stringtranslate.com

Американская революция

Американская революция была восстанием и политическим движением в Тринадцати колониях , которое достигло своего пика, когда колонисты начали в конечном итоге успешную войну за независимость против Королевства Великобритании . Лидерами Американской революции были лидеры колониальных сепаратистов , которые изначально стремились к большей автономии в качестве британских подданных, но позже объединились для поддержки Войны за независимость, которая положила конец британскому колониальному правлению над колониями, установив их независимость как Соединенных Штатов Америки в июле 1776 года.

Недовольство колониальным правлением началось вскоре после поражения Франции во франко-индейской войне в 1763 году. Хотя колонии сражались и поддерживали войну, парламент ввел новые налоги, чтобы компенсировать военные расходы, и передал контроль над западными землями колоний британским чиновникам в Монреале . Представители нескольких колоний созвали Конгресс по Акту о гербовом сборе ; его «Декларация прав и жалоб» утверждала, что налогообложение без представительства нарушает их права как англичан . В 1767 году напряженность снова вспыхнула после принятия британским парламентом Актов Тауншенда . Пытаясь подавить нарастающее восстание, король Георг III направил войска в Бостон . Местное противостояние привело к тому, что войска убили протестующих в Бостонской бойне 5 марта 1770 года. В 1772 году антиналоговые демонстранты в Род-Айленде уничтожили таможенную шхуну Королевского флота Gaspee . 16 декабря 1773 года активисты, переодетые индейцами, спровоцировали Бостонское чаепитие и сбросили ящики с чаем, принадлежавшие Британской Ост-Индской компании, в Бостонскую гавань . Лондон закрыл Бостонскую гавань и принял ряд карательных законов , которые фактически положили конец самоуправлению в Массачусетсе.

В конце 1774 года 12 из тринадцати колоний (Джорджия присоединилась в 1775 году) отправили делегатов на Первый континентальный конгресс в Филадельфии . Он начал координировать сопротивление патриотов через подпольные сети комитетов . В апреле 1775 года британские войска попытались разоружить местные ополчения вокруг Бостона и вступили с ними в бой . 14 июня 1775 года Второй континентальный конгресс ответил, санкционировав формирование Континентальной армии и назначив Джорджа Вашингтона ее главнокомандующим. В августе король объявил Массачусетс находящимся в состоянии открытого неповиновения и мятежа . Континентальная армия окружила Бостон, и британцы отступили по морю в марте 1776 года, оставив патриотов под контролем в каждой колонии. В июле 1776 года Второй континентальный конгресс начал брать на себя роль управления новой страной . 2 июля была принята Резолюция Ли о национальной независимости, а 4 июля 1776 года была принята Декларация независимости , которая воплощала в себе политические философии либерализма и республиканизма , отвергала монархию и аристократию и провозглашала, что « все люди созданы равными ».

Бои продолжались в течение пяти лет, теперь известные как Война за независимость . В это время королевства Франция и Испания вступили в качестве союзников Соединенных Штатов. Решающая победа пришла осенью 1781 года, когда объединенные американские и французские армии захватили целую британскую армию при осаде Йорктауна . Поражение привело к краху контроля короля Георга над парламентом, и теперь большинство выступало за прекращение войны на американских условиях. 3 сентября 1783 года британцы подписали Парижский договор, по которому Соединенным Штатам отошла почти вся территория к востоку от реки Миссисипи и к югу от Великих озер . Около 60 000 лоялистов мигрировали на другие британские территории в Канаде и других местах, но подавляющее большинство осталось в Соединенных Штатах. С победой в Американской революции Соединенные Штаты стали первой конституционной республикой в ​​мировой истории, основанной на согласии управляемых и верховенстве закона .

Происхождение

Восточная часть Северной Америки в 1775 году, включая провинцию Квебек , тринадцать колоний на Атлантическом побережье и индейскую резервацию , как определено Королевской прокламацией 1763 года . Граница между красными и розовыми областями представляет собой линию Прокламации 1763 года , а оранжевая область представляет собой испанские колониальные претензии .

1651–1763: Ранние семена

С самого начала английской колонизации Америки английское правительство проводило политику меркантилизма для укрепления экономической и политической мощи Англии путем ограничения импорта, поощрения экспорта, регулирования торговли, получения доступа к новым природным ресурсам и накопления новых драгоценных металлов в качестве валютных резервов . Меркантилистская политика была определяющей чертой нескольких англо- американских колоний с момента их основания. Первоначальный устав Вирджинской компании 1606 года регулировал торговлю в том, что впоследствии стало колонией Вирджиния . В целом, экспорт сырья в зарубежные страны был запрещен, импорт иностранных товаров не поощрялся, а каботаж был ограничен английскими судами. Эти правила обеспечивались Королевским флотом .

После победы парламентариев в гражданской войне в Англии было принято первое меркантилистское законодательство. В 1651 году парламент Охвостья принял первый из Навигационных актов , призванных как улучшить торговые связи Англии с ее колониями, так и решить проблему голландского доминирования в трансатлантической торговле в то время. Это привело к началу войны с Нидерландами в следующем году. [1] [2] После Реставрации Акт 1651 года был отменен, но Кавалерийский парламент принял ряд еще более ограничительных Навигационных актов . Реакция колоний на эту политику была неоднозначной. Акты запрещали экспорт табака и другого сырья на неанглийские территории, что не позволяло многим плантаторам получать более высокие цены за свои товары. Кроме того, торговцам было запрещено импортировать определенные товары и материалы из других стран, что наносило ущерб прибыли. Эти факторы привели к контрабанде среди колониальных торговцев, особенно после принятия Акта о патоке . С другой стороны, некоторые торговцы и местные предприятия извлекли выгоду из ограничений иностранной конкуренции. Ограничения на суда, построенные за рубежом, также принесли большую пользу колониальной судостроительной промышленности, особенно колоний Новой Англии . Некоторые утверждают, что экономическое воздействие на колонистов было минимальным, [3] [4] но политическое трение, вызванное этими актами, было более серьезным, поскольку торговцы, которых это затронуло больше всего, были также и наиболее политически активными. [5]

Восстановление короля Карла II на английском престоле в 1660 году повлияло на развитие уникального американского характера. Новая Англия имела сильное пуританское наследие и поддерживала парламентское правительство Содружества , которое было ответственно за казнь его отца, Карла I. Массачусетс не признавал легитимность правления Карла II в течение более года после его коронации. Война короля Филиппа велась с 1675 по 1678 год между колониями Новой Англии и горсткой коренных племен. Она велась без военной помощи со стороны Англии, тем самым способствуя развитию уникальной американской идентичности, отдельной от британского народа . [6] Затем Чарльз решил привести колонии Новой Англии под более централизованное управление и прямой английский контроль в 1680-х годах. [7] Колонисты Новой Англии яростно сопротивлялись его усилиям, и Корона в ответ аннулировала их колониальные хартии. [8] Преемник Чарльза Яков II завершил эти усилия в 1686 году, создав объединенный Доминион Новая Англия , который также включал ранее отдельные колонии Нью-Йорк и Нью-Джерси . Эдмунд Андрос был назначен королевским губернатором и получил задание управлять новым Доминионом под его прямым управлением . Колониальные ассамблеи и городские собрания были ограничены, были введены новые налоги, а права были урезаны. Правление Доминиона вызвало ожесточенное негодование по всей Новой Англии. [9]

Однако жители Новой Англии были воодушевлены сменой правительства в Англии , в результате которой король Яков II фактически отрекся от престола, а популистское восстание в Бостоне свергло правление Доминиона 18 апреля 1689 года . [10] [11] Колониальные правительства восстановили свой контроль после восстания. Новые монархи, Вильгельм и Мария , предоставили новые хартии отдельным колониям Новой Англии, и было восстановлено местное демократическое самоуправление. [12] [13]

Однако последующие британские правительства продолжали свои усилия по налогообложению некоторых товаров, принимая законы, регулирующие торговлю шерстью , [14] шляпами , [15] и патокой . [16] Закон о патоке 1733 года был особенно вопиющим для колонистов, поскольку значительная часть колониальной торговли зависела от патоки . Налоги нанесли серьезный ущерб экономике Новой Англии и привели к всплеску контрабанды, взяточничества и запугивания таможенников. [17] Колониальные войны, которые велись в Америке, также были источником значительной напряженности. Например, колониальные войска Новой Англии захватили крепость Луисбург в Акадии во время войны короля Георга в 1745 году, но британское правительство затем уступило ее Франции в 1748 году в обмен на Ченнаи в далекой Индии . Колонисты Новой Англии были возмущены потерями человеческих жизней, а также усилиями и расходами, приложенными для покорения крепости, но в итоге она была возвращена их бывшему врагу, который оставался для них угрозой и после войны. [18]

Некоторые авторы начинают свои истории Американской революции с победы британской коалиции в Семилетней войне в 1763 году, рассматривая Франко-индейскую войну как американский театр Семилетней войны . Лоуренс Генри Гипсон пишет:

Можно с таким же основанием утверждать, что Американская революция стала следствием англо-французского конфликта в Новом Свете, который продолжался с 1754 по 1763 год. [19]

Новые границы, установленные Королевской прокламацией 1763 года

Королевская прокламация 1763 года перерисовала границы земель к западу от недавно британского Квебека и к западу от линии, проходящей вдоль гребня Аллеганских гор , сделав их территорией коренных народов , закрытой для колониального поселения в течение двух лет. Колонисты протестовали, и линия границы была скорректирована в серии договоров с коренными племенами. В 1768 году ирокезы согласились на Договор Форт-Стэнвикс , а чероки согласились на Договор о каторжных работах, за которым в 1770 году последовал Договор Лохабер . Договоры открыли большую часть того, что является современным Кентукки и Западной Вирджинией, для колониального поселения. Новая карта была составлена ​​по Договору Форт-Стэнвикс, который переместил линию намного дальше на запад. [20]

1764–1766: Введение и отмена налогов

Уведомление о Законе о гербовом сборе 1765 года в колониальной газете

В 1764 году парламент принял Закон о сахаре , уменьшив существующие таможенные пошлины на сахар и патоку, но предусмотрев более строгие меры по их исполнению и сбору. В том же году премьер-министр Джордж Гренвилл предложил ввести прямые налоги на колонии для повышения доходов, но отложил принятие мер, чтобы посмотреть, предложат ли сами колонии какой-либо способ повышения доходов. [21]

Гренвилл утверждал в 1762 году, что весь доход таможенных служб в Америке составлял одну или две тысячи фунтов стерлингов в год, и что английское казначейство платило от семи до восьми тысяч фунтов стерлингов в год для сбора. [22] Адам Смит писал в «Богатстве народов» , что парламент «никогда до сих пор не требовал от [американских колоний] ничего, что хотя бы приближалось к справедливой пропорции к тому, что платили их соотечественники дома». [22] Бенджамин Франклин позже свидетельствовал в парламенте в 1766 году об обратном, сообщая, что американцы уже внесли большой вклад в оборону Империи. Он утверждал, что местные колониальные правительства набрали, снарядили и заплатили 25 000 солдат для борьбы с Францией только во время Франко-индейской войны — столько же, сколько отправила сама Британия — и потратили на это много миллионов из американской казны. [23] [24]

Однако британцы реагировали на совершенно другую проблему: по завершении недавней войны Короне пришлось иметь дело примерно с 1500 политически хорошо связанными офицерами британской армии. Было принято решение оставить их на действительной службе с полной оплатой, и они должны были где-то быть размещены. Размещение постоянной армии в Великобритании в мирное время было политически неприемлемо, поэтому они решили разместить их в Британской Америке и заставить американцев платить им через новый налог. У солдат не было военной миссии; они не были там для защиты колоний, потому что в настоящее время не было никакой угрозы для колоний. [25]

В марте 1765 года парламент принял Закон о гербовом сборе , который впервые ввел прямые налоги для колоний. Все официальные документы, газеты, альманахи и брошюры должны были иметь марки — даже колоды игральных карт. Колонисты не возражали против того, что налоги были высокими; на самом деле они были низкими. [a] [26] Они возражали против отсутствия у них представительства в парламенте, что не давало им права голоса в отношении законодательства, которое их касалось, например, налога, нарушающего неписаную английскую конституцию . Это недовольство было обобщено в лозунге «Нет налогообложению без представительства». Вскоре после принятия Закона о гербовом сборе образовалась организация «Сыны свободы » , которая начала использовать публичные демонстрации, бойкоты и угрозы насилия, чтобы гарантировать, что британские налоговые законы станут неисполнимыми. В Бостоне «Сыны свободы» сожгли записи вице-адмиралтейского суда и разграбили дом главного судьи Томаса Хатчинсона . Несколько законодательных органов призвали к совместным действиям, и девять колоний отправили делегатов на Конгресс по Акту о гербовом сборе в Нью-Йорке в октябре. Умеренные во главе с Джоном Дикинсоном составили Декларацию прав и жалоб , в которой говорилось, что колонисты равны всем остальным гражданам Великобритании и что налоги, принимаемые без представительства, нарушают их права как англичан , и Конгресс подчеркнул свою решимость, организовав бойкот импорта всех британских товаров . [27] Американские представители, такие как Сэмюэл Адамс, Джеймс Отис, Джон Хэнкок, Джон Дикинсон, Томас Пейн и многие другие, отвергли аристократию и выдвинули « республиканизм » как политическую философию, которая лучше всего подходит для американских условий. [28] [29]

Парламент в Вестминстере считал себя высшим законодательным органом во всей Империи и, таким образом, имел право взимать любые налоги без одобрения колонистов или даже консультаций с ними. [30] Они утверждали, что колонии были юридически британскими корпорациями, подчиненными британскому парламенту. [31] Парламент настаивал на том, что колонисты фактически пользовались « виртуальным представительством », как и большинство британцев, поскольку лишь незначительное меньшинство британского населения имело право избирать представителей в парламент. [32] Однако американцы, такие как Джеймс Отис, утверждали, что в парламенте нет никого, кто бы отвечал конкретно за какой-либо колониальный избирательный округ, поэтому они не были «виртуально представлены» никем в парламенте. [33]

Правительство Рокингема пришло к власти в июле 1765 года, и парламент обсуждал, следует ли отменить гербовый сбор или послать армию для его введения. Бенджамин Франклин предстал перед ними, чтобы изложить доводы в пользу отмены, объяснив, что колонии потратили много рабочей силы, денег и крови, защищая империю, и что дальнейшие налоги для оплаты этих войн несправедливы и могут привести к восстанию. Парламент согласился и отменил налог 21 февраля 1766 года, но они настояли в Декларативном акте от марта 1766 года, что они сохраняют полную власть принимать законы для колоний «во всех случаях». [34] [35] Тем не менее отмена вызвала широкое празднование в колониях.

1767–1773: Законы Тауншенда и Закон о чае

Письмо III из «Писем фермера из Пенсильвании » Джона Дикинсона , опубликованное в « Пенсильванской хронике» в декабре 1767 г.
9 июня 1772 года « Сыны свободы» сожгли в заливе Наррагансетт британскую таможенную шхуну HMS Gaspee .
Бостонское чаепитие 16 декабря 1773 года , возглавляемое Сэмюэлем Адамсом и «Сынами свободы» , стало оплотом американского патриотизма.

В 1767 году британский парламент принял Акты Тауншенда , которые установили пошлины на несколько основных товаров, включая бумагу, стекло и чай, и учредил Таможенное управление в Бостоне для более строгого соблюдения правил торговли. Целью парламента было не столько получение доходов, сколько утверждение своей власти над колониями. Новые налоги были введены на основе убеждения, что американцы возражают только против внутренних налогов, а не против внешних налогов, таких как таможенные пошлины. Однако в своей широко читаемой брошюре « Письма фермера из Пенсильвании » Джон Дикинсон выступил против конституционности актов, поскольку их целью было повышение доходов, а не регулирование торговли. [36] Колонисты отреагировали на налоги, организовав новые бойкоты британских товаров. Однако эти бойкоты были менее эффективными, поскольку товары, облагаемые налогом по Актам Тауншенда, широко использовались.

В феврале 1768 года Ассамблея колонии Массачусетского залива выпустила циркулярное письмо другим колониям, призывая их координировать сопротивление. Губернатор распустил собрание, когда оно отказалось отменить письмо. Тем временем в июне 1768 года в Бостоне вспыхнул бунт из-за захвата шлюпа Liberty , принадлежавшего Джону Хэнкоку , по подозрению в контрабанде. Таможенные служащие были вынуждены бежать, что побудило британцев направить войска в Бостон. Городское собрание Бостона заявило, что парламентским законам не следует подчиняться, и призвало к созыву конвента. Конвент собрался, но выразил лишь умеренный протест, прежде чем распуститься. В январе 1769 года парламент отреагировал на беспорядки, возобновив действие Закона об измене 1543 года , который призывал подданных за пределами королевства предстать перед судом за измену в Англии. Губернатору Массачусетса было поручено собрать доказательства указанной измены, и эта угроза вызвала всеобщее возмущение, хотя и не была приведена в исполнение.

5 марта 1770 года большая толпа собралась вокруг группы британских солдат на улице Бостона. Толпа стала угрожающей, бросая в них снежки, камни и мусор. Один солдат был избит дубинкой и упал. [37] Приказа стрелять не было, но солдаты запаниковали и открыли огонь по толпе. Они ранили 11 человек; трое гражданских лиц умерли от ран на месте стрельбы, а двое вскоре умерли. Событие быстро стало называться Бостонской резней . Солдат судили и оправдали (защищал Джон Адамс ), но широко распространенные описания вскоре начали настраивать колониальные настроения против британцев. Это ускорило нисходящую спираль в отношениях между Великобританией и провинцией Массачусетс. [37]

Новое министерство под руководством лорда Норта пришло к власти в 1770 году, и парламент отменил большинство пошлин Тауншенда, за исключением налога на чай. Это временно разрешило кризис, и бойкот британских товаров в значительной степени прекратился, и только более радикальные патриоты, такие как Сэмюэл Адамс, продолжали агитировать. [ необходима цитата ]

В июне 1772 года американские патриоты, включая Джона Брауна , сожгли британский военный корабль, который энергично проводил в жизнь непопулярные правила торговли, что стало известно как дело Гаспи . Дело расследовалось на предмет возможной измены, но никаких действий предпринято не было.

В 1773 году были опубликованы частные письма , в которых губернатор Массачусетса Томас Хатчинсон утверждал, что колонисты не могут пользоваться всеми английскими свободами, а вице-губернатор Эндрю Оливер призывал к прямой оплате колониальных чиновников, которая выплачивалась местными властями. Это уменьшило бы влияние колониальных представителей на их правительство. Содержание писем использовалось как доказательство систематического заговора против американских прав и дискредитировало Хатчинсона в глазах народа; колониальная Ассамблея подала прошение о его отзыве. Бенджамин Франклин, генеральный почтмейстер колоний, признал, что он слил письма, что привело к его отстранению от должности.

В Бостоне Сэмюэл Адамс приступил к созданию новых Комитетов по переписке , которые связали патриотов во всех 13 колониях и в конечном итоге обеспечили основу для повстанческого правительства. Вирджиния, крупнейшая колония, создала свой Комитет по переписке в начале 1773 года, в котором работали Патрик Генри и Томас Джефферсон. [38] В общей сложности около 7000-8000 патриотов работали в этих комитетах; лоялисты были исключены. Комитеты стали лидерами американского сопротивления британским действиям, а позже в значительной степени определяли военные усилия на государственном и местном уровне. Когда Первый Континентальный конгресс решил бойкотировать британские продукты, колониальные и местные комитеты взяли на себя ответственность, изучая торговые записи и публикуя имена торговцев, которые пытались бросить вызов бойкоту, импортируя британские товары. [39]

Тем временем парламент принял Закон о чае, снизив цену на облагаемый налогом чай, экспортируемый в колонии, чтобы помочь Британской Ост-Индской компании продавать контрабандный необлагаемый налогом голландский чай по более низкой цене. Были назначены специальные грузополучатели, чтобы продавать чай в обход колониальных торговцев. Акт вызвал противодействие со стороны тех, кто сопротивлялся налогам, а также контрабандистов, которые могли потерять бизнес. [ необходима цитата ] В каждой колонии демонстранты предупредили торговцев не ввозить чай, который включал ненавистный новый налог. В большинстве случаев американцы вынуждали грузополучателей уйти в отставку, и чай возвращали, но губернатор Массачусетса Хатчинсон отказался позволить бостонским торговцам поддаться давлению. Городское собрание в Бостоне постановило, что чай не будет выгружен, и проигнорировало требование губернатора разойтись. 16 декабря 1773 года группа мужчин во главе с Сэмюэлем Адамсом, одетых так, чтобы напоминать коренных жителей, высадилась на корабли Ост-Индской компании и сбросила из своих трюмов чай ​​стоимостью 10 000 фунтов стерлингов (примерно 636 000 фунтов стерлингов в 2008 году) в Бостонскую гавань . Спустя десятилетия это событие стало известно как Бостонское чаепитие и остается важной частью американского патриотического фольклора. [40] [ нужна страница ]

1774–1775: Недопустимые действия

Иллюстрация из The London Magazine 1774 года изображает премьер-министра лорда Норта , автора Бостонского портового акта , навязывающего Америке Невыносимые акты , чьи руки удерживает лорд-главный судья Мэнсфилд с рваной «Бостонской петицией», растоптанной на земле рядом с ней. Лорд Сэндвич прижимает ее ноги к земле и заглядывает ей под мантию; за ними рыдает Мать Британия , а Франция и Испания смотрят.

Британское правительство ответило принятием четырех законов, которые стали известны как « Невыносимые акты» , еще больше омрачившие колониальное мнение об Англии. [41] Первым был Закон о правительстве Массачусетса , который изменил устав Массачусетса и ограничил городские собрания. Вторым был Закон об отправлении правосудия , который предписывал, чтобы все британские солдаты, подлежащие суду, были привлечены к ответственности в Великобритании, а не в колониях. Третьим был Закон о Бостонском порту , который закрыл порт Бостона до тех пор, пока британцы не получат компенсацию за чай, потерянный во время Бостонского чаепития. Четвертым был Закон о постоялом дворе 1774 года , который позволял королевским губернаторам размещать британские войска в домах граждан без разрешения владельца. [42]

В ответ патриоты Массачусетса выпустили « Резолюции Саффолка» и сформировали альтернативное теневое правительство, известное как Провинциальный конгресс, который начал подготовку ополченцев за пределами оккупированного британцами Бостона. [43] В сентябре 1774 года был созван Первый Континентальный конгресс , состоящий из представителей каждой колонии, чтобы служить средством для обсуждения и коллективных действий. Во время секретных дебатов консерватор Джозеф Гэллоуэй предложил создать колониальный парламент, который мог бы одобрять или не одобрять акты британского парламента, но его идея была вынесена на голосование 6 против 5 и впоследствии была удалена из протокола. [ необходима цитата ] Конгресс призвал к бойкоту, начиная с 1 декабря 1774 года, всех британских товаров; это было обеспечено новыми местными комитетами, уполномоченными Конгрессом. [44] Он также начал координировать сопротивление патриотов ополченцами, которые существовали в каждой колонии и которые приобрели военный опыт во время Франко-индейской войны. Впервые патриоты вооружились и объединились против парламента.

Начало военных действий

«Присоединяйся или умри » — политическая карикатура, созданная в 1754 году и приписываемая Бенджамину Франклину , использовалась для того, чтобы призвать Тринадцать колоний объединиться против британского колониального правления.

Король Георг объявил Массачусетс находящимся в состоянии мятежа в феврале 1775 года [45] , и британский гарнизон получил приказ конфисковать оружие мятежников и арестовать их лидеров, что привело к сражениям при Лексингтоне и Конкорде 19 апреля 1775 года. Патриоты собрали ополчение численностью 15 000 человек и осадили Бостон, занятый 6500 британскими солдатами. Второй Континентальный конгресс собрался в Филадельфии 14 июня 1775 года. Конгресс разделился по вопросу о лучшем курсе действий. Они санкционировали формирование Континентальной армии и назначили Джорджа Вашингтона ее главнокомандующим, а также подготовили петицию Olive Branch , в которой попытались прийти к соглашению с королем Георгом. Однако король издал Прокламацию о восстании , в которой заявлялось, что штаты «подняли мятеж», а члены Конгресса — предатели. Битва при Банкер-Хилле состоялась 17 июня 1775 года. Это была победа британцев, но дорогой ценой: около 1000 британских потерь из гарнизона численностью около 6000 человек по сравнению с 500 американскими потерями из гораздо более многочисленного войска. [46] [47]

Как писал Бенджамин Франклин Джозефу Пристли в октябре 1775 года:

Британия, за счет трех миллионов, убила 150 янки в этой кампании, что составляет 20 000 фунтов стерлингов на душу населения... За это же время в Америке родилось 60 000 детей. Из этих данных его математическая голова легко подсчитает время и расходы, необходимые для того, чтобы убить нас всех. [48]

Зимой 1775 года американцы вторглись в северо-восточный Квебек под командованием генералов Бенедикта Арнольда и Ричарда Монтгомери , рассчитывая собрать там сочувствующих колонистов. Атака оказалась неудачной; многие американцы были убиты, взяты в плен или умерли от оспы.

В марте 1776 года, при поддержке укрепления Дорчестер-Хайтс пушками, недавно захваченными в Форте Тикондерога , Континентальная армия под руководством Джорджа Вашингтона заставила британцев эвакуироваться из Бостона . Революционеры теперь полностью контролировали все тринадцать колоний и были готовы объявить независимость. Лоялистов все еще было много, но к июлю 1776 года они уже нигде не контролировали, и все королевские чиновники бежали. [49]

Создание новых конституций штатов

После битвы при Банкер-Хилл в июне 1775 года патриоты взяли под контроль Массачусетс за пределами городской черты Бостона , и лоялисты внезапно оказались в обороне без защиты со стороны британской армии. В каждой из Тринадцати колоний американские патриоты свергли свои существующие правительства, закрыли суды и выгнали британских колониальных чиновников. Они провели выборные съезды и создали свои собственные законодательные органы , которые существовали вне любых правовых параметров, установленных британцами. В каждом штате были составлены новые конституции, заменившие королевские хартии. Они провозгласили, что теперь они являются штатами , а не колониями . [50]

5 января 1776 года Нью-Гэмпшир ратифицировал первую конституцию штата. В мае 1776 года Конгресс проголосовал за отмену всех форм власти короны, заменив их местной властью. Нью-Джерси , Южная Каролина и Вирджиния создали свои конституции до 4 июля. Род-Айленд и Коннектикут просто взяли свои существующие королевские хартии и удалили все ссылки на корону. [51] Все новые штаты были привержены республиканству, без наследуемых должностей. 26 мая 1776 года Джон Адамс написал Джеймсу Салливану из Филадельфии, предостерегая от слишком большого расширения франшизы :

Будьте уверены, сэр, опасно открывать столь плодотворный источник споров и препирательств, какой может быть открыт попыткой изменить квалификацию избирателей. Этому не будет конца. Возникнут новые требования. Женщины потребуют права голоса. Юноши от двенадцати до двадцати одного года будут считать, что их права недостаточно соблюдаются, и каждый мужчина, у которого нет ни гроша, будет требовать равного голоса с любым другим во всех государственных актах. Это имеет тенденцию смешивать и уничтожать все различия и низводить все ранги до одного общего уровня[.] [52] [53]

В принятых в результате конституциях штатов, включая Делавэр , Мэриленд , Массачусетс , Нью-Йорк и Вирджиния [b], было указано следующее:

В Пенсильвании , Нью-Джерси и Нью-Гемпшире принятые конституции включали:

Радикальные положения конституции Пенсильвании просуществовали 14 лет. В 1790 году консерваторы получили власть в законодательном собрании штата, созвали новый конституционный конвент и переписали конституцию. Новая конституция существенно сократила всеобщее мужское избирательное право, предоставила губернатору право вето и полномочия по назначению патронажа, а также добавила верхнюю палату с существенными цензами богатства к однопалатному законодательному собранию. Томас Пейн назвал ее конституцией, недостойной Америки. [54]

Независимость и союз

«Снос статуи короля Георга III в Нью-Йорке» . На картине изображены американские патриоты, сносящие статую короля Георга III в Нью-Йорке 9 июля 1776 года, через пять дней после принятия Декларации независимости .

В апреле 1776 года Провинциальный конгресс Северной Каролины издал Галифаксские резолюции, явно уполномочивающие его делегатов голосовать за независимость. [55] К июню девять Провинциальных конгрессов были готовы к независимости; за ними последовали Пенсильвания, Делавэр, Мэриленд и Нью-Йорк. Ричард Генри Ли получил указание от законодательного органа Вирджинии предложить независимость, и он сделал это 7 июня 1776 года. 11 июня Второй Континентальный конгресс создал комитет для разработки документа, объясняющего обоснования отделения от Великобритании. После получения достаточного количества голосов для принятия, независимость была проголосована 2 июля.

Собравшись в здании Палаты представителей штата Пенсильвания в Филадельфии , 56 отцов-основателей страны , представлявших тринадцать американских колоний , единогласно приняли и передали королю Георгу III Декларацию независимости , которая была в значительной степени составлена ​​Томасом Джефферсоном и представлена ​​Комитетом пяти , которому было поручено ее разработка. Конгресс вычеркнул несколько положений проекта Джефферсона, а затем единогласно принял его 4 июля. [56] Декларация воплощала в себе политические философии либерализма и республиканизма , отвергала монархию и аристократию и провозглашала, что « все люди созданы равными ». С принятием Декларации независимости каждая колония начала действовать как независимые и суверенные государства. Следующим шагом было формирование союза для содействия международным отношениям и альянсам. [57] [58]

5 ноября 1777 года Конгресс одобрил Статьи Конфедерации и Вечного Союза и отправил их в каждый штат для ратификации. Конгресс немедленно начал работать в соответствии с положениями Статей, обеспечивая структуру совместного суверенитета во время ведения Войны за независимость и способствуя международным отношениям и союзам. Статьи были полностью ратифицированы 1 марта 1781 года. В этот момент Континентальный Конгресс был распущен, и новое правительство Соединенных Штатов в Собранном Конгрессе заняло свое место на следующий день, 2 марта 1782 года, с Сэмюэлем Хантингтоном, возглавлявшим Конгресс в качестве председательствующего должностного лица. [59] [60]

Защищая революцию

Возвращение Британии: 1776–1777

Британский флот собрался у острова Статен-Айленд в гавани Нью-Йорка летом 1776 года, как показано в журнале Harper's Magazine в 1876 году.

По словам британского историка Джереми Блэка , у британцев были значительные преимущества, включая хорошо обученную армию, крупнейший в мире флот и эффективную систему государственных финансов, которая могла легко финансировать войну. Однако они серьезно не поняли глубину поддержки позиции американских патриотов, неверно истолковав ситуацию как просто крупномасштабный бунт. Британское правительство считало, что они могли бы устрашить американцев, отправив крупные военные и военно-морские силы:

Убежденные в том, что Революция была делом рук нескольких негодяев, сплотивших вооруженную толпу вокруг своего дела, они ожидали, что революционеры будут запуганы... Тогда подавляющее большинство американцев, которые были лояльны, но запуганы террористической тактикой... восстанут, выгонят мятежников и восстановят лояльное правительство в каждой колонии. [61]

Вашингтон вытеснил британцев из Бостона весной 1776 года, и ни британцы, ни лоялисты не контролировали какие-либо значительные районы. Однако британцы накапливали силы на своей военно-морской базе в Галифаксе, Новая Шотландия . Они вернулись с войсками в июле 1776 года, высадившись в Нью-Йорке и разгромив Континентальную армию Вашингтона в августе в битве при Бруклине . Это дало британцам контроль над Нью-Йорком и его стратегической гаванью . После этой победы они запросили встречу с представителями Конгресса, чтобы договориться о прекращении военных действий. [62] [63]

Делегация, включавшая Джона Адамса и Бенджамина Франклина, встретилась с британским адмиралом Ричардом Хау на Статен-Айленде в гавани Нью-Йорка 11 сентября на том, что стало известно как Мирная конференция на Статен-Айленде . Хау потребовал, чтобы американцы отозвали Декларацию независимости , что они отказались сделать, и переговоры закончились. Затем британцы захватили Нью-Йорк и почти захватили армию Вашингтона. Они сделали город своей главной политической и военной базой операций, удерживая его до ноября 1783 года . Город стал местом назначения для беженцев-лоялистов и центром разведывательной сети Вашингтона . [62] [63]

Переправа Вашингтона через Делавэр 25–26 декабря 1776 года, изображенная на картине Эмануэля Лойце 1851 года

The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated the Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and they have become iconic events of the war.

In September 1777, in anticipation of a coordinated attack by the British Army on the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, the Continental Congress was forced to depart Philadelphia temporarily for Baltimore, where they continued deliberations.

In 1777, the British sent Burgoyne's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to isolate New England, which the British perceived as the primary source of agitation. Rather than move north to support Burgoyne, the British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis-coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge.

Prisoners

On August 23, 1775, George III declared Americans to be traitors to the Crown if they took up arms against royal authority. There were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands following their surrender at the Battles of Saratoga. Lord Germain took a hard line, but the British generals on American soil never held treason trials, and instead treated captured American soldiers as prisoners of war.[64] The dilemma was that tens of thousands of Loyalists were under American control and American retaliation would have been easy. The British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists.[65] The British maltreated the prisoners whom they held, resulting in more deaths to American prisoners of war than from combat operations.[65] At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners.[66]

American alliances after 1778

Hessian troops hired out to the British by their German sovereigns

The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress, and Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778; France thus became the first foreign nation to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, the United States and France signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance.[67] William Pitt spoke out in Parliament urging Britain to make peace in America and to unite with America against France, while British politicians who had sympathized with colonial grievances now turned against the Americans for allying with Britain's rival and enemy.[68]

The Spanish and the Dutch became allies of the French in 1779 and 1780 respectively, forcing the British to fight a global war without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. Britain began to view the American war for independence as merely one front in a wider war,[69] and the British chose to withdraw troops from America to reinforce the British colonies in the Caribbean, which were under threat of Spanish or French invasion. British commander Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and returned to New York City. General Washington intercepted him in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. After an inconclusive engagement, the British retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater.[70]

1778–1783: the British move south

The British Royal Navy blockaded ports and held New York City for the duration of the war, and other cities for brief periods, but failed in their effort to destroy Washington's forces. The British strategy now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the "southern strategy" as a more viable plan, as they perceived the south as strongly Loyalist with a large population of recent immigrants and large numbers of slaves who might be tempted to run away from their masters to join the British and gain their freedom.[71]

Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping that the Loyalists would rally to the flag.[72] Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory that they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalists and American militia, which negated many of the gains that the British had previously made.[72]

Surrender at Yorktown (1781)

The 1781 siege of Yorktown ended with the surrender of a second British army, marking effective British defeat.

The British army under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia, where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet.[73] The fleet did arrive, but so did a larger French fleet. The French were victorious in the Battle of the Chesapeake, and the British fleet returned to New York for reinforcements, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invading army of the war under a siege by the combined French and Continental armies commanded by Washington.[74]

End of the war

Washington did not know if or when the British might reopen hostilities after Yorktown. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782–83.[75] The American treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'etat. Washington dispelled the unrest among officers of the Newburgh Conspiracy in 1783, and Congress subsequently created the promise of a five years bonus for all officers.[76]

Historians continue to debate whether the odds were long or short for American victory. John E. Ferling says that the odds were so long that the American victory was "almost a miracle".[77] On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says that the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe "missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army .... Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles." Ellis's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that, once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity "would never come again" for a British victory.[78]

Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the Americans, but now it reached a new low.[79] King George wanted to fight on, but his supporters lost control of Parliament and they launched no further offensives in America on the eastern seaboard.[70][c]

Paris peace treaty

Treaty of Paris by Benjamin West portrays the American delegation about to sign the 1783 Treaty of Paris (John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, W.T. Franklin). The British delegation refused to pose and the painting was never completed.

During negotiations in Paris, the American delegation discovered that France supported American independence but no territorial gains, hoping to confine the new nation to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Americans opened direct secret negotiations with London, cutting out the French. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne was in charge of the British negotiations, and he saw a chance to make the United States a valuable economic partner, facilitating trade and investment opportunities.[81] The US obtained all the land east of the Mississippi River, including southern Canada, but Spain took control of Florida from the British. It gained fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to recover their property. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two-way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, which did come to pass. The blockade was lifted and American merchants were free to trade with any nation anywhere in the world.[82]

The British largely abandoned their Indigenous allies, who were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. However, the British did sell them munitions and maintain forts in American territory until the Jay Treaty of 1795.[83]

Losing the war and the Thirteen Colonies was a shock to Britain. The war revealed the limitations of Britain's fiscal-military state when they discovered that they suddenly faced powerful enemies with no allies, and they were dependent on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication. The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King's ministers. The King went so far as to draft letters of abdication, although they were never delivered.[84] Inside Parliament, the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government retrenchment. Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption, and the result was a crisis from 1776 to 1783. The crisis ended after 1784 confidence in the British constitution was restored during the administration of Prime Minister William Pitt.[85][86][d]

Finance

Robert Morris statue honoring Founding Father and financier Robert Morris at Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia
A five-dollar banknote issued by the Second Continental Congress in 1775.
A five dollar banknote issued by the Second Continental Congress in 1775

Britain's war against the Americans, the French, and the Spanish cost about £100 million. The Treasury borrowed 40 percent of the money that it needed.[88] Britain had a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners who supported the government, together with banks and financiers in London. In London the British had relatively little difficulty financing their war, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and hiring tens of thousands of German soldiers.[89]

In sharp contrast, Congress and the American states had no end of difficulty financing the war.[90] In 1775, there was at most 12 million dollars in gold in the colonies, not nearly enough to cover current transactions, let alone finance a major war. The British made the situation much worse by imposing a tight blockade on every American port, which cut off almost all trade. One partial solution was to rely on volunteer support from militiamen and donations from patriotic citizens.[91][92] Another was to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in depreciated currency, and promise that it would be made good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given land grants in 1783 to cover the wages that they had earned but had not been paid during the war. The national government did not have a strong leader in financial matters until 1781, when Robert Morris was named Superintendent of Finance of the United States.[91] Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the private Bank of North America to finance the war. He reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the national government's full share of money and supplies from the individual states.[91]

Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in specie (gold and silver).[93] Congress made issues of paper money, known colloquially as "Continental Dollars", in 1775–1780 and in 1780–1781. The first issue amounted to 242 million dollars. This paper money would supposedly be redeemed for state taxes, but the holders were eventually paid off in 1791 at the rate of one cent on the dollar. By 1780, the paper money was so devalued that the phrase "not worth a Continental" became synonymous with worthlessness.[94] The skyrocketing inflation was a hardship on the few people who had fixed incomes, but 90 percent of the people were farmers and were not directly affected by it. Debtors benefited by paying off their debts with depreciated paper. The greatest burden was borne by the soldiers of the Continental Army whose wages were usually paid late and declined in value every month, weakening their morale and adding to the hardships of their families.[95]

Beginning in 1777, Congress repeatedly asked the states to provide money, but the states had no system of taxation and were of little help. By 1780, Congress was making requisitions for specific supplies of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities, an inefficient system which barely kept the army alive.[96][97] Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown. The French secretly supplied the Americans with money, gunpowder, and munitions to weaken Great Britain; the subsidies continued when France entered the war in 1778, and the French government and Paris bankers lent large sums[quantify] to the American war effort. The Americans struggled to pay off the loans; they ceased making interest payments to France in 1785 and defaulted on installments due in 1787. In 1790, however, they resumed regular payments on their debts to the French,[98] and settled their accounts with the French government in 1795 when James Swan, an American banker, assumed responsibility for the balance of the debt in exchange for the right to refinance it at a profit.[99]

Concluding the revolution

The September 17, 1787 signing of the United States Constitution at Independence Hall in Philadelphia depicted in Howard Chandler Christy's 1940 painting, Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States

The war ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government was still operating under the Articles of Confederation and settled the issue of the western territories, which the states ceded to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into those areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s.[100]

However, the national government had no money either to pay the war debts owed to European nations and the private banks, or to pay Americans who had been given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other veterans feared that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even the repetition of internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. They convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787.[101] The Convention adopted a new Constitution which provided for a republic with a much stronger national government in a federal framework, including an effective executive in a check-and-balance system with the judiciary and legislature.[102] The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after a fierce debate in the states over the proposed new government. The new administration under President George Washington took office in New York in March 1789.[103] James Madison spearheaded Congressional legislation proposing amendments to the Constitution as assurances to those cautious about federal power, guaranteeing many of the inalienable rights that formed a foundation for the revolution. Rhode Island was the final state to ratify the Constitution in 1790, the first ten amendments were ratified in 1791 and became known as the United States Bill of Rights.

National debt

Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury during the Presidency of George Washington

The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of promissory notes issued during the war to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.

The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114 million, compared to $37 million by the central government.[104] In 1790, Congress combined the remaining state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million at the recommendation of first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.[105]

Ideology and factions

The population of the Thirteen States was not homogeneous in political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegiances varied widely within regions and communities and even within families, and sometimes shifted during the Revolution.

Ideology behind the revolution

The American Enlightenment was a critical precursor of the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of natural law, natural rights, consent of the governed, individualism, property rights, self-ownership, self-determination, liberalism, republicanism, and defense against corruption. A growing number of American colonists embraced these views and fostered an intellectual environment which led to a new sense of political and social identity.[106]

Liberalism

Samuel Adams points at the Massachusetts Charter, which he viewed as a constitution that protected the people's rights, in this c. 1772 portrait by John Singleton Copley.[107]

John Locke is often referred to as "the philosopher of the American Revolution" due to his work in the Social Contract and Natural Rights theories that underpinned the Revolution's political ideology.[108] Locke's Two Treatises of Government published in 1689 was especially influential. He argued that all humans were created equally free, and governments therefore needed the "consent of the governed".[109] In late eighteenth-century America, belief was still widespread in "equality by creation" and "rights by creation".[110] Locke's ideas on liberty influenced the political thinking of English writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn also had a strong influence on the American Patriots.[111] His work also inspired symbols used in the American Revolution such as the "Appeal to Heaven" found on the Pine Tree Flag, which alludes to Locke's concept of the right of revolution.[112]

The theory of the social contract influenced the belief among many of the Founders that the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen, was one of the "natural rights" of man.[113][114] The Americans heavily relied on Montesquieu's analysis of the wisdom of the "balanced" British Constitution (mixed government) in writing the state and national constitutions.

Republicanism

The American interpretation of republicanism was inspired by the Whig party in Great Britain which openly criticized the corruption within the British government.[115] Americans were increasingly embracing republican values, seeing Britain as corrupt and hostile to American interests.[116] The colonists associated political corruption with ostentatious luxury and inherited aristocracy.[117]

The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton,[118] which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men were honor bound by civic obligation to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen. John Adams wrote to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreeing with some classical Greek and Roman thinkers: "Public Virtue cannot exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics." He continued:

There must be a positive Passion for the public good, the public Interest, Honour, Power, and Glory, established in the Minds of the People, or there can be no Republican Government, nor any real Liberty. And this public Passion must be Superior to all private Passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private Pleasures, Passions, and Interests, nay their private Friendships and dearest connections, when they Stand in Competition with the Rights of society.[119]

Protestant dissenters and the Great Awakening

Protestant churches that had separated from the Church of England, called "dissenters", were the "school of democracy", in the words of historian Patricia Bonomi.[120] Before the Revolution, the Southern Colonies and three of the New England Colonies had official established churches: Congregational in Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, and the Church of England in Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations had no officially established churches.[121] Church membership statistics from the period are unreliable and scarce,[122] but what little data exists indicates that the Church of England was not in the majority, not even in the colonies where it was the established church, and they probably did not comprise even 30 percent of the population in most localities (with the possible exception of Virginia).[121]

John Witherspoon, who was considered a "new light" Presbyterian, wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Bible. Throughout the colonies, dissenting Protestant ministers from the Congregational, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons while most Church of England clergymen preached loyalty to the king, the titular head of the English state church.[123] Religious motivation for fighting tyranny transcended socioeconomic lines.[120] The Declaration of Independence also referred to the "Laws of Nature and of Nature's God" as justification for the Americans' separation from the British monarchy: the signers of the Declaration professed their "firm reliance on the Protection of divine Providence", and they appealed to "the Supreme Judge for the rectitude of our intentions".[124]

Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that the evangelicalism of the era challenged traditional notions of natural hierarchy by preaching that the Bible teaches that all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not in his class.[125] Kidd argues that religious disestablishment, belief in God as the source of human rights, and shared convictions about sin, virtue, and divine providence worked together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encouraged a large proportion of Americans to fight for independence from the Empire. Bailyn, on the other hand, denies that religion played such a critical role.[126] Alan Heimert argues that New Light anti-authoritarianism was essential to furthering democracy in colonial American society, and set the stage for a confrontation with British monarchical and aristocratic rule.[127]

Class and psychology of the factions

Patriots tarring and feathering Loyalist John Malcolm depicted in a 1774 painting

John Adams concluded in 1818:

The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people .... This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people was the real American Revolution.[128]

In the mid-20th century, historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative, opposite to the characteristics of the Patriots.[129] Loyalists tended to feel that resistance to the Crown was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought that morality was on their side.[130][131] Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists had maintained strong and long-standing relations with Britain, especially merchants in port cities such as New York and Boston.[130][131] Many Loyalists felt that independence was bound to come eventually, but they were fearful that revolution might lead to anarchy, tyranny, or mob rule. In contrast, the prevailing attitude among Patriots was a desire to seize the initiative.[130][131] Labaree also wrote that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots.[129]

Historians in the early 20th century such as J. Franklin Jameson examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence of a class war inside the revolution.[132] More recent historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity.[133] Both Loyalists and Patriots were a "mixed lot",[134][135] but ideological demands always came first. The Patriots viewed independence as a means to gain freedom from British oppression and to reassert their basic rights. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the Patriot cause to demand more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania but less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions" that it proposed.[134][135]

King George III

King George III depicted in a 1781 portrait

The revolution became a personal issue for the king, fueled by his growing belief that British leniency would be taken as weakness by the Americans. He also sincerely believed that he was defending Britain's constitution against usurpers, rather than opposing patriots fighting for their natural rights.[136]King George III is often accused of obstinately trying to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers.[137] In the words of the British historian George Otto Trevelyan, the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[138] The king wanted to "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse".[139] Later historians defend George by saying in the context of the times no king would willingly surrender such a large territory,[140][141] and his conduct was far less ruthless than contemporary monarchs in Europe.[142] After the surrender of a British army at Saratoga, both Parliament and the British people were largely in favor of the war; recruitment ran at high levels and although political opponents were vocal, they remained a small minority.[140][143]

With the setbacks in America, Lord North asked to transfer power to Lord Chatham, whom he thought more capable, but George refused to do so; he suggested instead that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in North's administration, but Chatham refused. He died later in the same year.[144] Lord North was allied to the "King's Friends" in Parliament and believed George III had the right to exercise powers.[145] In early 1778, Britain's chief rival France signed a treaty of alliance with the United States, and the confrontation soon escalated from a "rebellion" to something that has been characterized as "world war".[146] The French fleet was able to outrun the British naval blockade of the Mediterranean and sailed to North America.[146] The conflict now affected North America, Europe and India.[146] The United States and France were joined by Spain in 1779 and the Dutch Republic, while Britain had no major allies of its own, except for the Loyalist minority in America and German auxiliaries (i.e. Hessians). Lord Gower and Lord Weymouth both resigned from the government. Lord North again requested that he also be allowed to resign, but he stayed in office at George III's insistence.[147] Opposition to the costly war was increasing, and in June 1780 contributed to disturbances in London known as the Gordon riots.[148]

As late as the Siege of Charleston in 1780, Loyalists could still believe in their eventual victory, as British troops inflicted defeats on the Continental forces at the Battle of Camden and the Battle of Guilford Court House.[149] In late 1781, the news of Cornwallis's surrender at the siege of Yorktown reached London; Lord North's parliamentary support ebbed away and he resigned the following year. The king drafted an abdication notice, which was never delivered,[141][150] finally accepted the defeat in North America, and authorized peace negotiations. The Treaties of Paris, by which Britain recognized the independence of the United States and returned Florida to Spain, were signed in 1782 and 1783 respectively.[151] In early 1783, George III privately conceded "America is lost!" He reflected that the Northern colonies had developed into Britain's "successful rivals" in commercial trade and fishing.[152]

When John Adams was appointed American Minister to London in 1785, George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the former colonies. He told Adams, "I was the last to consent to the separation; but the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power."[153]

Patriots

Those who fought for independence were called "Revolutionaries", "Continentals", "Rebels", "Patriots", "Whigs", "Congress-men", or "Americans" during and after the war. They included a full range of social and economic classes but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue by citizens. The signers of the Declaration of Independence were mostly—with definite exceptions—well-educated, of British stock, and of the Protestant faith.[154][155] Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism (although there were a few Loyalist papers) and printed many pamphlets, announcements, patriotic letters, and pronouncements.[156]

According to historian Robert Calhoon, 40 to 45 percent of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supported the Patriots' cause, 15 to 20 percent supported the Loyalists, and the remainder were neutral or kept a low profile.[157] Mark Lender concludes that ordinary people became insurgents against the British because they held a sense of rights which the British were violating, rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the British response to the Boston Tea Party. The arrival in Boston of the British Army heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side.[158]

Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was widely distributed and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to concurrently spreading the ideas of republicanism and liberalism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Great Britain and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army.[159] Paine presented the Revolution as the solution for Americans alarmed by the threat of tyranny.[159]

Loyalists

The consensus of scholars is that about 15 to 20 percent of the white population remained loyal to the British Crown.[160] Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King's men". The Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. They were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, and often connected to the Church of England; they included many established merchants with strong business connections throughout the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston.[161]

There were 500 to 1,000 Black Loyalists, enslaved African Americans who escaped to British lines and supported Britain's cause via several means. Many of them died from disease, but the survivors were evacuated by the British to their remaining colonies in North America.[162]

The revolution could divide families, such as William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and royal governor of the Province of New Jersey who remained loyal to the Crown throughout the war. He and his father never spoke again.[163] Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King.[164]

After the war, the great majority of the half-million Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some became prominent American leaders, such as Samuel Seabury. Approximately 46,000 Loyalists relocated to Canada; others moved to Britain (7,000), Florida, or the West Indies (9,000). The exiles represented approximately two percent of the total population of the colonies.[165] Nearly all Black Loyalists left for Nova Scotia, Florida, or England, where they could remain free.[166] Loyalists who left the South in 1783 took thousands of their slaves with them as they fled to the British West Indies.[165]

Neutrals

A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile, but the Quakers were the most important group to speak out for neutrality, especially in Pennsylvania. The Quakers continued to do business with the British even after the war began, and they were accused of supporting British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications" critical of the revolutionary cause.[167] Most Quakers remained neutral, although a sizeable number participated to some degree.

Role of women

Mercy Otis Warren published poems and plays that attacked royal authority and urged colonists to resist British rule.

Women contributed to the American Revolution in many ways and were involved on both sides. Formal politics did not include women, but ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Patriot women confronted a war which permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and mending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and even fighting disguised as men in a few cases, such as Deborah Samson. Mercy Otis Warren held meetings in her house and cleverly attacked Loyalists with her creative plays and histories.[168] Many women also acted as nurses and helpers, tending to the soldiers' wounds and buying and selling goods for them. Some of these camp followers even participated in combat, such as Madam John Turchin who led her husband's regiment into battle.[169] Above all, women continued the agricultural work at home to feed their families and the armies. They maintained their families during their husbands' absences and sometimes after their deaths.[170]

American women were integral to the success of the boycott of British goods,[171] as the boycotted items were largely household articles such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to knitting goods and to spinning and weaving their own cloth—skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards (18,765 m) of cloth.[170] Many women gathered food, money, clothes, and other supplies during the war to help the soldiers.[172] A woman's loyalty to her husband could become an open political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to the King. Legal divorce, usually rare, was granted to Patriot women whose husbands supported the King.[173][174]

Other participants

France and Spain

Louis XVI, King of France and Navarre

In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million "livres tournaises" to buy munitions. A dummy corporation run by Pierre Beaumarchais concealed their activities. American Patriots obtained some munitions from the Dutch Republic as well, through the French and Spanish ports in the West Indies.[175] Heavy expenditures and a weak taxation system pushed France toward bankruptcy.[176]

In 1777, Charles François Adrien le Paulmier, Chevalier d'Annemours, acting as a secret agent for France, made sure General George Washington was privy to his mission. He followed Congress around for the next two years, reporting what he observed back to France.[177] The Treaty of Alliance between the French and the Americans followed in 1778, which led to more French money, matériel and troops being sent to the United States.

Spain did not officially recognize the United States, but it was a French ally and it separately declared war on Britain on June 21, 1779. Bernardo de Gálvez, general of the Spanish forces in New Spain, also served as governor of Louisiana. He led an expedition of colonial troops to capture Florida from the British and to keep open a vital conduit for supplies going to the Americans.[178]

Germans

Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben was a former Prussian Army officer who served as inspector general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He is credited with teaching the Continental Army the essentials of military drill and discipline beginning at Valley Forge in 1778, considered a turning point for the Americans.

Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. As George III was also the Elector of Hanover, many supported the Loyalist cause and served as allies of the Kingdom of Great Britain; most notably rented auxiliary troops[179] from German states such as the Landgraviate of Hessen-Kassel.

American Patriots tended to represent such troops as mercenaries in propaganda against the British Crown. Even American historians followed suit, in spite of Colonial-era jurists drawing a distinction between auxiliaries and mercenaries, with auxiliaries serving their prince when sent to the aid of another prince, and mercenaries serving a foreign prince as individuals.[179] By this distinction the troops which served in the American Revolution were auxiliaries.

Other German individuals came to assist the American revolutionaries, most notably Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who served as a general in the Continental Army and is credited with professionalizing that force, but most Germans who served were already colonists. Von Steuben's native Prussia joined the League of Armed Neutrality,[180] and King Frederick II of Prussia was well appreciated in the United States for his support early in the war. He expressed interest in opening trade with the United States and bypassing English ports, and allowed an American agent to buy arms in Prussia.[181] Frederick predicted American success,[182] and promised to recognize the United States and American diplomats once France did the same.[183] Prussia also interfered in the recruiting efforts of Russia and neighboring German states when they raised armies to send to the Americas, and Frederick II forbade enlistment for the American war within Prussia.[184] All Prussian roads were denied to troops from Anhalt-Zerbst,[185] which delayed reinforcements that Howe had hoped to receive during the winter of 1777–1778.[186]

However, when the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) erupted, Frederick II became much more cautious with Prussian/British relations. U.S. ships were denied access to Prussian ports, and Frederick refused to officially recognize the United States until they had signed the Treaty of Paris. Even after the war, Frederick II predicted that the United States was too large to operate as a republic, and that it would soon rejoin the British Empire with representatives in Parliament.[187]

Native Americans

Thayendanegea, a Mohawk military and political leader, was the most prominent indigenous leader opposing the Patriot forces.[188]

Most Indigenous people rejected pleas that they remain neutral and instead supported the British Crown. The great majority of the 200,000 Indigenous people east of the Mississippi distrusted the Americans and supported the British cause, hoping to forestall continued expansion of settlement into their territories.[189][190] Those tribes closely involved in trade tended to side with the Patriots, although political factors were important as well. Some tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in joining what they perceived to be a "white man's war", and fearing reprisals from whichever side they opposed.

The great majority of Indigenous people did not participate directly in the war, with the notable exceptions of warriors and bands associated with four of the Iroquois tribes in New York and Pennsylvania which allied with the British,[190] and the Oneida and Tuscarora tribes among the Iroquois of central and western New York who supported the American cause.[191] The British did have other allies, particularly in the regions of southwest Quebec on the Patriot's frontier. The British provided arms to Indigenous people who were led by Loyalists in war parties to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York. These war parties managed to kill many settlers on the frontier, especially in Pennsylvania and New York's Mohawk Valley.[192]

In 1776, Cherokee war parties attacked American Colonists all along the southern Quebec frontier of the uplands throughout the Washington District, North Carolina (now Tennessee) and the Kentucky wilderness area.[193] The Chickamauga Cherokee under Dragging Canoe allied themselves closely with the British, and fought on for an additional decade after the Treaty of Paris was signed. They launched raids with roughly 200 warriors, as seen in the Cherokee–American wars; they could not mobilize enough forces to invade settler areas without the help of allies, most often the Creek.

Joseph Brant (also Thayendanegea) of the powerful Mohawk tribe in New York was the most prominent Indigenous leader against the Patriot forces.[188] In 1778 and 1780, he led 300 Iroquois warriors and 100 white Loyalists in multiple attacks on small frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania, killing many settlers and destroying villages, crops, and stores.[194]

In 1779, the Continental Army forced the hostile Indigenous people out of upstate New York when Washington sent an army under John Sullivan which destroyed 40 evacuated Iroquois villages in central and western New York. The Battle of Newtown proved decisive, as the Patriots had an advantage of three-to-one, and it ended significant resistance; there was little combat otherwise. Facing starvation and homeless for the winter, the Iroquois fled to Canada.[195]

At the peace conference following the war, the British ceded lands which they did not really control, without consultation with their Indigenous allies. They transferred control to the United States of all the land south of the Great Lakes east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. Calloway concludes:

Burned villages and crops, murdered chiefs, divided councils and civil wars, migrations, towns and forts choked with refugees, economic disruption, breaking of ancient traditions, losses in battle and to disease and hunger, betrayal to their enemies, all made the American Revolution one of the darkest periods in American Indian history.[196]

Black Americans

Crispus Attucks, a (c. 1943) portrait by Herschel Levit depicts Attucks, who is considered to be the first American to die for the cause of independence in the Revolution.
An African American soldier (left) of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, widely regarded as the first Black battalion in U.S. military history

Free Blacks in the New England Colonies and Middle Colonies in the North as well as Southern Colonies fought on both sides of the War, but the majority fought for the Patriots. Gary Nash reports that there were about 9,000 Black veteran Patriots, counting the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, privateers, wagoneers in the Army, servants to officers, and spies.[197] Ray Raphael notes that thousands did join the Loyalist cause, but "a far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots."[198] Crispus Attucks was one of the five people killed in the Boston Massacre in 1770 and is considered the first American casualty for the cause of independence.

The effects of the war were more dramatic in the South. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to British lines throughout the South, causing dramatic losses to slaveholders and disrupting cultivation and harvesting of crops. For instance, South Carolina was estimated to have lost about 25,000 slaves to flight, migration, or death which amounted to a third of its slave population.[199]

During the war, the British commanders attempted to weaken the Patriots by issuing proclamations of freedom to their slaves.[200] In the November 1775 document known as Dunmore's Proclamation Virginia royal governor, Lord Dunmore recruited Black men into the British forces with the promise of freedom, protection for their families, and land grants. Some men responded and briefly formed the British Ethiopian Regiment. Historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves:

But England greatly feared the effects of any such move on its own West Indies, where Americans had already aroused alarm over a possible threat to incite slave insurrections. The British elites also understood that an all-out attack on one form of property could easily lead to an assault on all boundaries of privilege and social order, as envisioned by radical religious sects in Britain's seventeenth-century civil wars.[201]

Davis underscores the British dilemma: "Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slave-holding Loyalists and wealthy Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure".[202] The Americans, however, accused the British of encouraging slave revolts, with the issue becoming one of the 27 colonial grievances.[203]

The existence of slavery in the American colonies had attracted criticism from both sides of the Atlantic as many could not reconcile the existence of the institution with the egalitarian ideals espoused by leaders of the Revolution. British writer Samuel Johnson wrote "how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of the Negroes?" in a text opposing the grievances of the colonists.[204] Referring to this contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter that

if there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves.[205]

Thomas Jefferson unsuccessfully attempted to include a section in the Declaration of Independence which asserted that King George III had "forced" the slave trade onto the colonies.[206] Despite the turmoil of the period, African-Americans contributed to the foundation of an American national identity during the Revolution. Phyllis Wheatley, an African-American poet, popularized the image of Columbia to represent America.[207]

The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation expanded the promise of freedom for Black men who enlisted in the British military to all the colonies in rebellion. British forces gave transportation to 10,000 slaves when they evacuated Savannah and Charleston, carrying through on their promise.[208] They evacuated and resettled more than 3,000 Black Loyalists from New York to Nova Scotia, Upper Canada, and Lower Canada. Others sailed with the British to England or were resettled as freedmen in the West Indies of the Caribbean. But slaves carried to the Caribbean under control of Loyalist masters generally remained slaves until British abolition of slavery in its colonies in 1833–1838. More than 1,200 of the Black Loyalists of Nova Scotia later resettled in the British colony of Sierra Leone, where they became leaders of the Krio ethnic group of Freetown and the later national government. Many of their descendants still live in Sierra Leone, as well as other African countries.[209]

Effects of the revolution

After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics became possible in the former American colonies.[210] The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Concepts of liberty, individual rights, equality among men and hostility toward corruption became incorporated as core values of liberal republicanism. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations with directly elected representative government.[211][page needed]

The U.S. motto Novus ordo seclorum, meaning "A New Age Now Begins", is paraphrased from Thomas Paine's Common Sense, published January 10, 1776. "We have it in our power to begin the world over again," Paine wrote. The American Revolution ended an age—an age of monarchy. And, it began a new age—an age of freedom. As a result of the growing wave started by the Revolution, there are now more people around the world living in freedom than ever before, both in absolute numbers and as a percentage of the world's population.[212][213][214][215]

Interpretations

Interpretations vary concerning the effect of the Revolution. Historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan view it as a unique and radical event which produced deep changes and had a profound effect on world affairs, such as an increasing belief in the principles of the Enlightenment. These were demonstrated by a leadership and government that espoused protection of natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people.[216] John Murrin, by contrast, argues that the definition of "the people" at that time was mostly restricted to free men who passed a property qualification.[217][218]

Gordon Wood states:

The American Revolution was integral to the changes occurring in American society, politics and culture .... These changes were radical, and they were extensive .... The Revolution not only radically changed the personal and social relationships of people, including the position of women, but also destroyed aristocracy as it'd been understood in the Western world for at least two millennia.[219]

Edmund Morgan has argued that, in terms of long-term impact on American society and values:

The Revolution did revolutionize social relations. It did displace the deference, the patronage, the social divisions that had determined the way people viewed one another for centuries and still view one another in much of the world. It did give to ordinary people a pride and power, not to say an arrogance, that have continued to shock visitors from less favored lands. It may have left standing a host of inequalities that have troubled us ever since. But it generated the egalitarian view of human society that makes them troubling and makes our world so different from the one in which the revolutionists had grown up.[220]

Inspiring other independence movements and revolutions

The American Revolution was part of the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions, an 18th and 19th century revolutionary wave in the Atlantic World.

The first shot of the American Revolution at the Battle of Lexington and Concord is referred to as the "shot heard 'round the world". The Revolutionary War victory not only established the United States as the first modern constitutional republic, but marked the transition from an age of monarchy to a new age of freedom by inspiring similar movements worldwide.[221] The American Revolution was the first of the "Atlantic Revolutions": followed most notably by the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence. Aftershocks contributed to rebellions in Ireland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Netherlands.[222][223][221]

The U.S. Constitution, drafted shortly after independence, remains the world's oldest written constitution, and has been emulated by other countries, in some cases verbatim.[224] Some historians and scholars argue that the subsequent wave of independence and revolutionary movements has contributed to the continued expansion of democratic government; 144 countries, representing two-third of the world's population, are full or partially democracies of same form.[225][214][226][227][215][212]

The Dutch Republic, also at war with Britain, was the next country after France to sign a treaty with the United States, on October 8, 1782.[67] On April 3, 1783, Ambassador Extraordinary Gustaf Philip Creutz, representing King Gustav III of Sweden, and Benjamin Franklin, signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the U.S.[67]

The Revolution had a strong, immediate influence in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs in Parliament spoke glowingly in favor of the American cause. In Ireland, the Protestant minority who controlled Ireland demanded self-rule. Under the leadership of Henry Grattan, the Irish Patriot Party forced the reversal of mercantilist prohibitions against trade with other British colonies. The King and his cabinet in London could not risk another rebellion, and so made a series of concessions to the Patriot faction in Dublin. Armed volunteer units of the Protestant Ascendancy were set up ostensibly to protect against an invasion from France. As had been in colonial America, so too in Ireland now the King no longer had a monopoly of lethal force.[228][221][229]

For many Europeans, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, the American case along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the 17th century English Civil War, was among the examples of overthrowing an old regime. The American Declaration of Independence influenced the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.[230][231] The spirit of the Declaration of Independence led to laws ending slavery in all the Northern states and the Northwest Territory, with New Jersey the last in 1804. States such as New Jersey and New York adopted gradual emancipation, which kept some people as slaves for more than two decades longer.[232][221][233]

Status of African Americans

A Lexington, Massachusetts memorial to Prince Estabrook, who was wounded in the Battle of Lexington and Concord and was the first Black casualty of the Revolutionary War
A postage stamp, created at the time of the bicentennial, honors Salem Poor, who was an enslaved African American man who purchased his freedom, became a soldier, and rose to fame as a war hero during the Battle of Bunker Hill.[234]

During the revolution, the contradiction between the Patriots' professed ideals of liberty and the institution of slavery generated increased scrutiny of the latter.[235]: 235 [236]: 105–106 [237]: 186  As early as 1764, the Boston Patriot leader James Otis, Jr. declared that all men, "white or black", were "by the law of nature" born free.[235]: 237  Anti-slavery calls became more common in the early 1770s. In 1773, Benjamin Rush, the future signer of the Declaration of Independence, called on "advocates for American liberty" to oppose slavery.[235]: 239  Slavery became an issue that had to be addressed. As historian Christopher L. Brown put it, slavery "had never been on the agenda in a serious way before," but the Revolution "forced it to be a public question from there forward."[238][239]

In the late 1760s and early 1770s, several colonies, including Massachusetts and Virginia, attempted to restrict the slave trade, but were prevented from doing so by royally appointed governors.[235]: 245  In 1774, as part of a broader non-importation movement aimed at Britain, the Continental Congress called on all the colonies to ban the importation of slaves, and the colonies passed acts doing so.[235]: 245 

In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free slaves, in part based on revolutionary ideals. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery by a gradual method. By 1804, all the northern states had passed laws outlawing slavery, either immediately or over time. Indentured servitude (temporary slavery), which had been widespread in the colonies, dropped dramatically, and disappeared by 1800.

No southern state abolished slavery, but for a period individual owners could free their slaves by personal decision. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a reward for service. Records also suggest that some slaveholders were freeing their own mixed-race children, born into slavery to slave mothers. The number of free Blacks as a proportion of the Black population in the upper South increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions.[240][241][242][243][244][245][246][247][248][249][excessive citations] Nevertheless, slavery continued in the South, where it became a "peculiar institution", setting the stage for future sectional conflict between North and South over the issue.[237]: 186–187 

Thousands of free Blacks in the northern states fought in the state militias and Continental Army. In the south, both sides offered freedom to slaves who would perform military service. Roughly 20,000 slaves fought in the American Revolution.[250]

Status of American women

The democratic ideals of the Revolution inspired changes in the roles of women.[251] Patriot women married to Loyalists who left the state could get a divorce and obtain control of the ex-husband's property.[252] Abigail Adams expressed to her husband, the president, the desire of women to have a place in the new republic:

I desire you would remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands.[253]

The Revolution sparked a discussion on the rights of woman and an environment favorable to women's participation in politics. Briefly the possibilities for women's rights were highly favorable, but a backlash led to a greater rigidity that excluded women from politics.[254]

For more than thirty years, however, the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth, including unmarried women and blacks (not married women because they could not own property separately from their husbands), until in 1807, when that state legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage, excluding paupers.[255]

Loyalist expatriation

British Loyalists fleeing to British Canada as depicted in this early 20th century drawing

Tens of thousands of Loyalists left the United States following the war; Philip Ranlet estimates 20,000, while Maya Jasanoff estimates as many as 70,000.[256] Some migrated to Britain, but the great majority received land and subsidies for resettlement in British colonies in North America, especially Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.[257] Britain created the colonies of Upper Canada (Ontario) and New Brunswick expressly for their benefit, and the Crown awarded land to Loyalists as compensation for losses in the United States. Nevertheless, approximately eighty-five percent of the Loyalists stayed in the United States as American citizens, and some of the exiles later returned to the U.S.[258] Patrick Henry spoke of the issue of allowing Loyalists to return as such: "Shall we, who have laid the proud British lion at our feet, be frightened of its whelps?" His actions helped secure return of the Loyalists to American soil.[259]

Commemorations

The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory[260] as the story of the nation's founding. It is covered in the schools, memorialized by two national holidays, Washington's Birthday in February and Independence Day in July, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. George Washington's estate at Mount Vernon was one of the first national pilgrimages for tourists and attracted 10,000 visitors a year by the 1850s.[261]

The Revolution became a matter of contention in the 1850s in the debates leading to the American Civil War (1861–1865), as spokesmen of both the Northern United States and the Southern United States claimed that their region was the true custodian of the legacy of 1776.[262] The United States Bicentennial in 1976 came a year after the American withdrawal from the Vietnam War, and speakers stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values.[263]

Today, more than 100 battlefields and historic sites of the American Revolution are protected and maintained by the government. The National Park Service alone manages and maintains more than 50 battlefield parks and many other sites such as Independence Hall that are related to the Revolution.[264] The private American Battlefield Trust uses government grants and other funds to preserve almost 700 acres of battlefield land in six states, and the ambitious private recreation/restoration/preservation/interpretation of over 300 acres of pre-1790 Colonial Williamsburg was created in the first half of the 20th century for public visitation.[265]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Lord North claimed that Englishmen paid an average 25 shillings annually in taxes, whereas Americans paid only sixpence.[26]
  2. ^ Massachusetts' constitution is still in force in the 21st century, continuously since its ratification on June 15, 1780
  3. ^ A final naval battle was fought on March 10, 1783, by Captain John Barry and the crew of the USS Alliance, who defeated three British warships led by HMS Sybille.[80]
  4. ^ Some historians suggest that loss of the American colonies enabled Britain to deal with the French Revolution with more unity and better organization than would otherwise have been the case.[85] Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific, and later Africa with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire.[87]

References

  1. ^ Pestana, Carla Gardina (2004). The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution: 1640–1661. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press. p. 120.
  2. ^ Purvis, Thomas L. (1997). A dictionary of American history. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 278. ISBN 978-1577180999. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
  3. ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. 55 (1). Cambridge University Press: 140. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2123771. S2CID 145691938.
  4. ^ Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. doi:10.1017/S0022050700058460. JSTOR 2116133. S2CID 153513278.
  5. ^ Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
  6. ^ Lepore (1998), The Name of War (1999) pp. 5–7
  7. ^ Curtis P. Nettels, The Roots of American Civilization: A History of American Colonial Life (1938) p. 297.
  8. ^ Lovejoy, David (1987). The Glorious Revolution in America. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. pp. 148–156, 155–157, 169–170. ISBN 978-0819561770. OCLC 14212813.
  9. ^ Barnes, Viola Florence (1960) [1923]. The Dominion of New England: A Study in British Colonial Policy. New York: Frederick Ungar. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-0804410656. OCLC 395292.
  10. ^ Webb, Stephen Saunders (1998). Lord Churchill's Coup: The Anglo-American Empire and the Glorious Revolution Reconsidered. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0815605584. OCLC 39756272., pp. 190–191
  11. ^ Lustig, Mary Lou (2002). The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, 1637–1714. Madison, WI: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0838639368. OCLC 470360764.
  12. ^ Palfrey, John (1864). History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. Boston: Little, Brown. p. 596. OCLC 1658888.
  13. ^ Evans, James Truslow (1922). The Founding of New England. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 430. OCLC 1068441.
  14. ^ John A. Garraty; Mark C. Carnes (2000). "Chapter Three: America in the British Empire". A Short History of the American Nation (8th ed.). Longman. ISBN 0321070984. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008.
  15. ^ Max Savelle, Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713–1824, p. 93 (1974)
  16. ^ Draper pg. 100. The quote provided by Draper came from Leo Francis Stock's Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments respecting North America (1937) vol. 4. p. 182
  17. ^ Miller, John C. (1943). Origins of the American Revolution. Boston: Little, Brown and company. OL 6453380M., pp. 95–99
  18. ^ Guizot, M. A popular history of France, from the earliest times. Vol IV, University of Michigan, 2005, ISBN 978-1425557249, p. 166.
  19. ^ Lawrence Henry Gipson, "The American revolution as an aftermath of the Great War for the Empire, 1754–1763". Political Science Quarterly (1950): 86–104. JSTOR 2144276.
  20. ^ William J Campbell (2015). Speculators in Empire: Iroquoia and the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 118–120. ISBN 978-0806147109.
  21. ^ "The Stamp Act – March 22, 1765". Revolutionary War and Beyond. Archived from the original on May 29, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2019.[unreliable source?]
  22. ^ a b Loyalists of Massachusetts, James F. Stark p. 34
  23. ^ Henretta, James A., ed. (2011). Documents for America's History, Volume 1: To 1877. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 110. ISBN 978-0312648626.
  24. ^ Walter Isaacson (2004). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon and Schuster. pp. 229–230. ISBN 978-0743258074.
  25. ^ Shy, Toward Lexington pp. 73–78
  26. ^ a b Miller, Origins of the American Revolution (1943) p. 89
  27. ^ T.H. Breen, American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People (2010) pp. 81–82
  28. ^ Robert E. Shalhope, "Republicanism and early American historiography." William and Mary Quarterly (1982) 39#2 334–356. online
  29. ^ Homer L. Calkin, "Pamphlets and public opinion during the American Revolution". Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 64.1 (1940): 22–42. online
  30. ^ Middlekauff p. 62
  31. ^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1882) pp. 297–298
  32. ^ Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1882) p. 173
  33. ^ Bryan-Paul Frost and Jeffrey Sikkenga (2003). History of American Political Thought. Lexington Books. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0739106242.
  34. ^ Miller (1943). Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford University Press. pp. 181–. ISBN 978-0804705936.
  35. ^ Thomas P. Slaughter, "The Tax Man Cometh: Ideological Opposition to Internal Taxes, 1760–1790". William and Mary Quarterly (1984). 41 (4): 566–591. doi:10.2307/1919154
  36. ^ Melvin I. Urofsky and Paul Finkelman, A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States (Oxford UP, 2002) v. 1 p. 52.
  37. ^ a b Hiller B. Zobel, The Boston Massacre (1996)
  38. ^ Greene and Pole (1994) chapters 22–24
  39. ^ Mary Beth Norton et al., A People and a Nation (6th ed. 2001) vol 1 pp. 144–145
  40. ^ Carp, B.L. (2010). Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300168457. Retrieved May 29, 2023.
  41. ^ Miller (1943) pp. 353–376
  42. ^ Carp, Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (2010) ch 9
  43. ^ John K. Alexander (2011). Samuel Adams: The Life of an American Revolutionary. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 187–194. ISBN 978-0742570351.
  44. ^ Mary Beth Norton; et al. (2010). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Cengage Learning. p. 143. ISBN 978-0495915256.
  45. ^ Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History. Routledge, 1999, p. 47.
  46. ^ Harvey. "A few bloody noses" (2002) pp. 208–210
  47. ^ Urban p. 74
  48. ^ Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. p. 303. ISBN 978-0684807614.
  49. ^ Miller (1948) p. 87
  50. ^ a b Nevins (1927); Greene and Pole (1994) chapter 29
  51. ^ Nevins (1927)
  52. ^ Founding the Republic: A Documentary History, edited by John J. Patrick
  53. ^ Reason, Religion, and Democracy, Dennis C. Muelle. p. 206
  54. ^ Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992)
  55. ^ Jensen, The Founding of a Nation (1968) pp. 678–679
  56. ^ Maier, American Scripture (1997) pp. 41–46
  57. ^ Armitage, David. The Declaration of Independence: A Global History. Harvard University Press, London. 2007. "The Articles of Confederation safeguarded it for each of the thirteen states in Article II ("Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence"), but confined its international expression to Congress alone."
  58. ^ Tesesis, Alexander. Self-Government and the Declaration of Independence. Cornell Law Review, Volume 97 Issue 4. May 2012. (applying the Declaration in the context of state sovereignty while dealing with personal liberty laws, noting that "after the declaration of independence in 1776, each state, at least before the confederation, was a sovereign, independent body").
  59. ^ Greene and Pole (1994) chapter 30
  60. ^ Klos, President Who? Forgotten Founders (2004)
  61. ^ Jeremy Black, Crisis of Empire: Britain and America in the Eighteenth Century (2008) p. 140
  62. ^ a b Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. (2002)
  63. ^ a b McCullough, 1776 (2005)
  64. ^ Alan Valentine, Lord George Germain (1962) pp. 309–310
  65. ^ a b Larry G. Bowman, Captive Americans: Prisoners During the American Revolution (1976)
  66. ^ John C. Miller, Triumph of Freedom, 1775–1783 (1948) p. 166.
  67. ^ a b c Hamilton, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (1974) p. 28
  68. ^ Stanley Weintraub, Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire, 1775–1783 (2005) p. 151
  69. ^ Mackesy, The War for America (1993) p. 568
  70. ^ a b Higginbotham, The War of American Independence (1983) p. 83
  71. ^ Crow and Tise, The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) pp. 157–159
  72. ^ a b Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000)
  73. ^ Brendan Morrissey, Yorktown 1781: The World Turned Upside Down (1997)
  74. ^ Harvey pp. 493–515
  75. ^ Jonathan R. Dull, The French Navy and American Independence (1975) p. 248
  76. ^ Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802 (1975) pp. 17–39
  77. ^ John Ferling, Almost A Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence (2009)
  78. ^ Joseph J. Ellis (2013). Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence. Random House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0307701220.
  79. ^ Harvey p. 528
  80. ^ Martin I. J. Griffin, The Story of Commodore John Barry (2010) pp. 218–223
  81. ^ Charles R. Ritcheson, "The Earl of Shelbourne and Peace with America, 1782–1783: Vision and Reality". International History Review 5#3 (1983): 322–345.
  82. ^ Jonathan R. Dull (1987). A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. Yale up. pp. 144–151. ISBN 0300038860.
  83. ^ William Deverell, ed. (2008). A Companion to the American West. John Wiley & Sons. p. 17. ISBN 978-1405138482.
  84. ^ Ruppert, Bob (August 9, 2022). "The Abdication(s) of King George III". Journal of the American Revolution. Retrieved August 9, 2022.
  85. ^ a b William Hague, William Pitt the Younger (2004)
  86. ^ Jeremy Black, George III: America's Last King(2006)
  87. ^ Canny, p. 92.
  88. ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) pp. 81, 119
  89. ^ John Brewer, The sinews of power: war, money, and the English state, 1688–1783 (1990) p. 91
  90. ^ Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (1962) pp. 23–44
  91. ^ a b c Charles Rappleye, Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution (2010) pp. 225–252
  92. ^ Edwin J. Perkins, American public finance and financial services, 1700–1815 (1994) pp. 85–106. Complete text line free
  93. ^ Oliver Harry Chitwood, A History of Colonial America (1961) pp. 586–589
  94. ^ Terry M. Mays (2005). Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary America. Scarecrow Press. pp. 73–75. ISBN 978-0810853898.
  95. ^ Harlow, Ralph Volney (1929). "Aspects of Revolutionary Finance, 1775–1783". The American Historical Review. 35 (1): 46–68. doi:10.2307/1838471. JSTOR 1838471.
  96. ^ Erna Risch, Supplying Washington's Army (1982)
  97. ^ E. Wayne Carp, To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783 (1990)
  98. ^ E. James Ferguson, The power of the purse: A history of American public finance, 1776–1790 (1961)
  99. ^ Office of the Historian (2020). "Milestones: 1784–1800". history.state.gov. Department of State. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved January 19, 2020.
  100. ^ Greene and Pole, eds. Companion to the American Revolution, pp. 557–624
  101. ^ Richard B. Morris, The Forging of the Union: 1781–1789 (1987) pp. 245–266
  102. ^ Morris, The Forging of the Union: 1781–1789 pp. 300–313
  103. ^ Morris, The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 pp. 300–322
  104. ^ Jensen, The New Nation (1950) p. 379
  105. ^ Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (2004) p. 204
  106. ^ Robert A. Ferguson, The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 (1997).
  107. ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 103, 136; Maier, Old Revolutionaries, 41–42.
  108. ^ Jeffrey D. Schultz; et al. (1999). Encyclopedia of Religion in American Politics. Greenwood. p. 148. ISBN 978-1573561303.
  109. ^ Waldron (2002), p. 136
  110. ^ Thomas S. Kidd (2010): God of Liberty: A Religious History of the American Revolution, New York, pp. 6–7
  111. ^ Middlekauff (2005), pp. 136–138
  112. ^ "Right of Revolution: John Locke, Second Treatise, §§ 149, 155, 168, 207--10, 220--31, 240--43". press-pubs.uchicago.edu. Retrieved June 7, 2024.
  113. ^ Charles W. Toth, Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite: The American Revolution and the European Response. (1989) p. 26.
  114. ^ Philosophical Tales, by Martin Cohen, (Blackwell 2008), p. 101
  115. ^ Stanley Weintraub, Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire, 1775–1783 (2005) chapter 1
  116. ^ Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992) pp. 125–137
  117. ^ Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992) pp. 35, 174–175
  118. ^ Shalhope, Toward a Republican Synthesis (1972) pp. 49–80
  119. ^ Adams quoted in Paul A. Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution. Volume: 2 (1994) p. 23.
  120. ^ a b Bonomi, p. 186, Chapter 7 "Religion and the American Revolution"
  121. ^ a b Barck, Oscar T.; Lefler, Hugh T. (1958). Colonial America. New York: Macmillan. p. 404.
  122. ^ Faragher, John Mack (1996). The Encyclopedia of Colonial and Revolutionary America. Da Capo Press. p. 359. ISBN 978-0306806872.
  123. ^ William H. Nelson, The American Tory (1961) p. 186
  124. ^ Kidd (2010), p. 141
  125. ^ Bailyn,The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992) p. 303
  126. ^ Thomas S. Kidd, God of Liberty: A Religious History of the American Revolution (2010)
  127. ^ Alan Heimert, Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967.
  128. ^ John Ferling, Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution (2002) p. 281
  129. ^ a b Labaree, Conservatism in Early American History (1948) pp. 164–165
  130. ^ a b c Hull et al., Choosing Sides (1978) pp. 344–366
  131. ^ a b c Burrows and Wallace, The American Revolution (1972) pp. 167–305
  132. ^ J. Franklin Jameson, The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement (1926); other historians pursuing the same line of thought included Charles A. Beard, Carl Becker, and Arthur Schlesinger, Sr.
  133. ^ Wood, Rhetoric and Reality in the American Revolution (1966) pp. 3–32
  134. ^ a b Nash (2005)
  135. ^ a b Resch (2006)
  136. ^ Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, "'If Others Will Not Be Active, I must Drive': George III and the American Revolution". Early American Studies 2004 2(1): pp. 1–46. P. D. G. Thomas, "George III and the American Revolution". History 1985 70(228)
  137. ^ O'Shaughnessy, ch 1.
  138. ^ Trevelyan, vol. 1 p. 4.
  139. ^ Trevelyan, vol. 1 p. 5.
  140. ^ a b Cannon, John (September 2004). "George III (1738–1820)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10540. Retrieved October 29, 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  141. ^ a b Cannon and Griffiths, pp. 510–511.
  142. ^ Brooke, p. 183.
  143. ^ Brooke, pp. 180–182, 192, 223.
  144. ^ Hibbert, pp. 156–157.
  145. ^ Willcox & Arnstein, p. 157.
  146. ^ a b c Willcox & Arnstein, pp. 161, 165.
  147. ^ Ayling, pp. 275–276.
  148. ^ Ayling, p. 284.
  149. ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 129.
  150. ^ Brooke, p. 221.
  151. ^ U.S. Department of State, Treaty of Paris, 1783. Retrieved July 5, 2013.
  152. ^ Bullion, George III on Empire, 1783, p. 306.
  153. ^ Adams, C.F., ed. (1850–1856), The works of John Adams, second president of the United States, vol. VIII, pp. 255–257, quoted in Ayling, p. 323 and Hibbert, p. 165.
  154. ^ Caroline Robbins, "Decision in '76: Reflections on the 56 Signers". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Vol. 89 pp. 72–87, quote at p. 86.
  155. ^ See also Richard D. Brown, "The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A collective view". William and Mary Quarterly (1976) 33#3: 465–480. online
  156. ^ Carol Sue Humphrey, The American Revolution and the Press: The Promise of Independence (Northwestern University Press; 2013)
  157. ^ Robert M. Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Jack P. Greene; J.R. Pole (2008). A Companion to the American Revolution. John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 978-0470756447.
  158. ^ Mark Edward Lender, review of American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People (2010) by T. H. Breen, in The Journal of Military History (2012) 76#1 pp. 233–234
  159. ^ a b Ferguson, The Commonalities of Common Sense (2000) pp. 465–504
  160. ^ Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (1980) at p. 235
  161. ^ Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (1980) pp. 235–247,
  162. ^ Mary BethNorton, "The fate of some Black Loyalists of the American Revolution". Journal of Negro History 58.4 (1973): 402–426 online.
  163. ^ Sheila L. Skemp, Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (1994)
  164. ^ Joan Magee (1984). Loyalist Mosaic: A Multi-Ethnic Heritage. Dundurn. pp. 137ff. ISBN 978-1459711426.
  165. ^ a b Greene and Pole (1994) chapters 20–22
  166. ^ "Chaos in New York". Black Loyalists: Our People, Our History. Canada's Digital Collections. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved October 18, 2007.
  167. ^ Gottlieb (2005)
  168. ^ Eileen K. Cheng (2008). The Plain and Noble Garb of Truth: Nationalism & Impartiality in American Historical Writing, 1784–1860. University of Georgia Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0820330730.
  169. ^ Pauw, Linda Grant De (1994). "Roles of Women In the American Revolution and the Civil War". Social Education. 58 (2): 77.
  170. ^ a b Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers (2006) pp. 59–60
  171. ^ Greene and Pole (1994) chapter 41
  172. ^ Cometti, Elizabeth (1947). "Women in the American Revolution". The New England Quarterly. 20 (3): 329–346. doi:10.2307/361443. JSTOR 361443.
  173. ^ Kerber, Women of the Republic (1997) chapters 4 and 6
  174. ^ Mary Beth Norton, Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women (1980)
  175. ^ Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1985) pp. 57–65
  176. ^ David Patrick Geggus, "The effects of the American Revolution on France and its empire". in A Companion to the American Revolution, ed. Jack P. Greene and J.R. Pole (Blackwell, 2000) pp: 523–530.ISBN 9780631210580
  177. ^ "Founders Online: To George Washington from d'Annemours, 15 February 1789". founders.archives.gov. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
  178. ^ Thompson, Buchanan Parker, Spain: Forgotten Ally of the American Revolution North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1976.
  179. ^ a b Atwood, Rodney (1980). The Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in the American Revolution. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  180. ^ Commager (1958), p. 994.
  181. ^ Rosengarten (1906), p. 5.
  182. ^ Rosengarten (1906), p. 13.
  183. ^ Rosengarten (1906), p. 14.
  184. ^ Rosengarten (1886), p. 22.
  185. ^ Lowell (1884), p. 50.
  186. ^ Rosengarten (1906), p. 17.
  187. ^ Rosengarten (1906), p. 19.
  188. ^ a b Cornelison, Pam (2004). The great American history fact-finder : the who, what, where, when, and why of American history. Ted Yanak (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 1417594411. OCLC 60414840.[page needed]
  189. ^ Greene and Pole (2004) chapters 19, 46 and 51
  190. ^ a b Calloway (1995).
  191. ^ Joseph T. Glatthaar and James Kirby Martin, Forgotten Allies: The Oneida Indians and the American Revolution (2007)
  192. ^ Karim M. Tiro, "A 'Civil' War? Rethinking Iroquois Participation in the American Revolution". Explorations in Early American Culture 4 (2000): 148–165.
  193. ^ Tom Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (1993); James H. O'Donnell, III, Southern Indians in the American Revolution (1973)
  194. ^ Graymont, Barbara (1983). "Thayendanegea (Joseph Brant)". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  195. ^ Joseph R. Fischer, A Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan Campaign against the Iroquois, July–September 1779 (1997).
  196. ^ Calloway (1995), p. 290.
  197. ^ Gary B. Nash, "The African Americans Revolution", in Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution (2012) edited by Edward G Gray and Jane Kamensky pp. 250–270, at p. 254
  198. ^ Ray Raphael, A People's History of the American Revolution (2001) p. 281
  199. ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 73
  200. ^ Revolutionary War: The Home Front, Library of Congress
  201. ^ Davis p. 148
  202. ^ Davis p. 149
  203. ^ Schama pp. 28–30, 78–90
  204. ^ Stanley Weintraub, Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire, 1775–1783 (2005) p. 7
  205. ^ (1) Armitage, Global History, 77. Archived May 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
    (2) Day, Thomas. Fragment of an original letter on the Slavery of the Negroes, written in the year 1776. p. 10. Archived from the original on March 16, 2016. Retrieved February 26, 2014. If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) At: Internet Archive Archived March 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine: The Johns Hopkins University Sheridan Libraries Archived April 23, 2014, at the Wayback Machine: James Birney Collection of Antislavery Pamphlets Archived August 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
  206. ^ Maier, American Scripture, 146–150.
  207. ^ Hochschild pp. 50–51
  208. ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 73
  209. ^ Hill (2007), see also blackloyalist.com
  210. ^ Gordon Wood. The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992) pp. 278–279
  211. ^ Palmer, (1959)
  212. ^ a b McDonald, Forrest. Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution, pp. 6–7, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985. ISBN 0700602844.
  213. ^ Smith, Duane E., general editor. We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution, pp. 204–207, Center for Civic Education, Calabasas, California, 1995. ISBN 0-89818-177-1.
  214. ^ a b van Loon, Hendrik. The Story of Mankind, p. 333, Garden City Publishing Company, Inc., Garden City, New York, 1921.
  215. ^ a b "Countries and Territories". Freedom House. Retrieved October 13, 2020.
  216. ^ Wood, The American Revolution: A History (2003)
  217. ^ Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 296. ISBN 978-0495904991.
  218. ^ "U.S. Voting Rights". Retrieved July 2, 2013.
  219. ^ Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1993) pp. 7–8.ISBN 0679736883
  220. ^ Edmund S. Morgan (2005). The Genuine Article: A Historian Looks at Early America. W. W. Norton. p. 246. ISBN 978-0393347845.
  221. ^ a b c d Bailyn, Bernard. To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders, pp. 35, 134–149, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2003. ISBN 0375413774.
  222. ^ Greene and Pole (1994) ch. 53–55
  223. ^ Wim Klooster, Revolutions in the Atlantic World: A Comparative History (2009)
  224. ^ "Taylor, Steven L. "On Using the US Constitution as a Model," Outside the Beltway, February 3, 2012, Retrieved October 13, 2020". February 4, 2012.
  225. ^ Smith, Duane E., general editor. We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution, pp. 204–207, Center for Civic Education, Calabasas, California, 1995. ISBN 0898181771.
  226. ^ Wells, H. G. The Outline of History, pp. 840–842, Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., Garden City, NY, 1920.
  227. ^ "Petronzio, Matt. "Only 40% of the World's Population Live in Free Countries", Mashable.com, February 14, 2015, Retrieved October 13, 2020". Mashable. February 15, 2015.
  228. ^ R. B. McDowell, Ireland in the Age of Imperialism and Revolution, 1760–1801 (1979)
  229. ^ Bailyn, Bernard. To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders, pp. 134–137, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2003. ISBN 0375413774.
  230. ^ Palmer, (1959); Greene and Pole (1994) chapters 49–52
  231. ^ Center for History and New Media, Liberty, equality, fraternity (2010)
  232. ^ Greene and Pole pp. 409, 453–454
  233. ^ Bailyn, Bernard. To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders, pp. 134–137, 141–142, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2003. ISBN 0375413774.
  234. ^ Hubbard, Robert Ernest. Major General Israel Putnam: Hero of the American Revolution, p. 98, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2017. ISBN 978-1476664538.
  235. ^ a b c d e Bailyn, Bernard (2017) [1967]. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (3rd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674975651.
  236. ^ Brown, Christopher Leslie (2006). Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807830345.
  237. ^ a b Wood, Gordon S. (1992). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0679404937.
  238. ^ Brown, Christopher. PBS Video "Liberty! The American Revolution," Episode 6, "Are We to be a Nation?," Twin Cities Television, Inc. 1997.
  239. ^ Brown, Christopher Leslie. Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism, pp. 105–106. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2006. 978-0-8078-3034-5.
  240. ^ Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, pp. 625–626, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. ISBN 0945707339.
  241. ^ "Benjamin Franklin Petitions Congress". National Archives and Records Administration. August 15, 2016.
  242. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (February 3, 1790). "Petition from the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery". Archived from the original on May 21, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2006.
  243. ^ John Paul Kaminski (1995). A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate Over the Constitution. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 256. ISBN 978-0945612339.
  244. ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (2007). Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. p. 72.
  245. ^ Wood, Gordon S. Friends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, pp. 19, 132, 348, 416, Penguin Press, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-0735224711.
  246. ^ "Mackaman, Tom. "An Interview with Historian Gordon Wood on the New York Times 1619 Project,"". wsws.org. November 28, 2019. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
  247. ^ "Mackaman, Tom. "Interview with Gordon Wood on the American Revolution: Part One", World Socialist Web Site, wsws.org, March 3, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2020". March 3, 2015.
  248. ^ Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution, pp. 3–8, 186–187, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1992. ISBN 0679404937.
  249. ^ Bailyn, Bernard. Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence, pp. 221–224, Vintage Books, New York, 1992. ISBN 0679736239.
  250. ^ Hubbard, Robert Ernest. Major General Israel Putnam: Hero of the American Revolution, p. 98, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, NC, 2017. ISBN 978-1476664538; Hoock, Holger. Scars of Independence: America's Violent Birth, pp. 95, 300–303, 305, 308–310, Crown Publishing Group, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-0804137287; O'Reilly, Bill and Dugard, Martin. Killing England: The Brutal Struggle for American Independence, pp. 96, 308, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-1627790642; "Ayres, Edward. "African Americans and the American Revolution," Jamestown Settlement and American Revolution Museum at Yorktown website, Retrieved October 21, 2020".; ""Slavery, the American Revolution, and the Constitution", University of Houston Digital History website, Retrieved October 21, 2020".
  251. ^ Kerber, Linda K.; Cott, Nancy F.; Gross, Robert; Hunt, Lynn; Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll; Stansell, Christine M. (1989). "Beyond Roles, Beyond Spheres: Thinking about Gender in the Early Republic". The William and Mary Quarterly. 46 (3): 565–585. doi:10.2307/1922356. JSTOR 1922356.
  252. ^ Mary Beth Norton, Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750–1800 (3rd ed. 1996)
  253. ^ Woody Holton (2010). Abigail Adams. Simon and Schuster. p. 172. ISBN 978-1451607369.
  254. ^ Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (2007), p. 8
  255. ^ Klinghoffer and Elkis ("The Petticoat Electors: W omen's Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1807", Journal of the Early Republic 12, no. 2 (1992): 159–193.)
  256. ^ Maya Jasanoff, Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (2011). Philip Ranlet, however, estimates that only 20,000 adult white Loyalists went to Canada. "How Many American Loyalists Left the United States?." Historian 76.2 (2014): 278–307.
  257. ^ W. Stewart Wallace, The United Empire Loyalists: A Chronicle of the Great Migration (Toronto, 1914) online edition Archived March 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  258. ^ Van Tine, American Loyalists (1902) p. 307
  259. ^ Kukla, pp. 265–268.
  260. ^ Michael Kammen, A Season of Youth: The American Revolution and the Historical Imagination (1978); Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (1991)
  261. ^ Lee, Jean B. (2001). "Historical Memory, Sectional Strife, and the American Mecca: Mount Vernon, 1783–1853". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 109 (3): 255–300. JSTOR 4249931.
  262. ^ Jonathan B. Crider, "De Bow's Revolution: The Memory of the American Revolution in the Politics of the Sectional Crisis, 1850–1861," American Nineteenth Century History (2009) 10#3 pp. 317–332
  263. ^ David Ryan, "Re-enacting Independence through Nostalgia – The 1976 US Bicentennial after the Vietnam War", Forum for Inter-American Research (2012) 5#3 pp. 26–48.
  264. ^ National Park Service Revolutionary War Sites. Accessed January 4, 2018.
  265. ^ [1] American Battlefield Trust "Saved Land" webpage. Accessed May 30, 2018.

General sources

Bibliography

Reference works

Surveys of the era

Specialized studies

Historiography

Primary sources

External links