimelech answered: I knew not who did this thing: and thou didst not tell me, and I heard not of it till today. [27] And Abraham took sheep and oxen and gave them to Abimelech: and both of them made a league. [28] And Abraham set apart seven ewe lambs of the flock. [29] And Abimelech said to him: What mean these seven ewe lambs which thou hast set apart? [30] But he said: Thou shalt take seven ewe lambs at my hand: that they may be a testimony for me, that I dug this well. [31] Therefore that place was called Bersabee: because there both of them did swear. [32] And they made a league for the well of oath. [33] And Abimelech, and Phicol the general of his army arose and returned to the land of the Palestines. But Abraham planted a grove in Bersabee, and there called upon the name of the Lord God eternal. [34] And he was a sojourner in the land of the Palestines many days. [Genesis 21:1–34]Douay Rheims Bible. He is credited with twelve sons, described as "princes according to their tribes" (Gn. 25:16), representing perhaps an ancient confederacy. The Ishmaelites, vagrant traders closely related to the Midianites, were apparently regarded as his descendants. The fact that Ishmael's wife and mother are both said to have been Egyptian suggests close ties between the Ishmaelites and Egypt. According to Genesis 25:17, Ishmael lived to the age of 137. Islamic tradition tends to ascribe a larger role to Ishmael than does the Bible. He is considered a prophet and, according to certain theologians, the offspring whom Abraham was commanded to sacrifice (although surah Judaism has generally regarded him as wicked, although repentance is also ascribed to him. According to some rabbinic traditions, his two wives were Aisha and Fatima, whose names are the same as those of Muhammad's wife and daughter Both Judaism and Islam see him as the ancestor of Arab peoples. Bibliography A survey of the Bible's patriarchal narratives can be found in Nahum M. Sarna's Understanding Genesis (New York, 1966). Postbiblical traditions, with reference to Christian and Islamic views, are collected in Louis Ginzberg's exhaustive Legends of the Jews, 2d ed., 2 vols., translated by Henrietta Szold and Paul Radin (Philadelphia, 2003). Frederick E. Greenspahn (1987 and 2005)
{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)king of kedar (Qedarites) is named alternatively as king of Ishmaelites and king of Arabs in Assyrian Inscriptions
Assyrian records document Ishmaelites as Qedarites and as Arabs
{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help){{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)Cryptology was born among the Arabs. They were the first to discover and write down the methods of cryptoanalysis.
Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.
Historian J. L. Berggren, for example, concludes that while the Hindus were the first to use a "cipherized, decimal positional system", the Arabs pioneered in extending this system to "represent parts of the unit by decimal fractions".
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992)... Thus, our findings are in good agreement with the historical record...
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