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Африка

Размеры Африки по сравнению с другими континентами

Африка является вторым по величине и вторым по численности населения континентом в мире после Азии . Приблизительно 30,3 млн км 2 (11,7 млн ​​квадратных миль), включая прилегающие острова, она охватывает 20% площади суши Земли и 6% от ее общей площади поверхности. [9] С почти 1,4 миллиарда человек по состоянию на 2021 год, она составляет около 18% от населения мира . Население Африки является самым молодым среди всех континентов; [10] [11] медианный возраст в 2012 году составлял 19,7 лет, тогда как медианный возраст в мире составлял 30,4 года. [ 12 ] Несмотря на широкий спектр природных ресурсов , Африка является наименее богатым континентом на душу населения и вторым наименее богатым по общему богатству, опережая Океанию . Ученые приписывают это различным факторам, включая географию , климат , [13] коррупцию , [13] колониализм , холодную войну , [14] [15] и неоколониализм . Несмотря на эту низкую концентрацию богатства, недавний экономический рост и большое и молодое население делают Африку важным экономическим рынком в более широком глобальном контексте. Африка обладает большим количеством природных ресурсов и продовольственных ресурсов, включая алмазы , сахар , соль , золото , железо , кобальт , уран , медь , бокситы , серебро , нефть , природный газ , какао-бобы и тропические фрукты .

Континент окружен Средиземным морем на севере, Аравийской плитой и заливом Акаба на северо-востоке, Индийским океаном на юго-востоке и Атлантическим океаном на западе. Континент включает Мадагаскар и различные архипелаги . Он содержит 54 полностью признанных суверенных государства , восемь городов и островов, которые являются частью неафриканских государств , и два фактически независимых государства с ограниченным или нулевым признанием . Это число не включает Мальту и Сицилию , которые геологически являются частью африканского континента. Алжир является крупнейшей страной Африки по площади, а Нигерия - крупнейшей по численности населения. Африканские страны сотрудничают посредством создания Африканского союза , штаб-квартира которого находится в Аддис-Абебе .

Африка расположена по обе стороны экватора и нулевого меридиана . Это единственный континент, простирающийся от северного умеренного до южного умеренного пояса. [16] Большая часть континента и его стран находятся в Северном полушарии , а значительная часть и ряд стран — в Южном полушарии . Большая часть континента лежит в тропиках, за исключением большой части Западной Сахары , Алжира , Ливии и Египта , северной оконечности Мавритании и всех территорий Марокко , Сеуты , Мелильи и Туниса , которые, в свою очередь, расположены выше тропика Рака , в северном умеренном поясе . На другом конце континента, южная Намибия , южная Ботсвана , большие части Южной Африки , все территории Лесото и Эсватини и южные оконечности Мозамбика и Мадагаскара расположены ниже тропика Козерога , в южном умеренном поясе .

Африка отличается высоким биологическим разнообразием ; [17] это континент с наибольшим количеством видов мегафауны , поскольку он меньше всего пострадал от вымирания мегафауны плейстоцена . Однако Африка также сильно страдает от широкого спектра экологических проблем , включая опустынивание, вырубку лесов, нехватку воды и загрязнение . Ожидается, что эти укоренившиеся экологические проблемы ухудшатся по мере того, как изменение климата влияет на Африку . Межправительственная группа экспертов ООН по изменению климата определила Африку как континент, наиболее уязвимый к изменению климата . [18] [19]

История Африки длинная, сложная и разнообразная, и часто недооценивалась мировым историческим сообществом . [20] В африканских обществах исторический процесс в значительной степени является коллективным , с рассказами очевидцев, слухами, воспоминаниями и иногда видениями , снами и галлюцинациями, оформленными в устные традиции и сохраняемыми в устной форме. [21] : 12  [22] : 48  Истина, как правило, рассматривается как относительное . [23] Африка, особенно Восточная Африка , широко признана местом происхождения людей и клады гоминидов , также известных как человекообразные обезьяны . Древнейшие гоминиды и их предки датируются примерно 7 миллионами лет назад, включая Sahelanthropus , Australopithecus africanus , A. afarensis , Homo erectus , H. habilis и H. ergaster ; самые ранние останки Homo sapiens (современного человека), найденные в Эфиопии , Южной Африке и Марокко , датируются примерно 233 000, 259 000 и 300 000 лет назад соответственно; считается, что Homo sapiens возник в Африке примерно 350 000–260 000 лет назад. [a] Африка также считается антропологами самым генетически разнообразным континентом, поскольку он дольше всего заселен. [30] [31] [32]

Цивилизации, такие как Древний Египет , Керма , Пунт и традиция Тишитта , возникли в Северной , Восточной и Западной Африке в 4-м и 3-м тысячелетиях до н. э., в то время как экспансия банту с 4000 г. до н. э. до 1000 г. н. э. сыграла существенную роль в закладывании основ для обществ и государств в Центральной , Восточной и Южной Африке . Затем последовала сложная историческая мозаика цивилизаций, королевств и империй . Многие империи достигли гегемонии в своих регионах, таких как Гана , Мали , Сонгай , Бамана/Сегу , Массина , Сокото и Тукулёр в Западной Африке; Древний Египет , Куш , Карфаген , Фатимиды , Альморавиды , Альмохады , Айюбиды и мамлюки в Северной Африке; Аксум , Эфиопия , Адал , Китара , Килва и Имерина в Восточной Африке; Канем-Борну , Конго , Луба , Лунда и Утетера в Центральной Африке; и Мапунгубве , Зимбабве , Мутапа , Розви , Марави , Мтвакази и Зулу в Южной Африке. В Африке рабство было исторически широко распространено, и внутренние рынки рабов использовались для подпитки экспортной работорговли , создавая различные диаспоры , особенно в Америке . С конца 19-го века до начала 20-го века, движимая Второй промышленной революцией , Африка была быстро завоевана и колонизирована европейскими странами , достигнув точки, когда только Эфиопия и Либерия были независимыми государствами. [33] Европейское правление оказало значительное влияние на африканские общества , и подавление общинной автономии нарушило традиционные местные обычаии вызвали необратимую трансформацию социально-экономических систем Африки . [34] Большинство нынешних государств Африки возникли в результате процесса деколонизации после Второй мировой войны и создали Организацию африканского единства в 1963 году, предшественницу Африканского союза. [35] Зарождающиеся страны решили сохранить свои колониальные границы, при этом традиционные структуры власти часто использовались в управлении в различной степени.

Этимология

Африка, увиденная экипажем «Аполлона-17» в 1972 году

Afri было латинским названием, используемым для обозначения жителей того, что тогда было известно как Северная Африка , расположенная к западу от реки Нил , и в самом широком смысле относящаяся ко всем землям к югу от Средиземного моря , также известным как Древняя Ливия . [36] [37] Это название, по-видимому, изначально относилось к ливийскому племени, предку современных берберов ; см. обсуждение у Теренция . Название обычно связывалось с финикийским словом ʿafar , означающим «пыль», [38] но гипотеза 1981 года [39] утверждала, что оно происходит от берберского слова ifri (множественное число ifran ), означающего «пещера», в отношении жителей пещер. [40] Это же слово [40] можно найти в названии Бану Ифран из Алжира и Триполитании , берберского племени родом из Яфрана (также известного как Ифран ) на северо-западе Ливии , [41] а также города Ифран в Марокко .

Под римским владычеством Карфаген стал столицей провинции, тогда называвшейся Africa Proconsularis , после поражения карфагенян в Третьей Пунической войне в 146 г. до н. э., которая также включала прибрежную часть современной Ливии . [42] Латинский суффикс -ica иногда может использоваться для обозначения земли (например, в Celtica от Celtae , как использовал Юлий Цезарь ). Более поздний мусульманский регион Ифрикия , после завоевания Византийской (Восточной Римской) империи Exarchatus Africae , также сохранил форму названия.

По мнению римлян, Африка лежит к западу от Египта, в то время как «Азия» использовалась для обозначения Анатолии и земель к востоку. Географ Птолемей (85–165 гг. н. э.) провел определенную линию между двумя континентами , указав Александрию вдоль нулевого меридиана и сделав Суэцкий перешеек и Красное море границей между Азией и Африкой. По мере того, как европейцы начинали понимать реальные размеры континента, идея «Африки» расширялась вместе с их знаниями.

Были выдвинуты и другие этимологические гипотезы относительно древнего названия «Африка»:

История

Предыстория

Люси , скелет австралопитека афарского, обнаруженный в Афарском треугольнике в Эфиопии в 1974 году

Большинство палеоантропологов считают Африку старейшей населенной территорией на Земле, а человеческий вид произошел с этого континента. [51] В середине 20-го века антропологи обнаружили множество окаменелостей и свидетельств человеческого обитания, возможно, еще семь миллионов лет назад ( до настоящего времени , BP). Были обнаружены ископаемые останки нескольких видов ранних обезьяноподобных людей, которые, как полагают, эволюционировали в современных людей, таких как Australopithecus afarensis, радиометрически датированные приблизительно 3,9–3,0 миллионами лет BP, [52] Paranthropus boisei (ок. 2,3–1,4 миллиона лет BP) [53] и Homo ergaster (ок. 1,9 миллиона–600 000 лет BP). [9]

После эволюции Homo sapiens приблизительно от 350 000 до 260 000 лет назад в Африке, [25] [26] [27] [28] континент был в основном заселен группами охотников-собирателей . [54] [55] Эти первые современные люди покинули Африку и заселили остальную часть земного шара во время миграции из Африки II, датируемой приблизительно 50 000 лет назад, покинув континент либо через Баб-эль-Мандебский пролив через Красное море , [56] [57] Гибралтарский пролив в Марокко, [58] [59] или Суэцкий перешеек в Египте. [60]

Другие миграции современных людей в пределах африканского континента датируются тем же временем, при этом свидетельства раннего человеческого поселения были обнаружены в Южной Африке, Юго-Восточной Африке, Северной Африке и Сахаре . [61]

Возникновение цивилизации

Наскальное искусство Сахары в Феццане , Ливия, в декабре 2004 г.
Колоссальные статуи Рамсеса II в Абу-Симбеле , Египет, датируемые примерно 1250 годом до н.э., увиденные в марте 2008 года.

Размеры Сахары исторически были чрезвычайно изменчивы, ее площадь быстро колебалась и временами исчезала в зависимости от глобальных климатических условий. [62] В конце ледниковых периодов , предположительно около 10 500  г. до н. э., Сахара снова стала зеленой плодородной долиной, и ее африканское население вернулось из внутренних и прибрежных высокогорий в Африке к югу от Сахары , с наскальными рисунками, изображающими плодородную Сахару, и большими популяциями, обнаруженными в Тассилин-Аджере, датируемыми, возможно, 10 тысячелетий. [63] Однако потепление и высыхание климата привели к тому, что к 5000  г. до н. э. регион Сахары становился все более сухим и враждебным. Около 3500  г. до н. э. из-за наклона орбиты Земли Сахара пережила период быстрого опустынивания. [64] Население переместилось из региона Сахары в долину Нила ниже Второго порога , где они создали постоянные или полупостоянные поселения. Произошла крупная климатическая рецессия, уменьшившая обильные и постоянные дожди в Центральной и Восточной Африке . С этого времени в Восточной Африке преобладают сухие условия, а в последние 200 лет и в Эфиопии — все чаще .

Одомашнивание крупного рогатого скота в Африке предшествовало сельскому хозяйству и, по-видимому, существовало наряду с культурами охотников и собирателей. Предполагается, что к 6000  г. до н. э. крупный рогатый скот был одомашнен в Северной Африке. [65] В комплексе Сахара-Нил люди одомашнили многих животных, включая осла и небольшую винторогую козу, которая была распространена от Алжира до Нубии . Между 10 000 и 9000  г. до н. э. в регионе Мали в саванне Западной Африки независимо была изобретена керамика. [66] [67] В степях и саваннах Сахары и Сахеля в северо-западной Африке люди, возможно, предки современных культур Нило-Сахары и Манде , начали собирать дикое просо [ 68] около 8000–6000 г. до  н. э. Позже также собирали тыквы , арбузы , клещевину и хлопок . [69] : 64–75  Сорго было впервые одомашнено в Восточном Судане около 4000  г. до н. э., в одном из самых ранних случаев сельского хозяйства в истории человечества. Его выращивание постепенно распространилось по всей Африке, прежде чем распространиться в Индии около 2000  г. до н. э. [70] [71]

Люди вокруг современной Мавритании начали делать керамику и строить каменные поселения (например, Тишитт , Уалата ). Рыбная ловля с использованием гарпунов с костяными наконечниками стала основным занятием в многочисленных ручьях и озерах, образовавшихся из-за возросших дождей. [72] В Западной Африке влажная фаза возвестила о расширении тропических лесов и лесистой саванны от Сенегала до Камеруна . Между 9000 и 5000  годами до нашей эры нигеро-конголезские носители одомашнили масличную пальму и пальму рафия . Были одомашнены черноглазый горох и воандзея (африканский арахис), за которыми последовали окра и орехи кола . Поскольку большинство растений росло в лесу, нигеро-конголезские носители изобрели полированные каменные топоры для расчистки леса. [69]

Около 4000  г. до н. э. климат Сахары начал становиться суше чрезвычайно быстрыми темпами. [73] Это изменение климата привело к значительному сокращению озер и рек и вызвало усиление опустынивания . Это, в свою очередь, уменьшило количество земель, пригодных для поселений, и способствовало миграции фермерских общин в более тропический климат Западной Африки. [73] В течение первого тысячелетия до н. э. сокращение популяций диких злаков, связанное с изменением климатических условий, способствовало расширению фермерских общин и быстрому принятию выращивания риса вокруг реки Нигер. [74] [75]

К первому тысячелетию до нашей эры обработка железа была введена в Северной Африке. Примерно в то же время она также утвердилась в некоторых частях Африки к югу от Сахары, либо через независимое изобретение там, либо через распространение с севера [76] [77] и исчезла при неизвестных обстоятельствах около 500  г. н. э., просуществовав приблизительно 2000 лет, [78] и к 500  г. до н. э. обработка металла стала обычным явлением в Западной Африке. Обработка железа была полностью установлена ​​примерно к 500  г. до н. э. во многих районах Восточной и Западной Африки, хотя другие регионы не начали обрабатывать железо до первых веков нашей эры. Медные предметы из Египта , Северной Африки, Нубии и Эфиопии, датируемые примерно 500  г. до н. э., были раскопаны в Западной Африке, что позволяет предположить, что к этой дате были созданы транссахарские торговые сети. [73]

4-е тысячелетие до н.э. – 6 век ОБЪЯВЛЕНИЕ

Северо-Восточная Африка

Карта Древнего Египта с указанием его основных городов и достопримечательностей, ок.  3150 г. до н.э. — 30 г. до н.э.

С 3500  г. до н.э. номы (управляемые номархами ) объединились, образовав королевства Нижний Египет и Верхний Египет на северо-востоке Африки. Около 3100  г. до н.э. Верхний Египет завоевал Нижний Египет , чтобы объединить Египет под властью 1-й династии , а процесс консолидации и ассимиляции был завершен ко времени 3-й династии , которая сформировала Древнее царство Египта в 2686 г.  до н.э. [79] : 62–63  Примерно в это же время возникло королевство Керма , ставшее доминирующей силой в Нубии , контролируя территорию размером с Египет между 1-м и 4-м порогами Нила . [80] [81]

4- я династия наблюдала за расцветом Древнего царства и построила много великих пирамид . При 6-й династии власть постепенно децентрализовалась в пользу номархов, что привело к распаду царства, усугубленному засухой и голодом, тем самым начав Первый промежуточный период в 2200  г. до н. э. Это раздробленное государство просуществовало до 2055  г. до н. э., когда 11-я династия , обосновавшаяся в Фивах , завоевала другие, образовав Среднее царство Египта , а 12-я династия расширилась в Нижнюю Нубию за счет Кермы . [79] : 68–71  В 1700  г. до н. э. Среднее царство раскололось на две части, положив начало Второму промежуточному периоду . Гиксосы , милитаристский народ из Палестины , вторглись и завоевали Нижний Египет, в то время как Керма координировал вторжения в глубь Египта, чтобы достичь его наибольшего размера. [82]

В 1550 году  до нашей эры 18-я династия изгнала гиксосов и основала Новое царство Египта . Используя передовые военные технологии , принесенные гиксосами , Новое царство завоевало Левант у хананеев , миттани , амореев и хеттов и уничтожило Керму , включив Нубию в империю и отправив Египетскую империю в ее золотой век. [79] : 73  Внутренние распри, засуха, голод и вторжения конфедерации мореплавателей способствовали краху Нового царства  в 1069 году до нашей эры, начав Третий промежуточный период . [79] : 76–77 

Крах Египта освободил более египетское царство Куш в Нубии, которое захватило власть в Верхнем Египте и завоевало Нижний Египет в 754  г. до н. э., образовав Кушитскую империю . Кушиты правили в течение столетия и наблюдали за возрождением строительства пирамид , пока они не были изгнаны из Египта ассирийцами в 663  г. до н. э. в отместку за их экспансию в сторону Ассирийской империи . [83] Ассирийцы установили марионеточную династию , которая позже обрела независимость и снова объединила Египет , пока они не были завоеваны империей Ахеменидов в 525  г. до н. э. [79] : 77  Египет восстановил независимость при 28-й династии в 404  г. до н. э., но они были отвоеваны Ахеменидами в 343  г. до н. э. Завоевание Ахеменидского Египта Александром Великим в 332  г. до н. э. ознаменовало начало эллинистического правления и установление македонской династии Птолемеев в Египте. [84] : 119 

Птолемеи потеряли свои владения за пределами Африки из-за Селевкидов в Сирийских войнах , расширились в Киренаику и подчинили Куш в 3 веке до н. э. В 1 веке до н. э. птолемеевский Египет оказался втянутым в римскую гражданскую войну , что привело к его завоеванию римлянами в 30 году до н. э. Кризис третьего века в Римской империи освободил левантийский город-государство Пальмиру , который завоевал Египет ; их краткое правление закончилось, когда они были отвоеваны римлянами . В разгар этого Куш восстановил независимость от Египта, и они сохранялись как крупная региональная держава, пока, будучи ослабленными внутренними восстаниями на фоне ухудшающихся климатических условий, вторжения Аксума и Ноба не привели к их распаду на Мукурру , Алодию и Нобатию в 5 веке н. э. Римлянам удалось удержать Египет до конца древнего периода.  

Африканский Рог

Аксумское царство в VI веке н. э., включая современный Аравийский полуостров и Восточную Африку.

В Африканском Роге существовала Земля Пунт , королевство на Красном море , вероятно, расположенное в современной Эритрее или северном Сомалиленде . [85] Древние египтяне изначально торговали через посредников с Пунтом, пока в 2350  г. до н. э. они не установили прямые отношения. Они стали близкими торговыми партнерами на протяжении более тысячелетия. К концу древнего периода северная Эфиопия и Эритрея несли на себе королевство Д'мт, начавшееся в 980  г. до н. э. В современных Сомали и Джибути существовало Макробийское королевство , археологические открытия которого указывают на возможность существования других неизвестных сложных цивилизаций в это время. [86] [87] После падения Д'мта в V веке до н. э. Эфиопское плато стало управляться многочисленными более мелкими неизвестными королевствами, которые испытали сильное южноаравийское влияние , вплоть до роста и расширения Аксума в I веке до н. э. [88] Вдоль побережья мыса Горн располагалось множество древних сомалийских городов-государств , которые процветали за счет торговли по Красному морю и перевозили свои грузы через Беден , экспортируя мирру , ладан , специи , камедь , благовония и слоновую кость , в то время как отсутствие римского вмешательства заставило индийцев предоставить городам прибыльную монополию на корицу из древней Индии . [89]

Королевство Аксум выросло из княжества в крупную державу на торговом пути между Римом и Индией путем завоевания своих, к сожалению, неизвестных соседей, получив монополию на торговлю в Индийском океане в регионе. Возвышение Аксума позволило им править большей частью регионов от озера Тана до долины Нила , и они далее завоевали части больного королевства Куш , возглавили кампании против народов Ноба и Беджа и расширили свое влияние в Южной Аравии . [90] [91] [92] Это привело к тому, что персидский пророк Мани считал Аксум одной из четырех великих держав 3-го века нашей эры наряду с Персией , Римом и Китаем . [93] В 4-м веке нашей эры царь Аксума обратился в христианство, и население Аксума, которое следовало синкретическим смесям местных верований , медленно последовало за ним. В конце V века Аксум заключил союз с Византийской империей , считавшей себя защитницей христианского мира , и противостоял империи Сасанидов и Химьяритскому царству в Аравии.

Северо-Западная Африка

Древний Карфаген в 323 г. до н.э.
Романизированно-берберские королевства: Альтава , Уарсенис , Ходна, Аурес , Неменча , Капсус , Дорсале и Кабаон.

Магриб и Ифрикия были в основном отрезаны от колыбели цивилизации в Египте Ливийской пустыней , что усугублялось египетскими лодками , приспособленными к Нилу и не справлявшимися с открытым Средиземным морем . Это привело к тому, что их общества развивались смежно с обществами Южной Европы , пока финикийские поселения не стали доминировать в самых прибыльных торговых местах в Тунисском заливе . [94] : 247  Финикийские поселения впоследствии выросли в Древний Карфаген после обретения независимости от Финикии в 6 веке до нашей эры, и они построили обширную империю и строгую торговую сеть, все это обеспечивалось одним из крупнейших и самых мощных флотов в древнем Средиземноморье . [94] : 251–253  Карфаген встретил свою гибель в Пунических войнах против экспансионистской Римской республики , однако импульс в этих войнах не был линейным, причем Карфаген изначально добился значительного успеха во Второй Пунической войне после печально известного перехода Ганнибала через Альпы в северную Италию . [94] : 256–257  Их поражение и последующий крах их империи привели к появлению двух дополнительных политических образований в Магрибе: Нумидия , которая помогала римлянам во Второй Пунической войне, Мавретания , племенное царство мавров и родина легендарного царя Атласа , и различные племена, такие как гараманты , мусуламии и бавары . Третья Пуническая война привела к полному поражению Карфагена в 146 г. до н. э., и римляне основали провинцию Африка , при этом Нумидия взяла под контроль многие африканские порты Карфагена. К концу II века до н. э. Мавретания сражалась вместе с Югуртой из Нумидии в Югуртинской войне против римлян после того, как он узурпировал нумидийский трон у римского союзника. Вместе они нанесли тяжелые потери, которые потрясли римский сенат , и война закончилась лишь безрезультатно, когда Бокх I из Мавретании продал Югурту римлянам. [94] : 258 

На рубеже тысячелетий их обоих постигла та же участь, что и Карфаген, и они были завоеваны римлянами, которые создали Мавретанию и Нумидию в качестве провинций своей империи, в то время как Мусуламии , во главе с Такфаринасом , и Гараманты в конечном итоге потерпели поражение в войне в I веке н. э., однако не были завоеваны. [95] : 261–262  В V веке н. э. вандалы завоевали Северную Африку, ускорив падение Рима . Ряды коренных народов восстановили самоуправление в Мавро-римском королевстве и его многочисленных преемниках в Магрибе, а именно в королевствах Уарсенис , Аурес и Альтава . Вандалы правили Ифрикией в течение столетия до византийского завоевания в начале VI века н. э. Византийцы и берберские королевства вели мелкие незначительные конфликты, такие как в случае с Гармулом , однако в основном сосуществовали. [95] : 284  Дальше вглубь страны от Византийского экзархата Африки находились санхаджа в современном Алжире , обширная группировка из трех групп племенных конфедераций , одной из которых является группировка масмуда в современном Марокко , а также кочевые зената ; их смешанные племена позже войдут в большую часть истории Северной Африки .

Западная Африка

Скульптура Нок из современной Нигерии , ныне находящаяся в Лувре в Париже.
Империя Гана

В западном Сахеле возникновение оседлых общин произошло в основном в результате одомашнивания проса и сорго . Археология указывает на значительное городское население в Западной Африке, начиная с 4-го тысячелетия до н. э., которое к 1200 г. до н. э. существенно развило металлургию железа  , как в выплавке , так и в ковке инструментов и оружия. [96] Обширные пояса пустынь , лугов и лесов с севера на юг с востока на запад имели решающее значение для формирования соответствующих обществ и означало, что до присоединения транссахарских торговых путей симбиотические торговые отношения развивались в ответ на возможности, предоставляемые разнообразием экосистем с севера на юг. [97] В этот период процветали различные цивилизации. С 4000  г. до н. э. культура Тишитт в современных Мавритании и Мали была старейшим известным сложноорганизованным обществом в Западной Африке с четырехуровневой иерархической социальной структурой. [98] Другие цивилизации включают культуру Кинтампо с 2500 г.  до н.э. в современной Гане , [99] культуру Нок с 1500 г. до н.э. в современной Нигерии , [100] культуру Дайма вокруг озера Чад с 550  г. до н.э., Дженне-Дженно с 250  г. до н.э. в современном Мали и цивилизацию Серер в современном Сенегале , которая построила сенегамбийские каменные круги с 3-го века до н.э. Также есть подробные записи [101] об Игодомигодо , небольшом королевстве, основанном предположительно в 40 г.  до н.э., которое позже сформировало Бенинскую империю . [102]

К концу 3-го века нашей эры влажный период в Сахеле создал области для проживания и эксплуатации людей, которые не были пригодны для жизни в течение большей части тысячелетия, с Королевством Вагаду , местным названием империи Гана , возникшим из культуры Тишитт , разбогатевшим после появления верблюдов в западном Сахеле, что произвело революцию в транссахарской торговле , которая связывала их столицу и Аудагхост с Тахертом и Сиджилмасой в Северной Африке. [103] Традиции сонинке, вероятно, содержат содержание из доисторических времен, упоминая четыре предыдущих основания Вагаду , и считают, что окончательное основание Вагаду произошло после того, как их первый король заключил сделку с Бидой , змеиным божеством, которое охраняло колодец, чтобы принести в жертву одну девушку в год в обмен на гарантию относительно большого количества осадков и поставок золота. [104] Ядро Вагаду пересекало современную южную Мавританию и западное Мали , и традиция Сонинке изображает раннюю Гану как воинственную, с конными воинами, играющими ключевую роль в увеличении ее территории и населения, хотя подробности их расширения крайне скудны. [103] Вагаду получал прибыль от поддержания монополии на золото, направлявшееся на север, и соль, направлявшуюся на юг, несмотря на то, что он не контролировал сами золотые месторождения, расположенные в лесных регионах . [105] Вероятно, что доминирование Вагаду в торговле позволило постепенно объединить многие политии в конфедеративное государство , чьи составные части находились в разных отношениях с ядром, от полностью управляемых до номинального паритета с выплатой дани. [106] Основываясь на больших курганах , разбросанных по всей Западной Африке, датируемых этим периодом, было установлено, что относительно Вагаду существовали и другие одновременные и предшествующие королевства, которые, к сожалению, были утеряны во времени. [107] [98]

Центральная, Восточная и Южная Африка

Экспансия банту 1
= 2000–1500 гг. до н.э., начало
2 = ок.  1500 г. до н.э., первое расселение 2.a = восточные банту 2.b = западные банту 3 = 1000–500 гг. до н.э., ядро ​​уреве восточных банту 47 = продвижение на юг 9 = 500–1 гг. до н.э., ядро ​​конго 10 = 1–1000 гг. н.э., последняя фаза [108] [109] [110]
    
    



В Центральной Африке цивилизация Сао процветала более тысячелетия, начиная с 6 века до н. э. Сао жили у реки Чари к югу от озера Чад на территории, которая позже стала частью современных Камеруна и Чада . Артефакты Сао показывают, что они были искусными мастерами по обработке бронзы , меди и железа , [111] : 19  с находками, включая бронзовые скульптуры, терракотовые статуи людей и животных, монеты, погребальные урны, домашнюю утварь, ювелирные изделия, богато украшенную керамику и копья. [111] : 19  [112] : 1051  Неподалеку, вокруг озера Эджагам на юго-западе Камеруна , около 2 века н. э. возникла цивилизация Экой , которая наиболее примечательна строительством монолитов Иком . Дальше на восток, в северной части побережья Суахили, располагалась неуловимая Азания , скорее всего, южнокушитское государство. [113]

Экспансия банту представляла собой крупную серию миграций народов банту из Центральной Африки в Восточную и Южную Африку и сыграла существенную роль в заселении континента. [114] Начиная со 2-го тысячелетия до н. э., банту начали мигрировать из Камеруна в Центральную, Восточную и Южную Африку, закладывая основы для будущих государств, таких как Королевство Конго в бассейне Конго , Империя Китара в Великих африканских озерах , Империя Луба в впадине Упемба , Султанат Килва на побережье Суахили , вытеснив Азанию , причем Рапта стала его последним оплотом к 1-му веку н. э., [115] и образовав различные города-государства, составляющие цивилизацию Суахили . Эти миграции также предшествовали Королевству Мапунгубве в бассейне Замбези . Достигнув Замбези , банту продолжили движение на юг, а восточные группы продолжили движение до современного Мозамбика и достигли Мапуту во 2 веке нашей эры. Дальше на юге поселения народов банту, которые были земледельцами и скотоводами, использующими железо, прочно обосновались к югу от реки Лимпопо к 4 веку нашей эры, вытеснив и поглотив изначальных койсан . К западу от них в горах Цодило в Ботсване жили сан , полукочевые охотники-собиратели , которые, как полагают, произошли от первых жителей Южной Африки 100 000 лет назад , что делает их одной из древнейших культур на Земле. [116] 

9-18 вв.

Сложные бронзовые изделия IX века из Игбо-Укву в Нигерии демонстрируют уровень технического совершенства, который был заметно более продвинутым, чем европейское литье бронзы того же периода. [117]

В доколониальной Африке насчитывалось около 10 000 различных государств и политических образований. [118] К ним относятся небольшие семейные группы охотников-собирателей, такие как народ сан в Южной Африке; более крупные, более структурированные группы, такие как семейные клановые группировки народов банту в Центральной, Южной и Восточной Африке; сильно структурированные клановые группы в районе Африканского Рога ; крупные сахелианские королевства ; и автономные города-государства и королевства, такие как у народов акан ; эдо , йоруба и игбо в Западной Африке; и прибрежные торговые города суахили в Юго-Восточной Африке.

К IX веку нашей эры ряд династических государств, включая самые ранние государства хауса , простирались через саванну к югу от Сахары от западных регионов до центрального Судана. Самыми могущественными из этих государств были Гана , Гао и империя Канем-Борну . Гана пришла в упадок в XI веке, но ее сменила империя Мали , которая объединила большую часть западного Судана в XIII веке. Канем принял ислам в XI веке.

В лесных районах побережья Западной Африки независимые королевства росли с небольшим влиянием мусульманского севера. Королевство Нри , которым правил Эзе Нри , было основано около девятого века, что делает его одним из старейших королевств в современном Нигере. Королевство Нри славится своими искусными бронзовыми изделиями , найденными в городе Игбо-Укву . [119]

Руины Великого Зимбабве , процветавшего в XI-XV вв.

Королевство Ифе , исторически первое из этих городов-государств или королевств йоруба, установило правительство под руководством жреца оба («король» или «правитель» на языке йоруба ), называемого Оони Ифе . Ифе был отмечен как крупный религиозный и культурный центр в Западной Африке и своей уникальной натуралистической традицией бронзовой скульптуры. Модель правления Ифе была принята империей Ойо , чьи оба, называемые Алаафинами Ойо , контролировали многие другие города-государства и королевства йоруба и не-йоруба, включая королевство Фон в Дагомее .

The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century.[120] The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized,[121] and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.[122]

Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.[123] By the eleventh century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, Jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.

Height of the slave trade

Major slave trading regions of Africa between the 15th and 19th centuries

Slavery had long been practiced in Africa.[124][125] Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.[126][127][128] In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.[129]

In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[130]

Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[131] The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.[132]

Colonialism

The Scramble for Africa[b] was the conquest and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers driven by the Second Industrial Revolution during the era of "New Imperialism" (1833–1914): Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%, with only Liberia and Ethiopia retaining sovereignty, along with Egba,[c] Senusiyya,[134] Mbunda,[135] and the Ovambo kingdoms,[136][137] which were later conquered.

The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".[138] In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires, which provided the impetus for the colonisation.[139] The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.[140]

With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies gained independence during the Cold War, and decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on pan-Africanism.[141]

Independence struggles

European colonial presence in Africa as of 1939

Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France.[142] Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957),[143] becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Over the next decade, waves of decolonization took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa and the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963.[35]

Portugal's overseas presence in sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority, initially through qualified voting rights and from 1956 by a system of racial segregation known as apartheid, until 1994.

Post-colonial Africa

Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries.[144] Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis—per the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), only Botswana and Mauritius have been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced several coups or periods of military dictatorship. Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance.[145]

Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived in extreme poverty. The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development under colonial rule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such as Kenya still experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves.

Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily from marginalization of ethnic groups, and corruption. In pursuit of personal political gain, many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnic Hutus over Tutsis in Rwanda during German and Belgian rule).

Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled by military dictatorships. Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was the Nigerian Civil War, fought between government forces and an Igbo separatist republic, which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Two civil wars in Sudan, the first lasting from 1955 to 1972 and the second from 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines.

Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union also contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during the Angolan Civil War, the Soviet and Cuban aligned MPLA and the American aligned UNITA received the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War and fall of the USSR resulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support.

There was a major famine in Ethiopia between 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which most historians attribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communist Derg government, further exacerbated by the civil war.[146][147][148][149] In 1994 a genocide in Rwanda resulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added to a severe refugee crisis and fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of the first and second Congo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths,[150] making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of the costliest wars in human history.[151]

Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003, there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur (Sudan), which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. The Boko Haram Insurgency primarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, the Tigray War from 2020 to 2022 killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due to famine.

Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola, Sierra Leone, and Algeria in 2002, Liberia in 2003, and Sudan and Burundi in 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (see Capitalist peace).

Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China,[152] which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 billion to $1.63 trillion (constant 2015 USD).[153] North Africa experienced comparable growth rates.[154] A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.[155] While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack of industrialization, and epidemics of Ebola and COVID-19.[156][157]

Geology, geography, ecology, and environment

Topography of Africa

Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide.[158] Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa as well.[159]

The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).[160] From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi).[161] Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi) to Ras Hafun, 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection that neighbours Cape Guardafui, the tip of the Horn of Africa.[160]

Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast.[162] The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia.

African plate

Today, the African Plate is moving over Earth's surface at a speed of 0.292° ± 0.007° per million years, relative to the "average" Earth (NNR-MORVEL56).

The African Plate, also known as the Nubian Plate, is a major tectonic plate that includes much of the continent of Africa (except for its easternmost part) and the adjacent oceanic crust to the west and south. It is bounded by the North American Plate and South American Plate to the west (separated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge); the Arabian Plate and Somali Plate to the east; the Eurasian Plate, Aegean Sea Plate and Anatolian Plate to the north; and the Antarctic Plate to the south.

Between 60 million years ago and 10 million years ago, the Somali Plate began rifting from the African Plate along the East African Rift.[163] Since the continent of Africa consists of crust from both the African and the Somali plates, some literature refers to the African Plate as the Nubian Plate to distinguish it from the continent as a whole.[164]

Climate

The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.[165] The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (58 °C (136 °F)), was discredited in 2013.[166][167]

Climate change

Graph showing temperature change in Africa between 1901 and 2021, with red colour being warmer and blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 is taken as the reference point for these changes.)

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change.[168][169][170] Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth".[171][172] Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security.[173] As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa.[169]

Over the coming decades, warming from climate change is expected across almost all the Earth's surface, and global mean rainfall will increase.[174] Currently, Africa is warming faster than the rest of the world on average. Large portions of the continent may become uninhabitable as a result of the rapid effects of climate change, which would have disastrous effects on human health, food security, and poverty.[175][176][177] Regional effects on rainfall in the tropics are expected to be much more spatially variable. The direction of change at any one location is often less certain.

Ecology and biodiversity

The main biomes in Africa

Africa has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity and arable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.[165]

Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).[178] According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world.[165] Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed.[179] Over 90% of Madagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago.[180] About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.[181]

Fauna

The savanna of Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania

Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.

Environmental issues

African environmental problems are problems caused by the direct and indirect human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life in Africa. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, coastal erosion, garbage pollution, climate change, Oil spills, Biodiversity loss, and water scarcity (resulting in problems with access to safe water supply and sanitation).[182] These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty.[183] The scarcity of climate adaptation techniques in Africa makes it the least resilient continent to climate change.

Infrastructure

Water resources

Water development and management are complex in Africa due to the multiplicity of trans-boundary water resources (rivers, lakes and aquifers).[184] Around 75% of sub-Saharan Africa falls within 53 international river basin catchments that traverse multiple borders.[185][184] This particular constraint can also be converted into an opportunity if the potential for trans-boundary cooperation is harnessed in the development of the area's water resources.[184] A multi-sectoral analysis of the Zambezi River, for example, shows that riparian cooperation could lead to a 23% increase in firm energy production without any additional investments.[185][184] A number of institutional and legal frameworks for transboundary cooperation exist, such as the Zambezi River Authority, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol, Volta River Authority and the Nile Basin Commission.[184] However, additional efforts are required to further develop political will, as well as the financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians.[184]

Politics

African Union

Regions of the African Union:
 Northern Region ,  Southern Region ,  Eastern Region ,  Western Regions A and B ,  Central Region 

The African Union (AU) is a continental union consisting of 55 member states. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002[186] as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa.

The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.

Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Ivory Coast.

Boundary conflicts

African nations have made great efforts to respect international borders as inviolate for a long time. For example, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which was established in 1963 and replaced by the African Union in 2002, set the respect for the territorial integrity of each country as one of its principles in OAU Charter.[187] Indeed, compared with the formation of European countries, there have been fewer international conflicts in Africa for changing the borders, which has influenced country formation there and has enabled some countries to survive that might have been defeated and absorbed by others.[188] Yet international conflicts have played out by support for proxy armies or rebel movements. Many states have experienced civil wars: including Rwanda, Sudan, Angola, Sierra Leone, Congo, Liberia, Ethiopia and Somalia.[189]

Economy

Map of the African Economic Community
  COMESA
  EAC
  ECCAS
  ECOWAS
  IGAD
  SADC
  UMA
African countries by GDP (PPP) per capita in 2020

Although it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and least-developed continent (other than Antarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, the slave trade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide).[190] Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.[191]

Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, inadequate water supply and sanitation, and poor health affect a large proportion of the people who reside on the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank[192] announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of the sub-Saharan African population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India.[193]

Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973,[194] indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.[195][196]

Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debt crisis in 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite.[197]

From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity.

In a recently published analysis based on World Values Survey data, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notably Ghana, perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and the market economy.[198] The following table is projection(s) as of 2024 in terms of the peak level of GDP (nominal) and (Purchasing Power Parity) by the IMF[199] and the World Bank.

Tausch's global value comparison based on the World Values Survey derived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded "is really amazing". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy in Ghana, the article suggests pessimistic tendencies for Egypt and Algeria, and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. High human inequality, as measured by the UNDP's Human Development Report's Index of Human Inequality, impairs the development of human security. Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of a civil society.

The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite,[204] 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium.[205] The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves.[206] Guinea is the world's largest exporter of bauxite.[207] As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008, which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis, pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.[208]

In recent years, the China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.[152]

A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity."[209]

Electricity generation

The main source of electricity is hydropower, which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy.[184] The Kainji Dam is a typical hydropower resource generating electricity for all the large cities in Nigeria as well as their neighbouring country, Niger.[210] Hence, the continuous investment in the last decade, which has increased the amount of power generated.[184]

Demographics

Proportion of total African population by country

  Nigeria (15.38%)
  Ethiopia (8.37%)
  Egypt (7.65%)
  Democratic Republic of the Congo (6.57%)
  Tanzania (4.55%)
  South Africa (4.47%)
  Kenya (3.88%)
  Uganda (3.38%)
  Algeria (3.36%)
  Other (42.39%)

Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age.[211] The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990.[212] As of 2021, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.4 billion.[1][2] Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000.[213] This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births.[214]

The total fertility rate (children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world.[215] All countries in sub-Saharan Africa had TFRs (average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% of global livebirths.[216] In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births.[217]

Speakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples from the Sahel progressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa.[218] But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan ("San" or "Bushmen") and Pygmy peoples in Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa.[citation needed] Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.[219]

The peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan, and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.

The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo-European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.[220] The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.[221]

In the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic.

Prior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa.[222] Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers—especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa),[223] Kenya, Congo,[224] Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.[225] Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone.[226] Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and South Africa.[227] The country with the largest white African population is South Africa.[228] Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.[229]

European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese[152] have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively.[230]

Alternative Estimates of African Population, 1–2018 AD (in thousands)

Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen).[231]

Shares of Africa and World Population, 1–2020 AD (% of world total)

Source: Maddison and others (University of Groningen).[231]

Religion

A map showing religious distribution in Africa

While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations.[236][237] According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam and Christianity are the two largest religions in Africa. Islam is most prevalent in Northern Africa, and is the state religion of many North African countries, such as Algeria, where 99% of the population practices Islam.[238] The majority of people in most governments in Southern, Southeast, and Central Africa, as well as in a sizable portion of the Horn of Africa and West Africa, identify as Christians. The Coptic Christians constitute a sizable minority in Egypt, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the largest church in Ethiopia, with 36 million and 51 million adherents.[239] According to Encyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% follow traditional religions.[citation needed] A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baháʼí, or Jewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who are irreligious.

Languages

By most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.[240] Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well.[further explanation needed] There are four major groups indigenous to Africa:

A simplistic view of language families spoken in Africa

Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate. In total, at least a fifth of Africans speak the former colonial languages.[244][245][246][d]

Health

Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa, total (% of population ages 15–49), in 2011 (World Bank)

More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade on African traditional medicine in an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent.[247] Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa.[248]

AIDS in post-colonial Africa is a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population,[249] more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide—some 35 million people—were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died.[250] Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIV[251] and 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011.[252] In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years.[250] Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years.[253]

Culture

The Senegambian stone circles, lying in The Gambia and Senegal, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools.[254] Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.[254]

Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art.[255] According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art."[256] Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions."[256] Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art."[257] Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe."[258] On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.[259]

There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality.

As of March 2023, 98 African properties are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Among these proprieties, 54 are cultural sites, 39 are natural sites and 5 are mixed sites. The List Of World Heritage in Danger includes 15 African sites.[260]

Visual art

Nok figure, Nigeria (5th century BCE–5th century CE)
Rock art at the Laas Geel complex in Somalia, 3,500–2,500 BCE
Two Benin bronzes from the 18th century

African art describes modern and historical paintings, sculptures, installations, and other visual culture from native or indigenous Africans and the African continent. The definition may also include the art of the African diasporas, such as African-American, Caribbean or art in South American societies inspired by African traditions. Despite this diversity, there are unifying artistic themes present when considering the totality of the visual culture from the continent of Africa.[261]

Pottery, metalwork, sculpture, architecture, textile art and fiber art are important visual art forms across Africa and may be included in the study of African art. The term "African Art" does not usually include the art of the North African areas along the Mediterranean coast, as such areas had long been part of different traditions. For more than a millennium, the art of such areas had formed part of Berber or Islamic art, although with many particular local characteristics.

Ethiopian art, with a long Christian tradition,[262] is also different from that of most of Africa, where Traditional African religion (with Islam in the north) was dominant until the 20th century.[263] African art includes prehistoric and ancient art, the Islamic art of West Africa, the Christian art of East Africa, and the traditional artifacts of these and other regions. Many African sculptures were historically made of wood and other natural materials that have not survived from earlier than a few centuries ago, although rare older pottery and metal figures can be found in some areas.[264] Some of the earliest decorative objects, such as shell beads and evidence of paint, have been discovered in Africa, dating to the Middle Stone Age.[265][266][267] Masks are important elements in the art of many people, along with human figures, and are often highly stylised. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin and depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in West Africa.[268] Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for ritual ceremonies. Since the late 19th century there has been an increasing amount of African art in Western collections, the finest pieces of which are displayed as part of the history of colonisation.

African art has had an important influence on European Modernist art,[269] which was inspired by their interest in abstract depiction. It was this appreciation of African sculpture that has been attributed to the very concept of "African art", as seen by European and American artists and art historians.[270]

West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs, like the famous Benin Bronzes, to decorate palaces and for highly naturalistic royal heads from around the Bini town of Benin City, Edo State, as well as in terracotta or metal, from the 12th–14th centuries. Akan gold weights are a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 1400–1900; some represent proverbs, contributing a narrative element rare in African sculpture; and royal regalia included gold sculptured elements.[271] Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the same region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs shaped like cylinders. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.

Architecture

The Great Pyramids of Giza are regarded as one of the greatest architectural feats of all time and are one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Like other aspects of the culture of Africa, the architecture of Africa is exceptionally diverse. Throughout the history of Africa, Africans have developed their own local architectural traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as the Sudano-Sahelian architecture of West Africa. A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of fractal scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.[272]

African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.

African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the Horn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.

Cinema

Cinematic street poster in Tunis, Tunisia for the Egyptian film Saladin the Victorious (1963, Arabic: الناصر صلاح الدين, Al Nasser Salah Ad-Din) directed by Youssef Chahine starring Ahmed Mazhar as Saladin, Salah Zulfikar, Nadia Lutfi and others
Cinema of Africa covers both the history and present of the making or screening of films on the African continent, and also refers to the persons involved in this form of audiovisual culture. It dates back to the early 20th century, when film reels were the primary cinematic technology in use. As there are more than 50 countries with audiovisual traditions, there is no one single 'African cinema'. Both historically and culturally, there are major regional differences between North African and sub-Saharan cinemas, and between the cinemas of different countries.[273]

Music

Given the vastness of the African continent, its music is diverse, with regions and nations having many distinct musical traditions. African music includes the genres makwaya, highlife, mbube, township music, jùjú, fuji, jaiva, afrobeat, afrofusion, mbalax, Congolese rumba, soukous, ndombolo, makossa, kizomba, taarab and others.[274] African music also uses a large variety of instruments from all across the continent. The music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music like Dixieland jazz, blues, jazz, and many Caribbean genres, such as calypso (see kaiso) and soca. Latin American music genres such as cumbia, salsa music, son cubano, rumba, conga, bomba, samba and zouk were founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music.[274][275]

Dance

African dance (also Afro dance, Afrodance and Afro-dance)[276][277][278][279][280] refers to the various dance styles of sub-Saharan Africa. These dances are closely connected with the traditional rhythms and music traditions of the region. Music and dancing is an integral part of many traditional African societies. Songs and dances facilitate teaching and promoting social values, celebrating special events and major life milestones, performing oral history and other recitations, and spiritual experiences.[281] African dance uses the concepts of polyrhythm and total body articulation.[282] African dances are a collective activity performed in large groups, with significant interaction between dancers and onlookers in the majority of styles.[283]

Sports

Best results of African men's national football teams at the FIFA World Cup
Shikabala_the_captain_of_zamalek_sc_holds_CAF_Confederation_Cup_2024
CAF President Patrice Motsepe handing the CAF Confederation Cup trophy to Zamalek's captain Shikabala in 2024

Fifty-four African countries have football teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. Morocco made history at the 2022 World Cup in Qatar as the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play the CAF Champions League, while lower-ranked clubs compete in CAF Confederation Cup.

In recent years, the continent has made major progress in terms of state-of-the-art basketball facilities, which have been built in cities as diverse as Cairo, Dakar, Johannesburg, Kigali, Luanda and Rades.[284] The number of African basketball players who drafted into the NBA has experienced major growth in the 2010s.[285]

Cricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One-Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament.

Rugby is popular in several southern African nations. Namibia and Zimbabwe both have appeared on multiple occasions at the Rugby World Cup, while South Africa is the most successful national team at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on four occasions, in 1995, 2007, 2019, and 2023.[286]

Territories and regions

The countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ [24][25][26][27][28][29]
  2. ^ Also known as the Partition of Africa, the Conquest of Africa, or the Rape of Africa.
  3. ^ The Egba United Government, a government of the Egba people, was legally recognised by the British as independent until being annexed into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914.[133]
  4. ^ The previous three references show that there a total of 130 million English speakers, 120 million French speakers, and over 30 million Portuguese speakers in Africa, making them about 20% of Africa's 2022 population of 1.4 billion people.
  5. ^ Continental regions as per UN categorizations/map.
  6. ^ The Spanish Canary Islands, of which Las Palmas de Gran Canaria are Santa Cruz de Tenerife are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco and Western Sahara; population and area figures are for 2001.
  7. ^ The Spanish exclave of Ceuta is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.
  8. ^ Egypt is generally considered a transcontinental country in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of the Suez Canal.
  9. ^ The Portuguese Madeira Islands are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.
  10. ^ The Spanish exclave of Melilla is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.
  11. ^ The territory of Western Sahara is claimed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and Morocco. The SADR is recognized as a sovereign state by the African Union. Morocco claims the entirety of the country as its Southern Provinces. Morocco administers 4/5 of the territory while the SADR controls 1/5. Morocco's annexation of this territory has not been recognized internationally.
  12. ^ Bloemfontein is the judicial capital of South Africa, while Cape Town is its legislative seat, and Pretoria is the country's administrative seat.
  13. ^ Yamoussoukro is the official capital of Ivory Coast, while Abidjan is the de facto seat.

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