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Модернизм

Пабло Пикассо , «Авиньонские девицы» (1907). Эта протокубистская работа считается основополагающей для последующих течений в модернистской живописи.

Модернизм был движением начала 20-го века в литературе, изобразительном искусстве и музыке, которое подчеркивало эксперимент, абстракцию и субъективный опыт. Философия, политика, архитектура и социальные проблемы были аспектами этого движения. Модернизм был сосредоточен вокруг убеждений в «растущем отчуждении » от преобладающей « морали , оптимизма и условностей » [1] и желания изменить то, как « люди в обществе взаимодействуют и живут вместе ». [2]

Модернистское движение возникло в конце 19 века в ответ на значительные изменения в западной культуре , включая секуляризацию и растущее влияние науки. Оно характеризуется осознанным отказом от традиций и поиском новых средств культурного выражения . На модернизм оказали влияние широко распространенные технологические инновации , индустриализация и урбанизация, а также культурные и геополитические сдвиги, произошедшие после Первой мировой войны . [3] Художественные движения и приемы, связанные с модернизмом, включают абстрактное искусство , литературный поток сознания , кинематографический монтаж , музыкальную атональность и двенадцатитонность , модернистскую архитектуру и городское планирование . [4]

Модернизм занял критическую позицию по отношению к концепции рационализма эпохи Просвещения . Движение также отвергло концепцию абсолютной оригинальности — идею «сотворения из ничего», — поддерживаемую в 19 веке как реализмом , так и романтизмом , заменив ее приемами коллажа , [5] репризы , включения, переписывания, репризы , пересмотра и пародии. [a] [b] [6] Еще одной чертой модернизма была рефлексия относительно художественных и социальных условностей, что привело к экспериментам, подчеркивающим, как создаются произведения искусства, а также материал, из которого они созданы. [7] Дебаты о временной шкале модернизма продолжаются, и некоторые ученые утверждают, что он превратился в поздний модернизм или высокий модернизм . [8] Постмодернизм , тем временем, отвергает многие принципы модернизма. [9] [10] [11]

Обзор и определение

Музей Соломона Гуггенхайма был построен в 1959 году [12] по проекту американского архитектора Фрэнка Ллойда Райта.

Модернизм был культурным движением, которое повлияло на искусство, а также на более широкий Zeitgeist . Его обычно описывают как систему мышления и поведения, отмеченную самосознанием или самореференцией , распространенную в авангарде различных искусств и дисциплин. [13] Его также часто воспринимают, особенно на Западе, как социально прогрессивное движение , которое утверждает силу людей создавать, улучшать и изменять свою среду с помощью практических экспериментов, научных знаний или технологий. [c] С этой точки зрения модернизм поощряет переосмысление каждого аспекта существования. Модернисты анализируют темы, чтобы найти те, которые, по их мнению, сдерживают прогресс , заменяя их новыми способами достижения той же цели.

По словам историка Роджера Гриффина , модернизм можно определить как широкую культурную, социальную или политическую инициативу, поддерживаемую этосом « временности нового». Гриффин считал, что модернизм стремится восстановить «чувство возвышенного порядка и цели в современном мире, тем самым противодействуя (воспринимаемой) эрозии всеобъемлющего « номоса » или «священного купола» под фрагментирующим и секуляризирующим воздействием современности». Поэтому явления, на первый взгляд не связанные друг с другом, такие как « экспрессионизм , футуризм , витализм , теософия , психоанализ , нудизм , евгеника , утопическое градостроительство и архитектура, современный танец , большевизм , органический национализм — и даже культ самопожертвования , поддерживавший Гекатомбу Первой мировой войны, — раскрывают общую причину и психологическую матрицу в борьбе с (воспринимаемым) упадком ». Все они воплощают в себе стремление получить доступ к «надличностному опыту реальности», в котором люди верили, что они могут преодолеть свою смертность и в конечном итоге перестать быть жертвами истории, чтобы вместо этого стать ее творцами. [15]

Модернизм, романтизм, философия и символ

Литературный модернизм часто резюмируется строкой из У. Б. Йейтса : «Вещи распадаются; центр не может удержаться» (во « Втором пришествии »). [16] Модернисты часто ищут метафизический «центр», но переживают его крах. [17] ( Постмодернизм , напротив, прославляет этот крах, разоблачая провал метафизики, например, деконструкцию метафизических утверждений Жаком Деррида . ) [18]

Философски крах метафизики можно проследить до шотландского философа Дэвида Юма (1711–1776), который утверждал, что мы никогда на самом деле не воспринимаем одно событие как причину другого. Мы только переживаем « постоянное соединение » событий и не воспринимаем метафизическую «причину». Аналогичным образом Юм утверждал, что мы никогда не знаем себя как объект, только себя как субъект, и поэтому мы слепы к нашей истинной природе. [19] Более того, если мы «знаем» только через чувственный опыт — такой как зрение, осязание и чувство — то мы не можем «знать» и также не можем делать метафизические заявления.

Таким образом, модернизм может быть эмоционально движим желанием метафизических истин, при этом понимая их невозможность. В некоторых модернистских романах, например, есть персонажи, такие как Марлоу в « Сердце тьмы» или Ник Каррауэй в «Великом Гэтсби» , которые верят, что они столкнулись с некой великой истиной о природе или характере, истинами, которые сами романы рассматривают иронично, предлагая более приземленные объяснения. [20] Аналогичным образом, многие стихотворения Уоллеса Стивенса передают борьбу с чувством значимости природы, попадая под две рубрики: стихотворения, в которых говорящий отрицает, что природа имеет смысл, только для того, чтобы природа вырисовывалась к концу стихотворения; и стихотворения, в которых говорящий утверждает, что природа имеет смысл, только для того, чтобы этот смысл рушился к концу стихотворения.

Модернизм часто отвергает реализм девятнадцатого века , если последний понимается как сосредоточенный на воплощении смысла в натуралистическом представлении. В то же время некоторые модернисты стремятся к более «реальному» реализму, который не центрирован. Протокубистская картина Пикассо « Авиньонские девицы» 1907 года (см. изображение выше) не представляет своих субъектов с одной точки зрения (точки зрения одного зрителя), а вместо этого представляет плоскую, двухмерную плоскость изображения . «Поэт» 1911 года также децентрирован, представляя тело с нескольких точек зрения. Как говорится на веб-сайте коллекции Пегги Гуггенхайм , «Пикассо представляет несколько видов каждого объекта, как если бы он перемещался вокруг него, и синтезирует их в единое составное изображение». [21]

Модернизм, с его ощущением того, что «все разваливается», можно рассматривать как апофеоз романтизма , если романтизм — это (часто тщетный) поиск метафизических истин о характере, природе, высшей силе и смысле мира. [22] Модернизм часто стремится к романтическому или метафизическому центру, но позже терпит крах.

Это различие между модернизмом и романтизмом распространяется на их соответствующие трактовки «символа». Романтики порой видят существенную связь («основу») между символом (или «носителем», в терминах И. А. Ричардса ) [23] и его «тенором» (его значением) — например, в описании Кольриджем природы как «того вечного языка, который твой Бог / Произносит». [24] Но в то время как некоторые романтики, возможно, воспринимали природу и ее символы как язык Бога, для других романтических теоретиков он остается непостижимым. Как сказал Гете (сам не романтик), «идея [или значение] остается вечно и бесконечно активной и недоступной в образе». [25] Это было расширено в модернистской теории, которая, опираясь на своих символистских предшественников, часто подчеркивает непостижимость и неудачу символа и метафоры. Например, Уоллес Стивенс ищет и не находит смысла в природе, даже если он порой, кажется, чувствует такой смысл. Таким образом, символисты и модернисты порой принимают мистический подход, чтобы предложить нерациональное чувство смысла. [26]

По этим причинам модернистские метафоры могут быть неестественными, как, например, в описании вечера Т. С. Элиотом, «распростертого на фоне неба / Как пациент, находящийся под воздействием эфира на столе». [27] Аналогично, для многих более поздних поэтов-модернистов природа неестественна и порой механизирована, как, например, в изображении Стивена Оливера луны, деловито «поднимающей» себя в сознание. [28]

Происхождение и ранняя история

«Свобода, ведущая народ» Эжена Делакруа , 1830 г., романтическое произведение искусства

Романтизм и реализм

Модернизм развился из восстания романтизма против последствий промышленной революции и буржуазных ценностей. Литературовед Джеральд Графф утверждает, что «основным мотивом модернизма была критика буржуазного общественного порядка 19 века и его мировоззрения; модернисты несли факел романтизма». [d] [30] [31]

Франц фон Ленбах , Fürst Otto von Bismarck , 1895. Реалистический портрет Отто фон Бисмарка во время выхода на пенсию. Художники-модернисты в значительной степени отвергали реализм.

Хотя Дж. М. У. Тёрнер (1775–1851), один из самых известных пейзажистов 19 века, был членом романтического движения, его новаторская работа в изучении света, цвета и атмосферы «предвосхитила французских импрессионистов » и, следовательно, модернизм «в разрушении традиционных формул представления; хотя в отличие от них он считал, что его работы всегда должны выражать значимые исторические, мифологические, литературные или другие повествовательные темы». [32] Однако модернисты критиковали веру романтиков в то, что искусство служит окном в природу реальности. Они утверждали, что, поскольку каждый зритель интерпретирует искусство через свою собственную субъективную точку зрения, оно никогда не сможет передать конечную метафизическую истину, которую искали романтики. Тем не менее, модернисты не полностью отвергали идею искусства как средства понимания мира. Для них это был инструмент для оспаривания и нарушения точки зрения зрителя, а не как прямое средство доступа к более высокой реальности. [33]

Модернизм часто отвергает реализм 19-го века, когда последний понимается как сосредоточенный на воплощении смысла в натуралистическом представлении. Вместо этого некоторые модернисты стремятся к более «реальному» реализму, который нецентрирован. Например, протокубистская картина Пикассо 1907 года «Авиньонские девицы» не представляет своих персонажей с одной точки зрения, вместо этого представляя плоскую, двухмерную плоскость изображения . Поэт 1911 года также децентрирован, представляя тело с нескольких точек зрения. Как отмечает Коллекция Пегги Гуггенхайм , «Пикассо представляет несколько видов каждого объекта, как будто он перемещался вокруг него, и синтезирует их в единое составное изображение». [34]

Модернизм, с его ощущением, что «все разваливается», часто рассматривается как апофеоз романтизма. Как описал его Август Вильгельм Шлегель, ранний немецкий романтик, в то время как романтизм ищет метафизические истины о характере, природе, высшей силе и смысле в мире, модернизм, хотя и тоскует по такому метафизическому центру, находит только свой крах. [35]

Начало 19 века

Хрустальный дворец в Сиденхэме (1854). На момент постройки Хрустальный дворец мог похвастаться самой большой площадью остекления, когда-либо виденной в здании.

В контексте промышленной революции (~1760–1840) влиятельные инновации включали паровую индустриализацию , особенно развитие железных дорог, начавшееся в Великобритании в 1830-х годах, [36] и последующие достижения в физике, инженерии и архитектуре, к которым они привели. Крупным инженерным достижением 19-го века был Хрустальный дворец , огромный выставочный зал из чугуна и листового стекла, построенный для Великой выставки 1851 года в Лондоне. Стекло и железо использовались в похожем монументальном стиле при строительстве крупных железнодорожных терминалов по всему городу, включая вокзал Кингс-Кросс (1852) [37] и вокзал Паддингтон (1854). [38] Эти технологические достижения распространились за границу, что привело к появлению более поздних сооружений, таких как Бруклинский мост (1883) и Эйфелева башня (1889), последняя из которых сломала все предыдущие ограничения на то, насколько высокими могут быть искусственные объекты. Хотя такие инженерные достижения радикально изменили городскую среду 19-го века и повседневную жизнь людей, само восприятие времени человеком изменилось с развитием электрического телеграфа в 1837 году [39] , а также принятием « стандартного времени » британскими железнодорожными компаниями с 1845 года, концепции, которая будет принята во всем остальном мире в течение следующих пятидесяти лет. [40]

Несмотря на продолжающийся технический прогресс, идеи о том, что история и цивилизация изначально прогрессивны и что такие достижения всегда хороши, подвергались все более частым нападкам в XIX веке. Возникали аргументы о том, что ценности художника и общества не просто различны, но на самом деле часто противоположны, и что нынешние ценности общества несовместимы с дальнейшим прогрессом; поэтому цивилизация не могла двигаться вперед в ее нынешнем виде. В начале века философ Шопенгауэр (1788–1860) ( Мир как воля и представление , 1819/20) поставил под сомнение предыдущий оптимизм. Его идеи оказали важное влияние на более поздних мыслителей, включая Фридриха Ницше (1844–1900). [41] Аналогичным образом, Сёрен Кьеркегор (1813–1855) [41] и Ницше [42] : 120  позже отвергли идею о том, что реальность может быть понята через чисто объективную линзу, и это отрицание оказало значительное влияние на развитие экзистенциализма и нигилизма .

Эдуард Мане , Олимпия , 1863–65, Холст, масло , Музей Орсе . Конфронтационный взгляд Олимпии вызвал большие споры, когда картина была впервые выставлена ​​на Парижском салоне 1865 года , особенно потому, что ряд деталей идентифицировал ее как даму полусвета , или куртизанку . К ним относится тот факт, что имя «Олимпия» ассоциировалось с проститутками в Париже 1860-х годов. Консерваторы осудили работу как «безнравственную» и «вульгарную».

Около 1850 года Братство прерафаэлитов (группа английских поэтов, художников и художественных критиков) начало бросать вызов доминирующим тенденциям промышленной викторианской Англии, «противостоя техническому мастерству без вдохновения». [43] : 815  На них оказали влияние труды художественного критика Джона Рёскина (1819–1900), который имел сильные чувства относительно роли искусства в улучшении жизни городского рабочего класса в быстро растущих промышленных городах Британии. [43] : 816  Искусствовед Клемент Гринберг описал Братство прерафаэлитов как протомодернистов: «Там протомодернистами были, из всех людей, прерафаэлиты (а еще до них, как протопротомодернисты, немецкие назареи ) . Прерафаэлиты предвосхитили Мане (1832–1883), с которого модернистская живопись, безусловно, начинается. Они действовали на основе неудовлетворенности живописью, как она практиковалась в их время, считая, что ее реализм недостаточно правдив». [44]

Двумя наиболее значительными мыслителями середины XIX века были биолог Чарльз Дарвин (1809–1882), автор книги «Происхождение видов путем естественного отбора» (1859), и политолог Карл Маркс (1818–1883), автор «Капитала» (1867). Несмотря на то, что обе их теории были из разных областей, они угрожали устоявшемуся порядку. Теория эволюции Дарвина путем естественного отбора подорвала религиозную уверенность и идею уникальности человека ; в частности, представление о том, что люди движимы теми же импульсами , что и «низшие животные», оказалось трудно примирить с идеей облагораживающей духовности . [45] Между тем, аргументы Маркса о том, что внутри капиталистической системы существуют фундаментальные противоречия и что рабочие совсем не свободны, привели к формулированию марксистской теории . [46]

Одилон Редон , Хранитель Вод , 1878, уголь на бумаге, Чикагский институт искусств . Описывая свою работу, Редон пояснил: «Мои рисунки вдохновляют и не подлежат определению. Они помещают нас, как и музыка, в неоднозначное царство неопределенного». [47]

Конец 19 века

Искусствоведы предлагали различные даты в качестве отправных точек модернизма. Историк Уильям Эверделл утверждал, что модернизм начался в 1870-х годах, когда метафорическая (или онтологическая ) непрерывность начала уступать место дискретности с помощью Дедекиндова разреза математика Ричарда Дедекинда (1831–1916) и статистической термодинамики Людвига Больцмана (1844–1906) . [13] Эверделл также считал, что модернизм в живописи начался в 1885–1886 годах с развитием постимпрессионистским художником Жоржем Сёра дивизионизма , «точек», использованных для написания картины «Воскресный полдень на острове Гранд-Жатт» . С другой стороны, критик визуального искусства Клемент Гринберг назвал немецкого философа Иммануила Канта (1724–1804) «первым настоящим модернистом» [48] , хотя он также писал: «То, что можно смело назвать модернизмом, возникло в середине прошлого века — и скорее локально, во Франции, с Шарлем Бодлером (1821–1867) в литературе и Мане в живописи, и, возможно, с Гюставом Флобером (1821–1880) также в прозе. (Немного позже и не так локально, модернизм появился в музыке и архитектуре)». [44] « Цветы зла » поэта Бодлера и « Мадам Бовари » писателя Флобера были опубликованы в 1857 году. Эссе Бодлера « Художник современной жизни » (1863) вдохновило молодых художников порвать с традициями и изобрести новые способы изображения своего мира в искусстве.

Начиная с 1860-х годов во Франции развивались два направления в искусстве и литературе по отдельности. Первым был импрессионизм, школа живописи, которая изначально сосредоточилась на работе, выполненной не в студиях, а на открытом воздухе ( на пленэре ). Импрессионисты пытались передать в своих картинах, что люди видят не предметы, а сам свет. Школа собрала приверженцев, несмотря на внутренние разногласия среди ее ведущих практиков, и стала все более влиятельной. Первоначально отвергнутые самой важной коммерческой выставкой того времени, спонсируемым правительством Парижским салоном , импрессионисты организовывали ежегодные групповые выставки на коммерческих площадках в 1870-х и 1880-х годах, приурочивая их к официальному Салону. В 1863 году Салон отверженных , созданный императором Наполеоном III , выставил все картины, отклоненные Парижским салоном. Хотя большинство из них были выполнены в стандартных стилях, но художниками более низкого уровня, работы Мане привлекли внимание и открыли коммерческие двери для движения. Вторая французская школа — символизм , который историки литературы считают начинающимся с Шарля Бодлера и включающим более поздних поэтов Артюра Рембо (1854–1891) с «Une Saison en Enfer» ( Сезон в аду , 1873), Поля Верлена (1844–1896), Стефана Малларме (1842–1898) и Поля Валери (1871–1945). Символисты «подчеркивали приоритет внушения и вызывания над прямым описанием и явной аналогией» и особенно интересовались «музыкальными свойствами языка». [49]

Кабаре , давшее жизнь многим видам искусства модернизма, включая непосредственных предшественников кино, можно считать зародившимся во Франции в 1881 году с открытием « Черного кота» на Монмартре , началом иронического монолога и основанием Общества бессвязных искусств. [50]

Анри Матисс , Le bonheur de vivre , 1905–06, Фонд Барнса , Мерион, Пенсильвания . Шедевр раннего фовизма .

Теории Зигмунда Фрейда (1856–1939), Крафта-Эбинга и других сексологов оказали влияние на ранние дни модернизма. Первой крупной работой Фрейда были «Исследования истерии» (совместно с Йозефом Брейером , 1895). Центральной для мышления Фрейда является идея «примата бессознательного разума в психической жизни», так что вся субъективная реальность основывалась на взаимодействии между базовыми влечениями и инстинктами, через которые воспринимался внешний мир. Описание Фрейдом субъективных состояний включало бессознательное разум, полное первичных импульсов, и уравновешивающие самоналоженные ограничения, вытекающие из социальных ценностей. [43] : 538 

Анри Матисс , «Танец» , 1910, Эрмитаж , Санкт-Петербург , Россия. В начале XX века Анри Матисс и несколько других молодых художников, включая прекубистов Жоржа Брака , Андре Дерена , Рауля Дюфи и Мориса де Вламинка, произвели революцию в парижском мире искусства «дикими», многоцветными, экспрессивными пейзажами и фигуративными картинами, которые критики назвали фовизмом . Вторая версия « Танца» Анри Матисса знаменует собой ключевой момент в его карьере и в развитии современной живописи. [51]

Работы Фридриха Ницше (1844–1900) были еще одним крупным предшественником модернизма [52] , с философией, в которой психологические побуждения, в частности « воля к власти » ( Wille zur macht ), имели центральное значение: «Ницше часто отождествлял саму жизнь с «волей к власти», то есть с инстинктом роста и долговечности». [53] [54] Анри Бергсон (1859–1941), с другой стороны, подчеркивал разницу между научным, часовым временем и прямым, субъективным человеческим опытом времени. [42] : 131  Его работа о времени и сознании «оказала большое влияние на романистов 20-го века», особенно на тех модернистов, которые использовали технику « потока сознания », таких как Дороти Ричардсон , Джеймс Джойс и Вирджиния Вулф (1882–1941). [55] Также важной в философии Бергсона была идея жизненной силы, которая «вызывает творческую эволюцию всего». [42] : 132  Его философия также придавала большое значение интуиции , хотя и не отрицала важность интеллекта. [42] : 132 

Важными литературными предшественниками модернизма были такие уважаемые писатели, как Федор Достоевский (1821–1881), чьи романы включают «Преступление и наказание» (1866) и «Братья Карамазовы» (1880); [56] Уолт Уитмен (1819–1892), который опубликовал сборник стихов «Листья травы» (1855–1891); и Август Стриндберг (1849–1912), особенно его поздние пьесы, включая трилогию « В Дамаск» (1898–1901), «Пьеса снов» (1902) и «Соната призраков» (1907). Генри Джеймс также был предложен в качестве важного предшественника модернизма в работах, таких как «Портрет дамы» (1881). [57]

Возникновение модернизма

Фрэнк Ллойд Райт , Fallingwater , Mill Run , Пенсильвания (1937). Fallingwater был одной из самых известных частных резиденций Райта (завершен в 1937 году).

1901-1930

Дворец Стокле (1905–1911) архитектора-модерниста Йозефа Хоффмана
Пабло Пикассо, «Портрет Даниэля-Генри Канвейлера» , 1910, Чикагский институт искусств
Пабло Пикассо , Поэт , 1911, Холст, масло , Коллекция Пегги Гуггенхайм . Протокубизм был ранним течением модернизма, которое тяготело к представлению предмета с разных точек зрения.

Из столкновения идеалов, почерпнутых из романтизма, и попытки найти способ, чтобы знание объяснило то, что было еще неизвестно, возникла первая волна модернистских работ в первом десятилетии 20-го века. Хотя их авторы считали их продолжением существующих течений в искусстве, эти работы сломали неявное понимание искусства, которое было у широкой публики: что художники были интерпретаторами и представителями буржуазной культуры и идей. Эти «модернистские» вехи включают атональное завершение Второго струнного квартета Арнольда Шенберга в 1908 году, экспрессионистские картины Василия Кандинского, начавшиеся в 1903 году и завершившиеся его первой абстрактной картиной и основанием группы « Синий всадник» в Мюнхене в 1911 году, а также подъем фовизма и изобретения кубизма из студий Анри Матисса , Пабло Пикассо , Жоржа Брака и других в годы между 1900 и 1910 годами.

Важным аспектом модернизма является то, как он соотносится с традицией посредством принятия таких приемов, как реприза, инкорпорация, переписывание, пересказ, пересмотр и пародия в новых формах. [a] [b]

Пит Мондриан , Вид с дюн на пляж и пирсы, Домбург, 1909, масло и карандаш на картоне, Музей современного искусства , Нью-Йорк

Т. С. Элиот сделал важные комментарии об отношении художника к традиции, в том числе: «[М]ы часто обнаруживаем, что не только лучшие, но и самые индивидуальные части творчества [поэта] могут быть теми, в которых мертвые поэты, его предки, наиболее энергично утверждают свое бессмертие». [59] Однако отношения модернизма с традицией были сложными, как указывает литературовед Питер Чайлдс: «Существовали парадоксальные, если не противоположные тенденции к революционным и реакционным позициям, страх перед новым и восторг от исчезновения старого, нигилизм и фанатичный энтузиазм, творчество и отчаяние». [6]

Пример того, как модернистское искусство может применять старые традиции, одновременно внедряя новые методы, можно найти в музыке композитора Арнольда Шёнберга . С одной стороны, он отверг традиционную тональную гармонию , иерархическую систему организации музыкальных произведений, которая направляла музыкальную композицию по крайней мере полтора столетия. Шёнберг считал, что он открыл совершенно новый способ организации звука, основанный на использовании двенадцатинототных рядов . Тем не менее, хотя это действительно была совершенно новая техника, ее истоки можно проследить до работ более ранних композиторов, таких как Ференц Лист , [60] Рихард Вагнер , Густав Малер , Рихард Штраус и Макс Регер . [61] [62]

В мире искусства в первом десятилетии 20-го века молодые художники, такие как Пабло Пикассо и Анри Матисс, вызвали много споров и привлекли большую критику своим отказом от традиционной перспективы как средства структурирования картин, [63] [64] хотя импрессионист Клод Моне уже был новатором в своем использовании перспективы. [65] В 1907 году, когда Пикассо писал «Авиньонских девиц» , Оскар Кокошка писал «Убийцу, надежду женщин » ( Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen ), первую экспрессионистскую пьесу (поставленную со скандалом в 1909 году), а Арнольд Шёнберг сочинял свой Струнный квартет № 2 фа-диез минор (1908), свою первую композицию без тонального центра.

Основным влиянием, приведшим к кубизму, было представление трехмерной формы в поздних работах Поля Сезанна , которые были представлены на ретроспективе в Салоне Осени 1907 года . [66] В кубистских произведениях искусства объекты анализируются, разбиваются и собираются заново в абстрактной форме; вместо того, чтобы изображать объекты с одной точки зрения, художник изображает предмет с множества точек зрения, чтобы представить предмет в большем контексте. [67] Кубизм был впервые представлен вниманию широкой публики в 1911 году на Салоне Независимых в Париже (проходил с 21 апреля по 13 июня). Жан Метценже , Альбер Глез , Анри Ле Фоконье , Робер Делоне , Фернан Леже и Роже де ла Френе были показаны вместе в зале 41, спровоцировав «скандал», из которого возник кубизм и распространился по всему Парижу и за его пределами. Также в 1911 году Кандинский написал картину Bild mit Kreis ( Картина с кругом ), которую он позже назвал первой абстрактной картиной. [68] : 167  В 1912 году Метценже и Глез написали первый (и единственный) крупный манифест кубизма, Du "Cubisme" , опубликованный как раз к Салону Золотого сечения , крупнейшей выставке кубистов на тот момент. В 1912 году Метценже написал и выставил свои очаровательные La Femme au Cheval (Женщина с лошадью) и Danseuse au Café ( Танцовщица в кафе ) . Альбер Глез написал и выставил свои «Купальщицы» (Les Baigneuses) и монументальную картину «Обмолот урожая» ( Le Dépiquage des Moissons ). Эта работа, наряду с « Городом Парижем » ( La Ville de Paris ) Робера Делоне , была самой большой и амбициозной картиной кубизма, написанной в довоенный период кубизма. [69]

В 1905 году группа из четырёх немецких художников во главе с Эрнстом Людвигом Кирхнером основала Die Brücke (Мост) в городе Дрездене . Это, возможно, была учредительная организация для немецкого экспрессионистского движения, хотя они не использовали само слово. Несколько лет спустя, в 1911 году, группа единомышленников молодых художников основала Der Blaue Reiter (Синий всадник) в Мюнхене. Название произошло от картины Василия Кандинского « Синий всадник » 1903 года. Среди их членов были Кандинский , Франц Марк , Пауль Клее и Август Маке . Однако термин «экспрессионизм» прочно утвердился только в 1913 году. [68] : 274  Хотя изначально это было в основном немецкое художественное движение, [e] преобладавшее в живописи, поэзии и театре между 1910 и 1930 годами, большинство предшественников движения не были немцами. Кроме того, существовали как авторы прозы-экспрессионизма, так и писатели-экспрессионисты, не говорившие по-немецки, и, хотя в Германии с приходом к власти Адольфа Гитлера в 1930-х годах это движение пошло на спад, в дальнейшем экспрессионистские работы все же появлялись.

Портрет Эдуарда Космака (1910) работы Эгона Шиле
Ле Корбюзье , Вилла Савойя в Пуасси (1928–1931)

Экспрессионизм, как известно, трудно поддается определению, отчасти потому, что он «пересекался с другими основными «измами» модернистского периода: футуризмом , вортицизмом , кубизмом, сюрреализмом и дадаизмом ». [71] Ричард Мерфи также комментирует: «[Поиск] всеобъемлющего определения проблематичен в той мере, в какой самые амбициозные экспрессионисты», такие как романист Франц Кафка , поэт Готфрид Бенн и романист Альфред Дёблин, одновременно были и самыми ярыми антиэкспрессионистами. [72] : 43  Однако можно сказать, что это было движение, которое развивалось в начале 20-го века в основном в Германии в ответ на дегуманизирующий эффект индустриализации и роста городов, и что «одним из центральных средств, с помощью которых экспрессионизм идентифицирует себя как авангардное движение и с помощью которого он отмечает свою дистанцию ​​от традиций и культурного института в целом, является его отношение к реализму и доминирующим условностям репрезентации». [72] : 43  Более конкретно: экспрессионисты отвергли идеологию реализма. [72] : 43–48  [73] В немецком театре начала 20-го века существовало концентрированное экспрессионистское движение, из которых Георг Кайзер и Эрнст Толлер были самыми известными драматургами. Другими известными драматургами-экспрессионистами были Рейнхард Зорге , Вальтер Хазенклевер , Ганс Хенни Янн и Арнольт Броннен . Они оглядывались на шведского драматурга Августа Стриндберга и немецкого актера и драматурга Франка Ведекинда как на предшественников своих драматургических экспериментов. «Убийца, надежда женщин» Оскара Кокошки был первой полностью экспрессионистской работой для театра, премьера которого состоялась 4 июля 1909 года в Вене . [74] Крайнее упрощение персонажей до мифических типов , хоровые эффекты, декламационные диалоги и повышенная интенсивность станут характерными для более поздних экспрессионистских пьес. Первой полноформатной экспрессионистской пьесой была «Сын» Вальтера Хазенклевера, которая была опубликована в 1914 году и впервые поставлена ​​в 1916 году. [75]

Футуризм — ещё одно модернистское движение. [76] В 1909 году парижская газета Le Figaro опубликовала первый манифест Ф. Т. Маринетти . Вскоре после этого группа художников ( Джакомо Балла , Умберто Боччони , Карло Карра , Луиджи Руссоло и Джино Северини ) подписали Манифест футуризма . Созданные по образцу знаменитого « Манифеста коммунистической партии » Маркса и Энгельса (1848), такие манифесты выдвигали идеи, которые должны были провоцировать и собирать последователей. Однако аргументы в пользу геометрической или чисто абстрактной живописи в то время в основном ограничивались «маленькими журналами», которые имели лишь крошечные тиражи. Модернистский примитивизм и пессимизм были спорными, и мейнстрим в первом десятилетии 20-го века всё ещё склонялся к вере в прогресс и либеральному оптимизму.

Жан Метцингер , 1913, «В сапоге» , масло на холсте, 146 x 114 см (57,5 дюйма × 44,9 дюйма), экспонировалась в Moderni Umeni, SVU Mánes , Прага, 1914 год, приобретена в 1916 году Георгом Мухе в Galerie Der Sturm , конфискована нацистами около 1936–1937 годов, экспонировалась на выставке дегенеративного искусства в Мюнхене и с тех пор пропала [77]

Абстрактные художники, взяв в качестве примера импрессионистов, а также Поля Сезанна (1839–1906) и Эдварда Мунка (1863–1944), начали с предположения, что цвет и форма , а не изображение природного мира, формируют основные характеристики искусства. [78] Западное искусство , начиная с эпохи Возрождения и до середины XIX века, опиралось на логику перспективы и попытку воспроизвести иллюзию видимой реальности. Искусство культур, отличных от европейской, стало доступным и показало художнику альтернативные способы описания визуального опыта. К концу XIX века многие художники почувствовали необходимость создать новый вид искусства, который охватывал бы фундаментальные изменения, происходящие в технологии, науке и философии. Источники, из которых отдельные художники черпали свои теоретические аргументы, были разнообразны и отражали социальные и интеллектуальные предубеждения во всех областях западной культуры того времени. [79] Василий Кандинский , Пит Мондриан и Казимир Малевич верили в переопределение искусства как расположения чистого цвета. Использование фотографии, которое сделало большую часть репрезентативной функции визуального искусства устаревшей, сильно повлияло на этот аспект модернизма. [80]

Архитекторы и дизайнеры- модернисты , такие как Фрэнк Ллойд Райт [81] и Ле Корбюзье [82], считали , что новые технологии сделали старые стили зданий устаревшими. Ле Корбюзье считал, что здания должны функционировать как «машины для проживания», по аналогии с автомобилями, которые он рассматривал как машины для путешествий. [83] Так же, как автомобили заменили лошадей, так и модернистский дизайн должен отвергать старые стили и структуры, унаследованные от Древней Греции или Средних веков . Следуя этой эстетике машин , дизайнеры-модернисты обычно отвергали декоративные мотивы в дизайне, предпочитая подчеркивать используемые материалы и чистые геометрические формы. [84] Небоскреб является архетипическим модернистским зданием, а здание Уэйнрайт , 10-этажное офисное здание, построенное в 1891 году в Сент-Луисе, штат Миссури , США, является одним из первых небоскребов в мире. [85] Здание Сигрем-билдинг в Нью-Йорке (1956–1958) Людвига Миса ван дер Роэ часто рассматривается как вершина этой модернистской высотной архитектуры. [86] Многие аспекты модернистского дизайна сохраняются в русле современной архитектуры , хотя предыдущий догматизм уступил место более игривому использованию декора, историческим цитатам и пространственной драме.

Андре Массон , «Стол-тумба в студии» 1922 г., ранний пример сюрреализма

In 1913—which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl's Ideas, physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the "first futurist opera", Mikhail Matyushin's Victory over the Sun—another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrifice and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused an uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time, though modernism was still "progressive", it increasingly saw traditional forms and social arrangements as hindering progress and recast the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913, a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence À la recherche du temps perdu (1913–1927) (In Search of Lost Time). This is often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust "is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness" and that he "was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel."[87]

Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation, and it has been suggested that Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931) was the first to make full use of it in his short story "Leutnant Gustl" ("None but the brave") (1900).[88] Dorothy Richardson was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel sequence Pilgrimage (1915–1967).[f] Other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) and Italo Svevo in La coscienza di Zeno (1923).[90]

However, with the coming of the Great War of 1914–1918 (World War I) and the Russian Revolution of 1917, the world was drastically changed, and doubt was cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: before 1914, it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age, which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century had now radically changed the nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and a realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare. The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, described in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became more generally accepted in the 1920s.

In literature and visual art, some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly to make their art more vivid or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists reject such consumerist attitudes to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant-Garde and Kitsch.[91] Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture "kitsch", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism.

Some modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In Russia after the 1917 Revolution, there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included Russian Futurism. However, others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some even argue that Modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture that excluded the majority of the population.[91]

Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".[92] The word "surrealist" was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos,[93] Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Miró, and Marcel Duchamp.[94]

By 1930, modernism had won a place in the political and artistic establishment, although by this time modernism itself had changed.

Modernism continues: 1930–1945

Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg worked on Moses und Aron, one of the first operas to make use of the twelve-tone technique,[95] Pablo Picasso painted in 1937 Guernica, his cubist condemnation of fascism, while in 1939 James Joyce pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with Finnegans Wake. Also by 1930 modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, The New Yorker magazine began publishing work, influenced by modernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker,[96] Robert Benchley, E. B. White, S. J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others.[97] Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in America.[98] Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1916, is the famous London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston.[99]

One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into the daily lives of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children.

London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston. This is the modern version (with minor modifications) of one that was first used in 1916.

Another strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalism aspect of pre-World War I modernism (which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions) and the neoclassicism of the 1920s (as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems), the rise of fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalize a generation. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon, and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist form of Marxism. There were, however, also modernists explicitly of 'the right', including Salvador Dalí, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.[100]

Significant modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil, and Dorothy Richardson. The American modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, Samuel Beckett published his first major work, the novel Murphy (1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.[101] In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden. European modernist poets include Federico García Lorca, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.

James Joyce statue on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbon

The modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia. In 1930 composer Dimitri Shostakovich's (1906–1975) opera The Nose was premiered, in which he uses a montage of different styles, including folk music, popular song and atonality. Among his influences was Alban Berg's (1885–1935) opera Wozzeck (1925), which "had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad."[102] However, from 1932 socialist realism began to oust modernism in the Soviet Union,[103] and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.[104] Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, modernist opera, Lulu, which premiered in 1937. Berg's Violin Concerto was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich, other composers faced difficulties in this period.

In Germany Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.[105] His major works from this period are a Violin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), and a Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935) and the Chamber Symphony No. 2 in E minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).[105] During this time Hungarian modernist Béla Bartók (1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) and the Divertimento for String Orchestra (1939), String Quartet No. 5 (1934), and No. 6 (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of fascism in Hungary.[105] Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) continued writing in his neoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like the Symphony of Psalms (1930), Symphony in C (1940), and Symphony in Three Movements (1945). He also emigrated to the US because of World War II. Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where he composed his famous Quatuor pour la fin du temps ("Quartet for the End of Time"). The quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.[106]

In painting, during the 1920s and 1930s and the Great Depression, modernism was defined by Surrealism, late Cubism, Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene. In Germany, Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of American Scene painting and the social realism and Regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. Modernism is defined in Latin America by painters Joaquín Torres-García from Uruguay and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado, and Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages.

Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, Man at the Crossroads, in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. Frida Kahlo's works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition, which were often bloody and violent. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to surrealism and to the magic realism movement in literature.

Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade.

During the 1930s, radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.[107] On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was bombed by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo Picasso painted his mural-sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s and through the years of World War II, American art was characterized by social realism and American Scene painting, in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.

American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930 portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[108] However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.

The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned because it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.

Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of Abstract Expressionism from the context of figure painting, Cubism and Surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham, Gorky created bio morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.

Attacks on early modernism

Franz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of "Entartete Kunst" ("degenerate art") in Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937.

Modernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation. Within the Catholic Church, the specter of Protestantism and Martin Luther was at play in anxieties over modernism and the notion that doctrine develops and changes over time.[109]

From 1932, socialist realism began to oust modernism in the Soviet Union,[103] where it had previously endorsed Russian Futurism and Constructivism, primarily under the homegrown philosophy of Suprematism.

The Nazi government of Germany deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" (see Antisemitism) and "Negro".[110] The Nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled "Degenerate Art". Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason, many modernists of the post-war generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the "canary in the coal mine", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.[111]

After 1945

The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in Madrid. The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with a closeup of the modern art tower.

While The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature states that modernism ended by c. 1939[112] with regard to British and American literature, "When (if) modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to modernism occurred."[113] Clement Greenberg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts,[44] but with regard to music, Paul Griffiths notes that, while modernism "seemed to be a spent force" by the late 1920s, after World War II, "a new generation of composers—Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis" revived modernism".[114] In fact, many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they were no longer producing major works. The term "late modernism" is also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.[115][116] Among the modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poem, Briggflatts in 1965. In addition, Hermann Broch's The Death of Virgil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus in 1947. Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a "later modernist".[117] Beckett is a writer with roots in the Expressionist tradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), Waiting for Godot (1953), Happy Days (1961), and Rockaby (1981). The terms "minimalist" and "post-modernist" have also been applied to his later works.[118] The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (born 1936) are among the writers in the second half of the 20th century who have been described as late modernists.[119]

More recently, the term "late modernism" has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.[120]

The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval, with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world), the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and modernist artists, writers, and poets fled Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who did not flee perished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France and survived.

The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American Abstract Expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors.

Paris, moreover, recaptured much of its luster in the 1950s and 1960s as the center of a machine art florescence, with both of the leading machine art sculptors Jean Tinguely and Nicolas Schöffer having moved there to launch their careers—and which florescence, in light of the technocentric character of modern life, may well have a particularly long-lasting influence.[121]

Theatre of the Absurd

Samuel Beckett's En attendant Godot, (Waiting for Godot) Festival d'Avignon, 1978

The term "Theatre of the Absurd" is applied to plays, written primarily by Europeans, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.[122] While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett.

Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay "Theatre of the Absurd". He related these plays based on a broad theme of the absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, The Myth of Sisyphus.[123] The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man's reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the "well-made play".

Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Eugène Ionesco (1909–1994), Jean Genet (1910–1986), Harold Pinter (1930–2008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937), Alexander Vvedensky (1904–1941), Daniil Kharms (1905–1942), Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929), Fernando Arrabal (born 1932), Václav Havel (1936–2011) and Edward Albee (1928–2016).

Pollock and abstract influences

During the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him. To some extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art is made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and non-imagery—essentially blasted art-making beyond any prior boundary. Abstract Expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art.

The other Abstract Expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Re-readings into abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin,[124] Griselda Pollock[125] and Catherine de Zegher[126] critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history.

International figures from British art

Henry Moore (1898–1986) emerged after World War II as Britain's leading sculptor. He was best known for his semi-abstract monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.

Henry Moore, Reclining Figure (1957). In front of the Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland.

In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the UNESCO building in Paris in 1958.[127] With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives taking place around the world, notably a prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the Forte di Belvedere overlooking Florence. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. On the campus of the University of Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by Enrico Fermi achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's Nuclear Energy was unveiled.[128][129] Also in Chicago, Moore commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named Man Enters the Cosmos (1980), which was commissioned to recognize the space exploration program.[130]

The "London School" of figurative painters, including Francis Bacon (1909–1992), Lucian Freud (1922–2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kossoff (born 1926), and Michael Andrews (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition.[131]

Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.[132] His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.[133] His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward-looking, and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed.[134]

Lucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly impastoed portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.[135][136][137][138] His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model.[139] According to William Grimes of The New York Times, "Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl with a White Dog (1951–1952),[140] Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade. Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist's ruthless inspection."[135]

After Abstract Expressionism

In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s, several new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract Expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly abstraction when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, hard-edge painting, and lyrical abstraction[141] emerged as radical new directions.

By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera[142] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the post-minimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.[142] Process art, as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopaedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, aplastic, and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Colin McCahon, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Pat Lipsky, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[143]

Pop art

Roy Lichtenstein's sculpture El Cap de Barcelona recreates the appearance of Ben Day dots.

In 1962, the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery. The show had a great impact on the New York School as well as the greater worldwide art scene. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings associated with the consumerism of the post World War II era.[144] This movement rejected Abstract Expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted material consumer culture, advertising, and the iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the ground-breaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947[144]) are considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Ben-Day dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.

Minimalism

Yves Klein, IKB 191, 1962

Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect.

As a specific movement in the arts, it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[145] It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract Expressionism and a bridge to Post minimal art practices. By the early 1960s, minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in the geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich,[146] the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of Abstract Expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early Minimalism yielded advanced modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement.

Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[147] examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.[147] He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."[147]

Minimal music

The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as systems music. The term 'minimal music' is generally used to describe a style of music that developed in America in the late 1960s and 1970s; and that was initially connected with the composers.[148] The minimalism movement originally involved some composers, and other lesser known pioneers included Pauline Oliveros, Phill Niblock, and Richard Maxfield. In Europe, the music of Louis Andriessen, Karel Goeyvaerts, Michael Nyman, Howard Skempton, Eliane Radigue, Gavin Bryars, Steve Martland, Henryk Górecki, Arvo Pärt and John Tavener.

Postminimalism

Smithson's Spiral Jetty from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 65,00 tons of basalt, earth and salt.

In the late 1960s, Robert Pincus-Witten[142] coined the term "postminimalism" to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Witten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Barry Le Va, and others. Other minimalists, including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others, continued to produce late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.

Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or post-minimal styles, and the label "postmodern" has been attached to them.

Collage, assemblage, installations

Related to Abstract Expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplifies this trend. His "combines" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects.

Neo-Dada

In 1917, Marcel Duchamp submitted a urinal as a sculpture for the inaugural exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists, which was to be staged at the Grand Central Palace in New York.[149] He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. This urinal, named Fountain was signed with the pseudonym "R. Mutt". It is also an example of what Duchamp would later call "readymades". This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4′33″, which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's Erased de Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. In choosing "an ordinary article of life" and creating "a new thought for that object", Duchamp invited onlookers to view Fountain as a sculpture.[150]

Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.[151]

Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between modernism and postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.[152]

Performance and happenings

During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono in New York City, and Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik in Germany were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theatre with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters to create environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer, especially in their piece Paradise Now. The Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and other notable performance artists, including Joan Jonas.

These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of Minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of Abstract Expressionism. Images of Schneemann's performances of pieces meant to create shock within the audience are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often photographed while performing her piece Interior Scroll. However, according to modernist philosophy surrounding performance art, it is cross-purposes to publish images of her performing this piece, for performance artists reject publication entirely: the performance itself is the medium. Thus, other media cannot illustrate performance art; performance is momentary, evanescent, and personal, not for capturing; representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or, otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium. The artists deny that recordings illustrate the medium of performance as art.

During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings, mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprow—who first used the term in 1958,[153] Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.[154]

Intermedia, multi-media

Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia is a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[155] One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.

Fluxus

Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–1978), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at The New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins.

Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.

Andreas Huyssen criticizes attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement—as it were, postmodernism's sublime."[156] Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomenon within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War."[156]

Avant-garde popular music

Modernism had an uneasy relationship with popular forms of music (both in form and aesthetic) while rejecting popular culture.[157] Despite this, Stravinsky used jazz idioms on his pieces like "Ragtime" from his 1918 theatrical work Histoire du Soldat and 1945's Ebony Concerto.[158]

In the 1960s, as popular music began to gain cultural importance and question its status as commercial entertainment, musicians began to look to the post-war avant-garde for inspiration.[159] In 1959, music producer Joe Meek recorded I Hear a New World (1960), which Tiny Mix Tapes' Jonathan Patrick calls a "seminal moment in both electronic music and avant-pop history [...] a collection of dreamy pop vignettes, adorned with dubby echoes and tape-warped sonic tendrils" which would be largely ignored at the time.[160] Other early Avant-pop productions included the Beatles's 1966 song "Tomorrow Never Knows", which incorporated techniques from musique concrète, avant-garde composition, Indian music, and electro-acoustic sound manipulation into a 3-minute pop format, and the Velvet Underground's integration of La Monte Young's minimalist and drone music ideas, beat poetry, and 1960s pop art.[159]

Late period

Ronnie Landfield, The Deluge, 1999, acrylic on canvas, 270 by 300 cm (9 by 10 ft)

The continuation of Abstract Expressionism, color field painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism, process art, pop art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continued through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.[161][162][163]

At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Pat Lipsky, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture.

Modern architecture

Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Frankfurt have been inspired by Le Corbusier and modernist architecture, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide.[164]

Modernism in Asia

The terms "modernism" and "modernist", according to scholar William J. Tyler, "have only recently become part of the standard discourse in English on modern Japanese literature and doubts concerning their authenticity vis-à-vis Western European modernism remain". Tyler finds this odd, given "the decidedly modern prose" of such "well-known Japanese writers as Kawabata Yasunari, Nagai Kafu, and Jun'ichirō Tanizaki". However, "scholars in the visual and fine arts, architecture, and poetry readily embraced "modanizumu" as a key concept for describing and analysing Japanese culture in the 1920s and 1930s".[165] In 1924, various young Japanese writers, including Kawabata and Riichi Yokomitsu started a literary journal Bungei Jidai ("The Artistic Age"). This journal was "part of an 'art for art's sake' movement, influenced by European Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, and other modernist styles".[166]

Japanese modernist architect Kenzō Tange (1913–2005) was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism, and designing major buildings on five continents. Tange was also an influential patron of the Metabolist movement. He said: "It was, I believe, around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call structuralism",[167] He was influenced from an early age by the Swiss modernist, Le Corbusier, Tange gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the competition for the design of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park.[citation needed]

In China, the "New Sensationists" (新感觉派, Xīn Gǎnjué Pài) were a group of writers based in Shanghai who in the 1930s and 1940s, were influenced, to varying degrees, by Western and Japanese modernism. They wrote fiction that was more concerned with the unconscious and with aesthetics than with politics or social problems. Among these writers were Mu Shiying and Shi Zhecun.[citation needed]

In India, the Progressive Artists' Group was a group of modern artists, mainly based in Mumbai, India formed in 1947. Though it lacked any particular style, it synthesized Indian art with European and North America influences from the first half of the 20th century, including Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Expressionism.[citation needed]

Modernism in Africa

Peter Kalliney suggests that "Modernist concepts, especially aesthetic autonomy, were fundamental to the literature of decolonization in anglophone Africa."[168] In his opinion, Rajat Neogy, Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka, were among the writers who "repurposed modernist versions of aesthetic autonomy to declare their freedom from colonial bondage, from systems of racial discrimination, and even from the new postcolonial state".[169]

Relationship with postmodernism

Strip Club, an early Stuckist work by Charles Thompson, who would later co-found the remodernist movement against postmodern art

By the early 1980s, the postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various conceptual and intermedia formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work as a "term introduced in the 1970s",[170] while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopaedia of British Literature sees modernism "ceding its predominance to postmodernism" as early as 1939.[112] However, dates are highly debatable, especially as, according to Andreas Huyssen: "one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism."[171] This includes those who are critical of the division between the two, see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late modernism continues.[171]

Modernism is an all-encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on socio-political theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.[172][173][174]

Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonize modernism "after the fact" is doomed to unresolvable contradictions.[175] And since the crux of postmodernism critiques any claim to a single discernible truth, postmodernism and modernism conflict on the existence of truth. Where modernists approach the issue of 'truth' with different theories (correspondence, coherence, pragmatist, semantic, etc.), postmodernists approach the issue of truth negatively by disproving the very existence of an accessible truth.[176]

In a narrower sense, what was modernist was not necessarily also postmodernist. Those elements of modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only modernist.[177]

Modernist reactions against postmodernism include remodernism, which rejects the cynicism and deconstruction of postmodern art in favor of reviving early modernist aesthetic currents.[178][179]

Criticism of late modernity

Although artistic modernism tended to reject capitalist values such as consumerism, 20th century civil society embraced global mass production and the proliferation of cheap and accessible commodities. This period of social development is known as "late or high modernity" and originates in advanced in Western societies. The German sociologist Jürgen Habermas, in The Theory of Communicative Action (1981), developed the first substantive critique of the culture of late modernity. Another important early critique of late modernity is the American sociologist George Ritzer's The McDonaldization of Society (1993). Ritzer describes how late modernity became saturated with fast food consumer culture. Other authors have demonstrated how modernist devices appeared in popular cinema, and later on in music videos. Modernist design has entered the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future.[180][181]

In 2008, Janet Bennett published Modernity and Its Critics through The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory.[182] Merging of consumer and high -end versions of modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of "modernism". First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now "post avant-garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism.

"Anti-Modern" or "Counter-Modern" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and emergent effects.

Some traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject modernism generally as the product of "an epoch of false money allied with false culture".[183]

In some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post-Renaissance art (c. 1400 to c. 1900). Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within modern art.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Each of the types of repetition that we have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history of artistic creativity; plagiarism, quotation, parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition.
    Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this the 20th century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness," with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.[5]
  2. ^ a b The modernist movement which dominated art, music, letters during the first half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of custodianship. Stravinsky's genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He took from Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi. He mimed Tchaikovsky and Gounod, the Beethoven piano sonatas, the symphonies of Haydn, the operas of Pergolesi and Glinka. He incorporated Debussy and Webern into his own idiom. In each instance, the listener was meant to recognize the source, to grasp the intent of a transformation that left salient aspects of the original intact.
    The history of Picasso is marked by retrospection. The explicit variations on classical pastoral themes, the citations from and pastiches of Rembrandt, Goya, Velázquez, Manet, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picasso's sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development of the arts from the Minoan to Cézanne.
    In 20th-century literature, the elements of reprise have been obsessive, and they have organized precisely those texts which at first seemed most revolutionary. The Waste Land, Ulysses, Pound's Cantos are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt to be in danger of dissolution. The long sequence of imitations, translations, masked quotations, and explicit historical paintings in Robert Lowell's History has carried the same technique into the 1970s. [...] In modernism, collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition. Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, Eliot, Joyce, Pound—the 'makers of the new'—have been neo-classics, often as observant of canonic precedent as their 17th-century forebears.[58]
  3. ^ In the twentieth century, the social processes that brought this maelstrom into being, and kept it in a state of perpetual becoming, came to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have been loosely grouped under 'modernism'.[14]
  4. ^ The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and its world view. Its artistic strategy was the self-conscious overturning of the conventions of bourgeois realism ... the antirationalist, antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism ... the modernists, carrying the torch of Romanticism, taught us that linearity, rationality, consciousness, cause and effect, naïve illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story.[29]
  5. ^ Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the English Vorticism: "The Fauvist movement has been compared to German Expressionism, both projecting brilliant colors and spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to the same late 19th-century sources, especially Van Gogh.[70][71]
  6. ^ May Sinclair first applied the term "stream of consciousness" in a literary context, in 1918 in her discussion of Richardson's stylistic innovations in a review of Leutnant Gustl and Pilgrimage.[89]

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Sources

Further reading

External links

[1]

  1. ^ "Модернизм". Архивировано из оригинала 17 мая 2024 года . Получено 17 мая 2024 года .