В арабском языке Ислам ( араб . إسلام , букв. «покорность [Богу]») [9] [10] [11] — отглагольное существительное формы IV, происходящее от глагола سلم ( салама ), от трехбуквенного корня س-ل-م ( SLM ), который образует большой класс слов, в основном относящихся к понятиям покорности, безопасности и мира. [12] В религиозном контексте это относится к полной преданности воле Бога . [13] Мусульманин ( مُسْلِم ), слово, обозначающее последователя ислама, [ 14] является действительным причастием той же глагольной формы и означает «покорный (Богу)» или «тот, кто покоряется (Богу)». В хадисе Джабраила ислам представлен как часть триады, которая также включает иман ( веру) и ихсан (совершенство). [15] [16]
Сам ислам исторически назывался мохаммеданизмом в англоязычном мире . Этот термин вышел из употребления и иногда считается оскорбительным , поскольку он предполагает, что человек, а не Бог, является центральным в религии мусульман. [17]
Центральная концепция ислама — таухид (араб. توحيد ), единство Бога. Обычно его считают точным монотеизмом , но в исламских мистических учениях он также является панентеистическим . [19] [20] Бог рассматривается как несравненный и не имеющий партнеров, как в христианской Троице , а приписывание Богу партнеров или приписывание атрибутов Бога другим рассматривается как идолопоклонство , называемое ширком . Бог описывается как Аль-Гайб, поэтому он находится за пределами понимания. [ обсуждается ] Таким образом, мусульмане не являются иконопочитателями и не приписывают Богу формы. Вместо этого Бог описывается и упоминается с помощью нескольких имен или атрибутов , наиболее распространенными из которых являются Ар-Рахман ( الرحمان ), что означает «Совершенно Милостивый», и Ар-Рахим ( الرحيم ), что означает «Особо Милостивый», которые упоминаются в начале большинства глав Корана. [21] [22]
Ислам учит, что создание всего во вселенной было вызвано к жизни по велению Бога, как выражено в формулировке: « Будь, и это есть » [i] [9], и что цель существования — поклоняться Богу. [23] Он рассматривается как личный бог [9] , и нет никаких посредников, таких как духовенство , чтобы связаться с Богом. Сознание и осознание Бога называется Таква . Аллах — это термин, которому не приписывается множественное число или род , и он также используется мусульманами и арабоязычными христианами и иудеями по отношению к Богу, тогда как 'ilāh ( إله ) — это термин, используемый для божества или бога в целом. [24]
Ангелы (араб. ملك , malak ) — существа, описанные в Коране [25] и хадисах. [26] Они описаны как созданные для поклонения Богу, а также для выполнения других конкретных обязанностей, таких как передача откровений от Бога, запись действий каждого человека и взятие души человека в момент смерти. Они описаны как созданные по-разному из «света» ( nūr ) [27] [28] [29] или «огня» ( nār ). [30] [31] [32] [33] Исламские ангелы часто представлены в антропоморфных формах в сочетании со сверхъестественными образами, такими как крылья, большие размеры или ношение небесных предметов. [34] [35] [36] [37] Общие характеристики для ангелов включают отсутствие телесных потребностей и желаний, таких как еда и питье. [38] Некоторые из них, такие как Гавриил ( Джибриль ) и Михаил ( Микаил ), упоминаются по имени в Коране. Ангелы играют значительную роль в литературе о Мирадже , где Мухаммед встречает нескольких ангелов во время своего путешествия по небесам. [26] Другие ангелы часто фигурируют в исламской эсхатологии , теологии и философии . [39]
Писания
Рукопись Корана , покоящаяся на подставке для священного текста.
Выдающимся священным текстом ислама является Коран . Мусульмане верят, что стихи Корана были ниспосланы Мухаммеду Богом через архангела Гавриила несколько раз между 610 годом н. э. [40] [41] и 632 годом, годом смерти Мухаммеда. [42] Пока Мухаммед был жив, эти откровения записывались его сподвижниками , хотя основным методом передачи было устное заучивание . [43] Коран разделен на 114 глав ( сур ), которые содержат в общей сложности 6236 стихов ( айатов ). Хронологически более ранние главы, явленные в Мекке , в основном посвящены духовным темам, в то время как более поздние мединские главы обсуждают больше социальных и правовых вопросов, имеющих отношение к мусульманской общине. [9] [44] Мусульманские юристы обращаются к хадисам («рассказам»), или письменным записям о жизни Мухаммеда, чтобы дополнить Коран и помочь с его толкованием. Наука о комментариях и толковании Корана известна как тафсир . [45] [46] В дополнение к своему религиозному значению, Коран широко рассматривается как лучшее произведение в арабской литературе , [47] [48] и оказал влияние на искусство и арабский язык. [49]
Ислам также считает, что Бог посылал откровения, называемые вахи , разным пророкам много раз на протяжении истории. Однако ислам учит, что части ранее явленных писаний, таких как Таурат ( Тора ) и Инджиль ( Евангелие ), были искажены — либо в интерпретации, либо в тексте, либо и то, и другое, [50] [51] [52] [53] в то время как Коран (дословно «чтение») рассматривается как окончательное, дословное и неизмененное слово Бога. [44] [54] [55] [56]
Пророки (араб. أنبياء , anbiyāʾ ), как полагают, были избраны Богом, чтобы проповедовать божественное послание. Некоторые из этих пророков дополнительно доставляют новую книгу и называются «посланниками» ( رسول , rasūl ). [58] Мусульмане верят, что пророки являются людьми, а не божествами. Говорят, что все пророки проповедовали одно и то же основное послание ислама — подчинение воле Бога — разным народам в прошлом, и это, как говорят, объясняет многие сходства между религиями. Коран перечисляет имена многочисленных фигур, считающихся пророками в исламе , включая Адама , Ноя , Авраама , Моисея и Иисуса , среди прочих. [9] [59] Истории, связанные с пророками за пределами коранических рассказов, собраны и исследованы в « Кисас аль-Анбия» (Истории пророков).
Мусульмане верят, что Бог послал Мухаммеда как последнего пророка (« Печать пророков »), чтобы передать завершенное послание ислама. [60] [61] В исламе «нормативный» пример жизни Мухаммеда называется сунной (буквально «проторенный путь»). Мусульман призывают подражать моральному поведению Мухаммеда в своей повседневной жизни, и сунна рассматривается как решающее значение для руководства толкованием Корана. [62] [63] [64] [65] Этот пример сохраняется в традициях, известных как хадисы , которые представляют собой рассказы о его словах, действиях и личных характеристиках. Хадис кудси — это подкатегория хадисов, рассматриваемая как дословные слова Бога, цитируемые Мухаммедом, которые не являются частью Корана. Хадис включает в себя два элемента: цепочку рассказчиков, называемую санад , и фактическую формулировку, называемую матн . Существуют различные методологии классификации достоверности хадисов, при этом обычно используется шкала оценок «достоверный» или «правильный» ( صحيح , ṣaḥīḥ ); «хороший» ( حسن , ḥasan ); или «слабый» ( ضعيف , ḍaʻīf ) и другие. « Кутуб ас-Ситта» — это сборник из шести книг, считающихся наиболее достоверными сообщениями в суннитском исламе . Среди них — «Сахих аль-Бухари» , который сунниты часто считают одним из самых достоверных источников после Корана. [66] Другой известный источник хадисов известен как «Четыре книги» , который шииты считают наиболее достоверным источником хадисов. [67] [68]
Воскресение и суд
Мечеть Омейядов в Дамаске , где, согласно исламской традиции, Иса (Иисус, рассматриваемый как исламский пророк) появится незадолго до Судного дня.
Вера в «День Воскресения» или Яум аль-Кияма (араб. يوم القيامة ) также имеет решающее значение для мусульман. Считается, что время Кияма предопределено Богом, но неизвестно человеку. Коран и хадисы, а также комментарии ученых описывают испытания и невзгоды , предшествующие и во время Кияма . Коран подчеркивает телесное воскрешение , разрыв с доисламским арабским пониманием смерти. [69] [70] [71]
В Яум аль-Кияма мусульмане верят, что все человечество будет судимо по своим хорошим и плохим делам и отправлено в Джанна (рай) или Джаханнам (ад). [72] Коран в суре аль-Залзала описывает это так: «Тот, кто сделает добро весом с пылинку, увидит его. И тот, кто сделает зло весом с пылинку, увидит его». Коран перечисляет несколько грехов , которые могут приговорить человека к аду . Однако Коран ясно дает понять, что Бог простит грехи тем, кто раскаивается, если он пожелает. Добрые дела, такие как благотворительность, молитва и сострадание к животным [73], будут вознаграждены входом в рай. Мусульмане рассматривают рай как место радости и благословений, и коранические ссылки описывают его особенности. Мистические традиции в исламе помещают эти небесные наслаждения в контекст экстатического осознания Бога. [74] [75] [76] Яум аль-Кияма также упоминается в Коране как Яум ад-Дин ( يوم الدين «День религии»); [ii] ас-Саах ( الساعة «Последний час»); [iii] и аль-Кариа ( القارعة «Грохот»). [iv]
Божественное предопределение
Концепция божественного предопределения в исламе ( араб . القضاء والقدر , al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar ) означает, что каждое дело, хорошее или плохое, как полагают, было предопределено Богом. Al-qadar , что означает «сила», происходит от корня, который означает «измерять» или «вычислять». [77] [78] [79] [80] Мусульмане часто выражают эту веру в божественную судьбу фразой «Ин-ша-Аллах» ( араб . إن شاء الله ), что означает «если Бог пожелает», когда говорят о будущих событиях. [81]
Акты поклонения
Существует пять актов поклонения, которые считаются обязанностями – Шахада (декларация веры), пять ежедневных молитв, Закят (раздача милостыни), пост во время Рамадана и паломничество Хадж – все вместе известные как «Столпы Ислама» ( Аркан аль-Ислам ). [82] Кроме того, мусульмане также выполняют другие необязательные действия, которые поощряются, но не считаются обязанностями. [83]
Шахада [84] — это клятва, провозглашающая веру в ислам. Расширенное заявление — «‘ ašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾilla-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh » ( أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله ), или «Я свидетельствую, что нет божества, кроме Бога , и я свидетельствую, что Мухаммад — посланник Бога». [85] Иногда утверждают, что ислам имеет очень простое вероучение, а шахада является предпосылкой для остальной религии. Немусульмане, желающие принять ислам, обязаны произнести шахаду в присутствии свидетелей. [86] [87]
Молитва в исламе, называемая ас-салах или ас-сала (араб. الصلاة ), рассматривается как личное общение с Богом и состоит из повторяющихся единиц, называемых ракат , которые включают поклоны и земные поклоны Богу. Есть пять молитв, которые считаются обязанностями каждый день. Молитвы читаются на арабском языке и совершаются в направлении Каабы . Акт также требует состояния ритуальной чистоты, достигаемой посредством либо обычного ритуального омовения вуду , либо, в определенных обстоятельствах, ритуального омовения всего тела гусль . [88] [89] [90] [91]
Мечеть — это место поклонения для мусульман, которые часто называют ее арабским названием масджид . Хотя основное назначение мечети — служить местом молитвы, она также является важным социальным центром для мусульманской общины . Например, Масджид ан-Набави («Пророческая мечеть») в Медине, Саудовская Аравия , также служила убежищем для бедных. [92] Минареты — это башни, используемые для призыва адана , голосового призыва, сигнализирующего о времени молитвы. [93] [94]
Закят ( араб . زكاة , zakāh ), также пишется как Закят или Закят — это тип милостыни , характеризующийся отдачей фиксированной части (2,5% в год) [95] накопленного богатства теми, кто может себе это позволить, чтобы помочь бедным или нуждающимся, например, для освобождения пленников, тех, кто в долгах , или для (застрявших) путешественников, а также для тех, кто нанят для сбора закята. Он действует как форма благосостояния в мусульманских обществах. [96] Считается религиозным обязательством, что состоятельные люди должны нуждающимся, потому что их богатство рассматривается как доверие от щедрости Бога [97] и рассматривается как очищение избыточного богатства. [98] Общая годовая стоимость, внесенная из-за закята, в 15 раз превышает глобальные пожертвования гуманитарной помощи, по консервативным оценкам. [99] Садака , в отличие от закята, является весьма поощряемой необязательной благотворительностью. [100] [101] Вакф — это бессрочный благотворительный фонд , который финансирует больницы и школы в мусульманских обществах. [102]
Пост
Праздник разговения, известный как ифтар , традиционно подается с финиками .
В исламе пост ( араб . صوم , ṣawm ) исключает еду и питье, а также другие формы потребления, такие как курение , и выполняется от рассвета до заката. В течение месяца Рамадан пост считается долгом для мусульман. [103] Пост призван поощрять чувство близости к Богу, ограничивая себя ради Бога от того, что в противном случае было бы допустимо, и думать о нуждающихся. Кроме того, есть и другие дни, такие как День Арафа , когда пост необязателен. [104]
Исламское паломничество , называемое « хадж » (араб. حج ), должно быть совершено по крайней мере один раз в жизни каждым мусульманином при наличии средств для этого в течение исламского месяца Зуль-Хиджа . Ритуалы хаджа в основном имитируют историю семьи Авраама . В Мекке паломники обходят семь раз вокруг Каабы , которую, как верят мусульмане, построил Авраам как место поклонения, и они обходят семь раз между горой Сафа и Марвой , перечисляя шаги жены Авраама, Агари , которая искала воду для своего ребенка Измаила в пустыне до того, как Мекка превратилась в поселение. [105] [106] [107] Паломничество также включает в себя проведение дня в молитвах и поклонении на равнине горы Арафат , а также символическое забрасывание камнями дьявола . [108] Все мужчины-мусульмане носят только два простых белых несшитых куска ткани, называемых ихрам , которые призваны обеспечить преемственность поколений и единообразие среди паломников, несмотря на класс или происхождение. [109] [110] Другая форма паломничества, умра , является необязательной и может быть совершена в любое время года. Другие места исламского паломничества — Медина , где умер Мухаммед, а также Иерусалим , город многих исламских пророков и место Аль-Акса , которое было направлением молитвы перед Меккой. [111] [112]
Другие акты поклонения
Мужчины-мусульмане читают Коран
Мусульмане читают и заучивают Коран целиком или частично как акты добродетели. Таджвид относится к набору правил для правильного чтения Корана. [113] Многие мусульмане читают весь Коран в течение месяца Рамадан. [114] Того, кто выучил весь Коран, называют хафизом («запоминальщиком»), и в хадисах упоминается, что эти люди смогут заступиться за других в Судный день. [115]
Мольба к Богу, называемая по-арабски дуа ( арабский : دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ] ), имеет свой собственный этикет, такой как поднятие рук , как будто прося милостыню. [116]
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Поминание Бога ( ذكر , Зикр ) относится к фразам, которые повторяются, ссылаясь на Бога. Обычно это включает Тахмид, провозглашение хвалы Богу ( الحمد لله , аль-Хамду лиллях ) во время молитвы или когда чувствуешь благодарность, Тасбих , провозглашение славы Богу во время молитвы или когда испытываешь благоговение перед чем-либо и произнесение « во имя Бога » ( بسملة , басмалах ) перед началом действия, такого как еда. [117]
Согласно исламской традиции, Мухаммед родился в Мекке в 570 году н. э. и рано осиротел. Выросший как торговец, он стал известен как « доверенный » ( араб . الامين ) и был востребован как беспристрастный арбитр. Позже он женился на своей работодательнице, предпринимательнице Хадидже . [118] В 610 году н. э., обеспокоенный нравственным упадком и идолопоклонством, распространенным в Мекке, и ища уединения и духовного созерцания, Мухаммед удалился в пещеру Хира на горе Джабаль ан-Нур , недалеко от Мекки. Говорят, что именно во время своего пребывания в пещере он получил первое откровение Корана от ангела Гавриила . [119] Событие ухода Мухаммеда в пещеру и последующее откровение известно как « Ночь могущества » ( Лейлат аль-Кадр ) и считается значимым событием в исламской истории. В течение следующих 22 лет своей жизни, начиная с 40 лет, Мухаммед продолжал получать откровения от Бога, став последним или печатью пророков, посланных человечеству. [50] [51] [120]
«Мухаммад у Каабы» из « Сийер-и Неби» . [121] Мухаммад изображен с закрытым лицом, ок. 1595 г.
В это время, находясь в Мекке, Мухаммед проповедовал сначала тайно, а затем публично, умоляя своих слушателей отказаться от многобожия и поклоняться единому Богу. Многие из первых обращенных в ислам были женщинами, бедняками, иностранцами и рабами, такими как первый муэдзин Билал ибн Рабах аль-Хабаши . [122] Мекканская элита чувствовала, что Мухаммед дестабилизирует их общественный порядок, проповедуя о едином Боге и давая сомнительные идеи бедным и рабам, потому что они получали прибыль от паломничества к идолам Каабы. [123] [124]
После 12 лет преследований мусульман мекканцами Мухаммед и его соратники совершили хиджру («переселение») в 622 году в город Ясриб (нынешняя Медина). Там, вместе с новообращенными мединцами (ансарами ) и мекканскими переселенцами ( мухаджирунами ), Мухаммед в Медине установил свою политическую и религиозную власть . Конституция Медины была подписана всеми племенами Медины. Она установила религиозные свободы и свободу использовать свои собственные законы среди мусульманских и немусульманских общин, а также соглашение о защите Медины от внешних угроз. [125] Мекканские войска и их союзники проиграли мусульманам в битве при Бадре в 624 году, а затем провели безрезультатную битву в битве при Ухуде [126] , прежде чем безуспешно осадить Медину в битве у рва (март–апрель 627 года). В 628 году между Меккой и мусульманами был подписан Худайбийский договор , но он был нарушен Меккой два года спустя. По мере того, как все больше племен принимали ислам, торговые пути Мекки были отрезаны мусульманами. [127] [128] К 629 году Мухаммед одержал победу в почти бескровном завоевании Мекки , и к моменту своей смерти в 632 году (в возрасте 62 лет) он объединил племена Аравии в единое религиозное государство . [129] [40]
Мухаммед умер в 632 году, и первые преемники, называемые халифами – Абу Бакр , Умар , Усман ибн аль-Аффан , Али ибн Аби Талиб и иногда Хасан ибн Али [130] – известны в суннитском исламе как аль-хулафа ар-рашидун (« Праведные халифы »). [131] Некоторые племена оставили ислам и восстали под предводительством лидеров, которые объявили себя новыми пророками, но были раздавлены Абу Бакром в войнах Ридда . [132] [133] [134] [135] [136] Местное население евреев и коренных христиан, преследуемое как религиозные меньшинства и еретики и облагаемое высокими налогами, часто помогало мусульманам захватывать их земли, [137] что привело к быстрому расширению халифата в Персидскую и Византийскую империи. [138] [139] [140] [141] Усман был избран в 644 году , и его убийство мятежниками привело к избранию Али следующим халифом. Во время Первой гражданской войны вдова Мухаммеда, Аиша , собрала армию против Али, пытаясь отомстить за смерть Усмана, но потерпела поражение в битве при Верблюде . Али попытался сместить губернатора Сирии Муавию , который считался коррумпированным. Затем Муавия объявил войну Али и потерпел поражение в битве при Сиффине . Решение Али выступить арбитром разозлило хариджитов , экстремистскую секту, которые считали, что, не сражаясь с грешником, Али также стал грешником. Хариджиты восстали и потерпели поражение в битве при Нахраване, но позже убийца-хариджит убил Али. Сын Али, Хасан ибн Али, был избран халифом и подписал мирный договор , чтобы избежать дальнейших боевых действий, отрекшись от престола в пользу Муавии в обмен на то, что Муавия не назначит преемника. [142] Муавия начал династию Омейядов , назначив своего сына Язида I преемником, что вызвало Вторую гражданскую войну . Во время битвы при Кербеле Хусейн ибн Али был убит войсками Язида; это событие ежегодно отмечается шиитами с тех пор. Сунниты во главе с Ибн аль-Зубайром , выступавшие против династического халифата, потерпели поражение при осаде Мекки . Эти споры о лидерстве привели к расколу суннитов и шиитов ,[143] с шиитским руководством, принадлежащим семье Мухаммеда через Али, называемого ахль аль-байт . [144]
Руководство Абу Бакра курировало начало составления Корана. Халиф Умар ибн Абд аль-Азиз создал комитет, Семь факихов Медины , [145] [146] и Малик ибн Анас написал одну из самых ранних книг по исламскому праву, Муватта , как консенсус мнения этих юристов. [147] [148] [149] Хариджиты верили, что не существует компромиссного среднего уровня между добром и злом, и любой мусульманин, совершивший тяжкий грех, станет неверующим. Термин «хариджиты» также будет использоваться для обозначения более поздних групп, таких как ИГИЛ. [150] Мурджиа учили , что праведность людей может быть оценена только Богом. Поэтому грешники могли считаться заблудшими, но не осуждаться как неверующие. [151] Такое отношение стало преобладать в основных исламских верованиях. [152]
Династия Омейядов завоевала Магриб , Пиренейский полуостров , Нарбоннскую Галлию и Синд . [153] Омейяды боролись с отсутствием легитимности и полагались на сильно покровительствуемую армию. [154] Поскольку налог джизья был налогом, уплачиваемым немусульманами, который освобождал их от военной службы, Омейяды отрицали признание обращения неарабов, поскольку это уменьшало доходы. [152] В то время как Рашидунский халифат подчеркивал строгость, а Умар даже требовал инвентаризации имущества каждого чиновника, [155] роскошь Омейядов вызывала недовольство среди набожных людей. [152] Хариджиты возглавили берберское восстание , которое привело к появлению первых мусульманских государств, независимых от халифата. В ходе Аббасидской революции неарабские новообращенные ( мавали ), арабские кланы, оттесненные кланом Омейядов, и некоторые шииты объединились и свергли Омейядов, положив начало более космополитичной династии Аббасидов в 750 году. [156] [157]
Классическая эпоха (750–1258)
Аш-Шафии кодифицировал метод определения надежности хадисов. [158] В раннюю эпоху Аббасидов такие ученые, как Мухаммад аль-Бухари и Муслим ибн аль-Хаджадж, составили основные суннитские сборники хадисов , в то время как такие ученые, как Аль-Кулайни и Ибн Бабавайх, составили основные шиитские сборники хадисов. Четыре суннитских мазхаба , ханафитский, ханбалитский, маликитский и шафиитский, были созданы вокруг учений Абу Ханифы , Ахмада ибн Ханбала , Малика ибн Анаса и аш-Шафии . Напротив, учения Джафара ас-Садыка сформировали джафаритскую юриспруденцию . В IX веке Ат-Табари завершил первый комментарий Корана, Тафсир ат-Табари , который стал одним из самых цитируемых комментариев в суннитском исламе. Некоторые мусульмане начали подвергать сомнению благочестие потворства мирской жизни и подчеркивали бедность, смирение и избегание греха, основанное на отказе от телесных желаний. Такие аскеты, как Хасан аль-Басри, вдохновили движение, которое впоследствии превратилось в тасаввуф или суфизм . [159] [160]
В это время теологические проблемы, в частности, касающиеся свободы воли, были заметно затронуты, причем Хасан аль-Басри считал, что, хотя Бог знает поступки людей, добро и зло происходят от злоупотребления свободной волей и дьявола . [161] [b] Греческая рационалистическая философия оказала влияние на спекулятивную школу мысли, известную как мутазилиты , которая, как известно, отстаивала идею свободы воли, созданную Василем ибн Атой . [163] Халиф Мамун аль-Рашид сделал ее официальным символом веры и безуспешно пытался навязать эту позицию большинству. [164] Халиф Аль-Мутасим проводил инквизиции , при этом традиционалист Ахмад ибн Ханбал в частности отказался следовать идее мутазилитов о том, что Коран был создан, а не вечен , в результате чего его пытали и держали в неосвещенной тюремной камере почти тридцать месяцев. [165] Однако другие школы спекулятивной теологии – матуридизм , основанный Абу Мансуром аль-Матуриди , и ашаритизм , основанный аль-Ашари , – были более успешными в широком принятии. Такие философы, как аль-Фараби , Авиценна и Аверроэс, стремились согласовать идеи Аристотеля с учениями ислама, подобно более поздней схоластике в христианстве в Европе и работам Маймонида в иудаизме, в то время как другие, такие как аль-Газали, выступали против такого синкретизма и в конечном итоге победили. [166] [167]
Солдаты отделились от империи Аббасидов и основали свои собственные династии, такие как Тулуниды в 868 году в Египте [193] и династия Газневидов в 977 году в Средней Азии. [194] В этой фрагментации наступил Шиитский век , примерно между 945 и 1055 годами, который ознаменовался подъемом миллениалистского исмаилитского шиитского миссионерского движения. Одна группа исмаилитов, династия Фатимидов , взяла под контроль Северную Африку в 10 веке [195], а другая группа исмаилитов, карматы , разграбили Мекку и украли Черный камень , камень, помещенный в Каабу, во время своего неудачного восстания. [196] Еще одна группа исмаилитов, династия Буидов , завоевала Багдад и превратила Аббасидов в номинальную монархию. Суннитская династия Сельджуков проводила кампанию по восстановлению суннитского ислама , пропагандируя научные взгляды того времени, в частности, путем строительства образовательных учреждений, известных как Незамийе , которые связаны с именами Аль-Газали и Саади Ширази . [197]
Расширение мусульманского мира продолжилось религиозными миссиями, обращавшими Волжскую Булгарию в ислам. Делийский султанат проник глубоко в Индийский субконтинент , и многие приняли ислам, [198] в частности, индусы низшей касты , чьи потомки составляют подавляющее большинство индийских мусульман. [199] Торговля привела многих мусульман в Китай , где они фактически доминировали в импортной и экспортной промышленности династии Сун . [200] Мусульмане были набраны в качестве правящего меньшинства в династии Юань . [201]
Благодаря мусульманским торговым сетям и деятельности суфийских орденов [202] ислам распространился на новые территории [203] , а мусульмане ассимилировались с новыми культурами.
Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[204] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[205] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[206] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[c][208]Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[209] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[210][211]
Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate.[212] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[213]Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model,[214] and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[215]
After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[216] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[217] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[218]
The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[219] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[220] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[221]Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[222] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[223]
Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[224] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,[224] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[225] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[226] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[227] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[228][229] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[229][230] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[230][231][232] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[230][233]Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[234] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[235] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[236] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[237][238]
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[252] Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America.[253] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[254] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[255]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[256][257] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[258]Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[259] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[260] The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[261]
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[262][263] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[264] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[265] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[266] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[267]
Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[268] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[269] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[270] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[271] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[272][273] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[274]
The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[275] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[276] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[277][278] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[279] notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[280][281] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[282][283] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[284] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[285]
Demographics
Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[286]World percentage of Muslims by country
As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.[6][8][287][288][289][290] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[291] in 1990 it was 19.9%[254] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[292] The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.[293] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[294][295][296][297][298][299] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia,[300]Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[301][302][303]Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[304] followed by Bengalis[305][306] and Punjabis.[307] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[308][309]Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[310] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[311]
Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[312] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[313][314]
According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[315]In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[316] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[317][318]
By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[319][292] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[292]
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[320][321][322] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".[323] Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",[324][325][326] though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.[327] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[328][329]
Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[330]Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[331] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[332]
Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[333] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[334] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[334][335]
Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[336][337][293] Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[338][339] Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.[340]
According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.[341] Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[342][343] Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph.[344] Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad.[345] Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,[346] citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr,[347] other historical evidence,[348] and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.[349]
Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn.[350]Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[351]Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[352][353] They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".[354] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[355]
Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[357] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[358]
An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam
Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[368] Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,[369] with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[370]
Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith,[371] with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam.[372] The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition.[373] In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine Al-Manār, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.[374] A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerologicalcode in the Quran, and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International.[375]
Non-denominational Muslims
Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[376][377] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[378][379][380] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[381]
Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[382][383][384][385]Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."[386] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism[387] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[388]Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[389] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.[390][391]
Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.[392] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[393][392] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.[394] Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[395]
Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[396] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[159] The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[397][398][399] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[400][401] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[381][402]
Law and jurisprudence
Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[328][403] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[404][405] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[328]
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[406] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[404] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[404] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[404][405] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[407] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible, forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[408] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[405]
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[404][405] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[405] The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[244] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[405] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[405][409] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[405][409] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[410][411]
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili schools. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[412] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[413]
Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[414] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[415]
Governance
In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[416] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[417] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[418] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[419] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[420] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[421][422] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[423]
Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".[424] Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection[425][426][427] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[428][429] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[424][425] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[428][429] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[430] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[429] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.[431][432]
Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[433] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.[434][435][436] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[437] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[d][439] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[440]Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[441] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[442]
A Muslim couple
In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[443][444][445]Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[446][447] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[448][449] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[450]Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[451]
Shia Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran
After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[452] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[453] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[453] Male circumcision, called khitan,[454] is often practised in the Muslim world.[455][456] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[457]
A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.[458] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[459] A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[460]
Arts and culture
The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[461] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[462] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[463]
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[464][465] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[466] Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims.[467] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[468] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[469]
The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[470] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[471][82]
Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[472][473]
The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region
Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran
Influences on other religions
Some movements, such as the Druze,[474][475][476]Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[477] The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[478][479]Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[480]Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[481]Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[482]
Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[484]
Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [485]
Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[486] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[487] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[487]
Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[488] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[489]
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^"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[207]
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^Esposito (2003), p. 339
^Esposito (1998), p. 79
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^Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
^Ratno Lukito. Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable. Routledge. p. 81.
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^Anwer, Abdul Wahid; Samad, Lubna; Baig-Ansari, Naila; Iftikhar, Sundus (January 2017). "Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting". BioMed Research International. 2017. Hindawi Publishing Corporation: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2017/4957348. PMC 5282422. PMID 28194416.
^"Islam: Circumcision of boys". Religion & ethics—Islam. Bbc.co.uk. 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^Campo (2009), p. 136.
^Mathijssen, Brenda; Venhorst, Claudia; Venbrux, Eric; Quartier, Thomas (2013). Changing European Death Ways. Austria: Lit. p. 265. ISBN 9783643900678.
^Stefon (2010), p. 83.
^Rahman, Rema (25 October 2011). "Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
^Lawrence, Bruce (2021). Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit. United Kingdom: Wiley. p. xii. ISBN 9781405155144.
^Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8.
^Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. ISBN 9780198606536. OCLC 50238944.
^Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
^T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.: 249–252. JSTOR 860736.
^Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). Indonesian Heritage-Architecture. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 981-3018-30-5.
^"Islamic calendar". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
^Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9780195165203.
^Aitchison, Cara; Hopkins, Peter E.; Mei-Po Kwan (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4094-8747-0. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
^Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9781317441250. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.
^De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
^Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3. Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
^R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5. As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
^D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7. In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
^Bryer, David R. W. (1975). "The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)". Der Islam. 52 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239. ISSN 1613-0928. S2CID 162363556.
^Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.
^House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
^"St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
^Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 18, 35. ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4.
^Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.
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